1. MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS. TENSILE PROPERTIES 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Stress and Strain. Tensile tests 1.

3 Stress State 1.4 Elastic Deformation and Plastic Deformation 1.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 1.6 Tensile Properties 1.7 Elastic Recovery. Strain Hardening 1.8 True Stress/True Strain Curve. Necking Criterion

1. MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS. TENSILE PROPERTIES

TOPICS OBJECTIVES Concepts of stress and strain Define the state of stress in a point of a solid Introduce the Hookes law in three dimensions Describe the tensile tests Define the parameters that describe the behavior of materials

mechanical

1.1 INTRODUCTION Why must the mechanical properties of materials be known?

-

To assure performance, safety and durability of devices, instruments and structures The knowledge of the mechanical properties provides the basis for preventing failure of materials in service

How are determined materials?

-

the

mechanical

properties

of

Mechanical characterization, i.e. studying of their deformation and cracking

1.1 INTRODUCTION

What is the failure of a material?

- Any change in the material that induces the lost or

worsening of its structural capabilities

- Deformation and fracture

1.1 INTRODUCTION

DEFORMATION
Time Independent
Elastic

Plastic

MATERIALS FAILURE FRACTURE

Time Dependent Creep

Static Loading
Brittle Ductile Enviromental Creep Rupture

Fatigue: Cyclic Loading Low cycle High cycle Fatigue crack growth Corrosion fatigue

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

P

Engineering stress: P = Ao Engineering strain:

l l o l o = lo lo

Tensile test

Compression test

Shear stress:

F Ao
= tan =
a

Shear strain:
Shear deformation

Dashed lines represent the shape before deformation, and solid line after deformation.

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

TENSILE TESTS

Tensile test machine

Standard specimens for tensile tests

35 mm

6 mm

3 mm 1.5 mm t 6 mm 11 mm 2 mm t=0.5 1.5 mm

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

TENSILE TESTS

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

TENSILE TESTS

Tensile Specimens and Apparatus

Tensile Specimens and Apparatus

Tensile Specimens and Apparatus

Tensile Specimens and Apparatus

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

Crosshead & Load Cell

Clamp Specimen Clamp

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

Tensile Test Concept

During the Tensile Test

During the Tensile Test

Force

Elongation

During the Tensile Test

Force

Elongation

During the Tensile Test

Force

Elongation

During the Tensile Test

Force

Elongation

Results and Analysis

Results and Analysis

Nominal stress

Nominal strain

Results and Analysis

Results and Analysis

Results and Analysis

Stress (Mpa)
C2600 Brass, half hard

Cold Rolled 1018 Steel

Copper 6061-T651 Aluminum

Annealed 1018 Steel

Strain (mm/mm)

1.3 STRESS STATE

=
F Ao

F is the applied stress Ao r r r F = F + F//

F F cos = = cos 2 A Ao cos F// F sin = = sin cos A Ao cos

=
F

F//

and
A

is the normal stress acting on the plane pp

F

is the resolved shear stress in the specific direction p-p

1.3 STRESS STATE

STRESS COMPONENTS
F FtX FnZ Z

FtY Y

r r r v F = FtX i + FtY j + FtZ k r r r r r r r r F FtX FtY FnZ s = lim = + + = tx i + ty j + nz k A lim A lim A lim A A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0

The stress state at a point of a given plane is define by two stress components tangent to the plane, tx and tx, and one component normal to the plane, nz!!

1.3 STRESS STATE

STRESS COMPONENTS

The state of stress at a point is completely defined when the stress components are known on three mutually perpendicular planes
Z

zz zx xz

r s3
zy yz

Stress component notation: The first subscript is the direction of the normal to the plane, and the second the direction of the stress component. A normal stress is positive if the direction of the unit normal vector and the direction of the stress component are both in the positive direction or both in the negative direction of the coordinate system. Tensile stresses are defined as positive and compressive stresses are negative.

r s1
xy
yx

r s2
yy

xx
X

ij ij i j are shear stress components

1.3 STRESS STATE

Z

STRESS COMPONENTS
r r r r s1 = xx i + xy j + xz k r r r r s2 = yx i + yy j + yz k r r r r s3 = zx i + zy j + zz k
r r r r r r i = e1 ; j = e2 ; k = e3 r r si = ij e j

zz zx xz

r s3
zy

r s1
xy
yx

yz r S2 yy

xx
X

r s2
Y

r It can be proven imposing the static equilibrium, F = 0 ;

M = 0

that

1.The stress at a point is a second-order tensor 2.The stress tensor is symmetric 3.The stress tensor is related to the strain tensor

1.4 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

E Youngs modulus or elastic modulus

Unload STRESS STRESS Unload

= Tangent modulus

1
= Secant modulus E
Load

Load

STRAIN

STRAIN

The amount of strain depends on the magnitude of applied stress. For most metals when the applied stress is small the strain is also small, and stress and strain are proportional each other through the Hookes law

= E
45 GPa< E < 400 GPa for metals Elastic regime for structural materials < 0.5 %

1.4 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Elastic strain is produced by small reversible changes in the equilibrium interatomic spacing
Attraction force F, Force

xe

d dx d E= = d x e dx x e d x e dx 1 dF E= d x e A dx x e F = A
x, Interatomic distance Repulsin force
A is the cross-sectional area of material per atom

dF dx
x e

Fig. 1.7. Interatomic force as a function of the interatomic spacing.

x = xe + xe 1 dF dx E= A dx xe d xe = x-xe xe

For shear forces :

= G

x e dF E= A dx x e

G the shear modulus

1.4 PLASTIC DEFORMATION

loading loading unloading unloading Inelastic strain I

= E + I =

+ I

Time independent plastic strain Time independent plastic strain Time dependent creep strain Time dependent creep strain

NOMINAL STRESS NOMINAL STRESS

Elastic limit Elastic limit

Plastic deformation bond breaking between neighbor atoms and reforming bonds between new neighbor atoms slip process; dislocation motion
Total Strain Total Strain Slip Process & Formation and motion of dislocations

NOMINAL STRAIN Plastic Elastic NOMINAL STRAIN Plastic Elastic E p E p Fig. 1.8. Stress-strain curve showing elastic and plastic deformation Fig. 1.8. Stress-strain curve showing elastic and plastic deformation

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

A homogeneous and isotropic material is subjected to an axial stress x
Y
x =
E

Ao
z

Y X Z l
do

A d

Z lo

do

x =

x stress

l lo l = lo lo
d d o d = do do

x = z
E/

y, z

x=Ex
E

y = z =

x,y,z strain

x strain

Fig. 1.9. Longitudinal extension and transversal contraction

Poisson' s ratio =

x = E x

transversal contraction = y = z E E x x x = y = z longitudinal strain

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

HOOKES LAW FOR 3 D

A homogeneous and isotropic 111 body be subjected to an axial stress ZZ

Z

zz

yy/2 xx/2

Deformation produced by the normal stress ZZ:

zz/2
(1+zz)

zz =

zz
E

and xx = yy =

zz
E

1 Y X

Similarly, normal stresses xx and yy produce strains:

zz

xx = yy =

xx yy
E E

and yy = zz = and zz = xx =

xx yy
E E

Fig. 10. Unit cube being pulled along direction Z.

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

HOOKES LAW FOR 3 D

Consider an isotropic body under a general stress state

Z

zz zx xz yx xy xx
X Y

zy

yz yy

STRESS

RESULTING LONGITUDINAL STRAIN

X-direction

xx
xx
E

Y-direction

yy
E

Z-direction

zz
E

xx yy zz

xx
yy

xx

yy
E

zz

zz
E

E zz
E

yy
E

zz
E

Shear stresses xy= yx, yz= zy and zx= xz produce only shear strains given by

xy = yx =

xy
G

xz = zx =

xz
G

yz = zy =

yz
G

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

HOOKES LAW FOR 3 D

These equations, taken together, are the generalized Hookes law for a isotropic material

xx =

1 xx ( yy + zz ) E 1 yy = yy ( xx + zz ) E 1 zz = zz ( xx + yy ) E

]
xz
G
0 0 0 1 G 0 0

]
,
0 0 0 0 1 G 0

xy = xy =
or

xy
G

xz = xz =

yz = yz =
0 0 xx yy 0 zz xy 0 yz 0 zx 1 G

yz
G

1 E xx E yy zz = E xy 0 yz zx 0 0

E 1 E

E 0 0 0

E 1 E 0 0 0

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

F
CM

Relationships between E, G and

Consider a cube aaa subjected to pure shear stresses on a plane a

F

F F F

F b

F 2
d2 d1 do

F 2

Equilibrium condition a a' b b'

d1

do

diagonal of undeformed body

A = a 2 2 diagonal cross section area d1 = d1 d 0 d 2 = d 2 d 0 d1 = cos 45 = 2

= d1 2

Strain along diagonal d1

Strain along diagonal d 2

d 2 d1 1 F 2 = do E A do

1F 2 1F 2 1 F d 2 = 2 = 2 = do E A Ea 2 Ea

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Relationship between E, G and

1 + F d1 = = d o do 2 E a2 = 2(1 + ) F a E a2 do = a 2
Now,

G=

2(1+ ) E

1F 2 Ga

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Volume strain and bulk modulus

Consider a block of a isotropic material subjected to normal stresses

Z

zz

Volume:
xx
h
l+dl

V = l wh

h+dh

dV =
Y

V V V dl + dw + dh = whdl + lhdw + lwdh l w h

yy
l

Volume strain is defined by:

w+dw

V =

dV V

dl dw dh + = xx + yy + zz = + w h l

Fig. Volume strain induce by normal stresss

Using the strain values given by the generalized Hookes law

V =

dV 1 2 ( xx + yy + zz ) = V E

ii =

1 ii ( jj + kk ) E

1.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Volume strain and bulk modulus

dV 1 = V = p V B

The bulk modulus B of a material is defined by

where p is the hydrostatic pressure acting on the material. It will be demonstrated that p, or hydrostatic stress, is the mean normal stresses acting on the body. i.e.
p = H =

xx + yy + zz
3

V =

3(1 2 ) dV 1 2 ( xx + yy + zz ) = p = V E E

B=

1 V = p B

E 3(1 2 )

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Yielding and yield strength

Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation will result when stresses are applied. It is very important to know the stress level at which plastic deformation starts, that is, where the phenomenon of yielding occurs.

The magnitude of the yield strength is a measure of the resistance to plastic deformation

Fig. 1.13. (a) Determination of the elastic limit and the yield strength in a typical stress-strain curve for a metal. (b) Stress-strain curve for a material exhibiting the yield point phenomenon.

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Yielding and yield strength

Luders Bands

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Tensile strength

Ultimate tensile strength, or tensile strength the maximum stress in stress-strain curve. Necking formation of a small constriction or neck in the specimen. Fracture strength stress at the fracture point

uts

Necking; UTS point

Stress Uniform strain

Strain at the neck

Strain Engineering stress-strain curve showing the ultimate tensile strength and the fracture point.

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

- curves

Ultimate tensile strength ranges from 40 MPa (Mg alloys) to 3000 MPa (W alloys). For design purposes, the yield strength is used instead of the tensile strength. Fracture strength are not normally specified for engineering design purposes

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Ductility

Ductility is the capability of a material to sustain plastic deformation before fracture Ductility is quantitatively expressed as either percent elongation or percent reduction in area at fracture
l l % EL = f o 100 l o
A Af % RA = o A o 100

Engineering stress-strain curve for brittle and ductile materials

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Resilience

Resilience is the capability of a material to store elastic energy during loading, and to realease it during unloading. Resilience is measured by the resilience modulus Ur

Ur =

y 1 d = y y = 2 2E
2

Representation of the resilience modulus

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Toughness

Thoughness is the capability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture For static loading conditions, that is, at low strain rate, toughness may be determined from a tensile stress-strain curve up to fracture. This toughness is referred to as tensile toughness.

Stress
y

uts

( y + uts) 2

Tensile Toughness:

( d

+ uts 2

)
f

0.002

Strain

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

C2600 Brass, half hard

- curves

Stress

Cold Rolled 1018 Steel 6061-T651 Aluminum

Menu.2ip
Copper Annealed 1018 Steel

Strain
Engineering - curve for different materials

Temperature effect on the - for iron

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

- curves

Irradiation effect on the tensile properties of ODS RAFM steels

MPa

Irradiated Un-irradiated

Kimura et al, ISFNT-7, May 2005

ODS oxide dispersion strengthened RAFM reduced activation ferritic/martensitic

1.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES

True stress and true strain

The engineering stress, calculated by load divided by initial cross-sectional area, does not take into account the reduction in the cross-sectional area due to deformation and necking During plastic deformation there is no volume change, i.e. The volume of the unloaded specimen is equal to that of the plastically deformed specimen
P

Engineering stress

=
Ao

P Ao
li Ai

P T = Ai

True stress:

Volume conservation:

Aolo = Ai li

T =

P P li P l o + l = = Ai A0 lo A0 lo

T = (1 + )

l0

True strain:

Engineering strain

T = d =
lo

li

l lo

l l + l dl = ln i = ln o l l T = ln(1 + ) lo l o o
li

EQUATIONS VALID ONLY FOR UNIFORM DEFORMATION, NOT VALID ABOVE THE NECKING ONSET !!

1.7 ELASTIC RECOVERY. STRAIN HARDENING

If during the course of a tensile test in the plastic region the applied load is discharged, some fraction of total strain is recovered as elastic strain. During the unloading cycle, the curve follows a near straight-line path from the point of unloading. If the load is applied again, the curve follows the same linear path in the direction opposite to unloading. Yielding will again occur at the stress level, yi where the unloading began. Yield stress is higher than the one observed during the first loading strain- or work hardening phenomenon

Plastic strain measured after unloading:

( T )unloaded = ln(1 + ) T
p = T T
E E

Plastic deformation or ( T )unloaded

Plastic strain

1.8 TRUE STRESS/TRUE STRAIN CURVE

Necking Criterion

When does necking form?

uts
Engineering Stress

Increase in stress due to strain hardening (for a T-T curve)

d T = d T d T d T

Increase in stress due cross-section reduction

P dA dA d T = d = P 2i = T i A Ai Ai i

to

Engineering Strain d T dA d T > T i d T Ai d T dA d T < T i d T Ai

Homogeneous or stable deformation Nonhomogeneous or unstable deformation NECKING CRITERION!

1.8 T-T CURVE

Necking Criterion

Notice that volume conservation

Aolo ln Ai = ln ( Aolo ) ln li li dAi dl d (l l ) = i = i o = d T Ai li li Ai =

d T d T < T d T d T d T = T d T

Then, the necking criterion, or instability condition, becomes

d T dA d T < T i d T Ai

Let us demonstrate that the above condition occurs at the point of maximum load d T dA d T dP = 0 T dAi + Ai d T = 0 = i = d T d T = T d T T = Ai d T T P = A

At the point of maximum load appears inestability in tension and it satisfies:

d T = T Necking criterion! d T

1.8 T-T CURVE

Graphical Interpretation of Necking Criterion

At the point of maximum load appears instability in tension

(non-homogeneous deformation) and it satisfies: d T = T Necking criterion! d T

T

T,uts

T,uts

Determination of the point of necking at maximum load in the true stress/true strain curve

1.8 T- CURVE

Graphical Interpretation of Necking Criterion

Necking criterion for a T- curve:

d T = T d T d T d T d = d T d d T dli d lo = d T dli li

T =

d T d T li d T = = (1 + ) d T d l o d

d T d T

T d T = d (1 + )

Necking Criterion

1.8 T- CURVE

Graphical Interpretation of Necking Criterion

Considers construction for the determination of

the maximum load point

T d T = d (1 + )

Necking Criterion

True stress T

uts

T,uts

uts

Engineering strain

Considers construction for determination of ultimate tensile true stress T,uts.

1.8 TRUE STRESS/TRUE STRAIN CURVE

Above the necking onset, true strain can not be determined

as ln(1+) from the measured strain , because deformation is not uniformly distributed any more.

Now,

T = ln(1 + ) = ln(1 +
V = cte

li lo l ) = ln i lo lo Aolo = Ai li

Ao T = ln A i
T = ln o = 2 ln o D A i i
A D

For cylindrical specimens of diameter D,

The formation of a necked region introduces triaxial stresses

that make difficult to determine accurately the longitudinal tensile stress from the onset of necking until fracture occurs

1.8 TRUE STRESS/TRUE STRAIN CURVE

True stress/true strain curve Corrected for necking STRESS Engineering stress/strain curve

Maximum load / necking onset Fracture

STRAIN

Why use engineering curve?

-It shows clearly tensile strength. - No corrections -No differences in E and y values determined from the

engineering - curve and the corresponding T-T curve.

1.8 T-T CURVE

True stress at maximun load

TRUE TENSILE STRENGTH

If Au is the cross-sectional area at maximun load, then

T ,uts = uts

Pmax Au A T ,uts = o uts Pmax Au = Ao

True stress at maximum load

If T,uts is the true strain at maximum load, also called true uniform strain, then

T ,uts = ln u = ln o l A o u = ln T ,uts T ,uts Ao uts T ,uts = uts

Au
Also,

True strain at maximum load or true uniform strain

T ,uts = ln T ,uts T ,uts = uts e uts

T ,uts

True stress at maximum load

1.8 T-T CURVE

True fracture stress and true fracture strain

frequently are not measured. If Af is the cross-sectional area after fracture, the true fracture strain f is

The true fracture stress is the load divided by the cross-sectional area at fracture. The data required for determining this quantity

T , f = ln o A f

True fracture strain

The true local necking strain is the strain required to deform the specimen from maximum load to fracture, i.e.
True stress/true strain curve
uts
Au

STRESS

T ,n = d T =

Af

dAi A = ln u Ai Af

Corrected for necking Engineering stress/strain curve

Maximum load / necking onset Fracture

T,u

STRAIN

t,f

1.8 T-T CURVE

Strain-hardening exponent and strain-hardening rate

For many metals and alloys, the region of uniform deformation in the flow curve, that is the region from the onset of plastic deformation to the necking onset may be approximated by a simple power curve (Hollomon equation):

T = K

n T

K n

Strength coefficient Strain - or work - hardening exponent

For perfect elastic solids, n=1. n=0 for perfect plastic solids. For metals 0.1<n<0.5 The strain- or work-hardening rate is

d T n = nK T 1 = n T T d T

Many times the flow curve in the uniform plastic deformation range satisfies the called Ludwik equation:
n T = o + K p

Remember,

p = ( T )unloaded = T

T
E