A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device that converts the

energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells used to make solar modules which are used to capture energy from sunlight, are known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy.

Working Principle Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necessarily sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, for example infrared detectors, or measurement of light intensity.

The solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

Solar Cell construction

Silicon-based PV semiconductor solar cells have been used to demonstrate the most practical and reliable application of the photovoltaic effect. A simple, rugged semiconductor junction can be produced from single-crystal silicon. Low resistance contacts are added to tap the electrical energy produced when the cell is exposed to sunlight. Approximately a DC voltage of 0.45 volts is generated across each cell regardless of the dimensions for this particular cell architecture. The DC current and thus the power available are strictly dependent on the cell area exposed to the sun and the absorption capability of the silicon wafer, which is located between the two contacts, as illustrated in Figure. It is important to mention that the higher the absorption capability of the semiconductor material, the higher the PV voltage will be across the cell terminals. Higher voltage is possible by connecting the cells in series, while higher output power is possible by connecting the cells in parallel. Solar cells can be installed on glass-filled polyester substrate. The net cell output is the product of solar intensity (I = 100 mW/cm2) and the conversion efficiency of the device, which is typically now about 16 percent for a silicon cell. A solar module may contain several cells connected in series and parallel

Types of solar cells

The four general types of silicon photovoltaic cells are:

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Single-crystal silicon. Polycrystal silicon (also known as multicrystal silicon). Ribbon silicon. Amorphous silicon (abbreviated as "aSi," also known as thin film silicon).

Single-crystal silicon cell Most photovoltaic cells are single-crystal types. To make them, silicon is purified, melted, and crystallized into ingots. The ingots are sliced into thin wafers to make individual cells. The cells have a uniform color, usually blue or black. The majority of PV cells produced today use crystalline silicon (c-Si) as it is a light absorbing semiconductor. The c-Si technology was originally developed for the semiconductor industry to produce PV cells for integrated circuits and microchips. These PV cells have energy conversion efficiencies between 11 percent and 16 percent. The energy conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the percentage of incident sunlight converted into electricity. While the efficiency of c-Si is high, it absorbs light poorly and requires many layers to perform efficiently in solar applications. Polycrystal silicon cell Polycrystalline silicon, also called polysilicon, is a material consisting of small silicon crystals.This is relatively a fast and low cost process to manufacture thick crystalline cells. Instead of drawing single crystals using seeds, the molten silicon is cast into ingots. In the process, it forms multiple crystals. The conversion efficiency is lower, but the cost is much lower, giving a net reduction in cost per watt of power. Amorphous silicon or thin film silicon cell They are known as thin-film because they are deposited in very thin layers on stainless steel, glass or a flexible substrate. The thickness of the film is less than 1 micron. Like c-Si, thin-film PV cells are combined into modules and laminated to protect them from the elements. They are less expensive than c-Si cells, but their demonstrated energy conversion efficiency is only around 8%. The advantage of thin-film technology is that it can be applied over large areas, providing more opportunity to generate electricity in cloudy conditions.

Ribbon silicon cell Ribbon-type photovoltaic cells are made by growing a ribbon from the molten silicon instead of an ingot. These cells operate the same as single and polycrystal cells. The anti-reflective coating used on most ribbon silicon cells gives them a prismatic rainbow appearance

Advantages of the photovoltaic power

No fuel requirements Modular design High Reliability of PV modules Easy to maintain - Operation and routine maintenance requirements are simple. Long life - With no moving parts and all delicate surfaces protected, modules can be expected to provide power for 15 years or more. 6. National economic benefits - Reliance on imported fuels such as coal and oil is reduced. 7. Environmentally benign - There is no pollution through the use of a PV system - nor is there any heat or noise generated which could cause local discomfort. PV systems bring great improvements in the domestic environment when they replace other forms of lighting kerosene lamps, for example.
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Solar cell Applications Rural electrification

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lighting and power supplies for remote building (mosques, churches, temples etc farms, schools, mountain refuge huts) - low wattage fluorescent lighting is recommended power supplies for remote villages street lighting individual house systems mini grids

Water pumping and treatment systems

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pumping for drinking water pumping for irrigation dewatering and drainage ice production saltwater desalination systems water purification

Health care systems

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lighting in rural clinics UHF transceivers between health centres vaccine refrigeration ice pack freezing for vaccine carriers sterilises blood storage refrigerators

Communications
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radio repeaters remote TV and radio receivers remote weather measuring mobile radios rural telephone kiosks data acquisition and transmission (for example, river levels and seismographs)

Transport aids
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road sign lighting railway crossings and signals hazard and warning lights navigation buoys road markers

Security systems
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security lighting remote alarm system electric fences

Miscellaneous
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ventilation systems calculators pumping and automated feeding systems on fish farms solar water heater circulation pumps boat/ship power vehicle battery trickle chargers earthquake monitoring systems emergency power for disaster relief