F214 Communication, Homeostasis and Energy Module 2 Excretion 4.2.1 Excretion a.

Define the term excretion Excretion-The removal of metabolic waste from the body which are by products or unwanted substances from cell processes. b. Explain the importance of removing metabolic wastes, including carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste from the body Carbon dioxide o Excess carbon dioxide is toxic and has three main effects: The majority of carbon dioxide is carried in the blood as hydrogencarbonate ions but in the process hydrogen ions are made inside red blood cells with carbonic anhydrase. These hydrogen ions compete with oxygen for space on the haemoglobin. Therefore too much carbon dioxide can cause a reduction in oxygen transportation. Carbon dioxide can also combine with haemoglobin to make carbaminohaemoglobin which has a lower affinity for oxygen. Excess carbon dioxide can also cause respiratory acidosis by dissolving in the blood plasma and reacting with water to make carbonic acid which dissociates and releases hydrogen ions. This lowers the pH by making the blood more acidic. If the change is small is leads to an increased breathing rate but if it is larger it can cause difficult breathing, drowsiness, headaches and confusion. It could cause a rapid heart rate and changes in blood pressure. Nitrogenous compounds o o The body cannot store proteins or amino acids. But because they contain a lot of energy, amino acids are transported to the liver where they get the toxic amino acid group removed via deamination. o The amino acid then forms the very soluble but highly toxic ammonium before being converted to urea and is then transported to the liver for excretion. o There is some remaining keto acid which can be respired or converted to a carbohydrate or fat for storage.

c. Describe the histology and gross structure of the liver Hepatic artery o o o o Supplies the liver with oxygenated blood from the heart. The oxygen supplied is need for aerobic respiration. This carries oxygenated blood to the liver. The blood is rich in the products of digestion some of which may be toxic compounds. Hepatic vein o o o o This is where blood leaves the liver which then re-joins the vena cava. Bile is secreted from the liver. Bile has a digestive and excretory function. It carries bile from the liver to the gall bladder where it is stored until needed for the digestion of fats in the small intestine. Inter-lobular vessels o o o o o o Branches from the hepatic artery and the hepatic vein enter. This is a special chamber where blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein mix. It is lined by liver cells so molecules can be removed from the blood and pass molecules into the blood. They empty into the inter-lobule vessels. They have a simple cuboidal shape with microvilli on the surface. They have many metabolic functions: o o o o Kupffer cells Specialist macrophages. Move about in the sinusoids to breakdown and recycle old blood cells. One of the products of this breakdown is bilirubin which is excreted in the bile and gives the brown pigment in faeces. Protein synthesis. Transformation and storage of carbohydrates. Synthesis of cholesterol and bile salts. Detoxification. Liver cells/Hepatocytes Sinusoid Bile duct

Hepatic portal vein

The cytoplasm is very dense.

d. Describe the formation of urea in the liver including an outline of the ornithine cycle Deamination o o o Amino acid + O2Keto acid + ammonia 2NH3 + CO2 CO(NH2)2 + H2O Ammonia + carbon dioxide Urea + water Ornithine cycle

Ammonia NH3

CO2 H2O

Citulline Ornithine

NH3-

H2O Arginine Urea CO(NH2)2 H2O

e. Describe the roles of the liver in detoxification Liver cells contain enzymes that make toxic molecules less toxic.

o E.g. Catalase which converts hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. Detoxification of alcohol o Ethanol contains chemical potential energy that can be used in respiration. o It is broken down in the hepatocytes using ethanol dehydrogenase. o This makes ethanal which is dehydrogenated further using ethanal dehydrogenase. o Then ethanoate is produced with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A. o Hydrogen atoms are released which are combined with NAD to produce reduced NAD.

f. Describe the histology and gross structure of the kidney

g. Describe the detailed structure of a nephron and its associated blood vessels

h. Describe and explain the production of urine, with reference to the processes of ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption Ultrafiltration 1. Blood flows into the glomerulus from the afferent arteriole which is wider than the efferent arteriole which carries the blood away from the glomerulus. 2. This means that the blood in the capillaries is under increased pressure.

3. The blood pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in the Bowmans capsule. 4. So fluid from the blood is pushed in the Bowmans capsule. 5. Molecules with a higher molecular mass than 69,000 cannot get through the basement membrane so are held in the capillaries of the glomerulus. Molecules with a higher mass include most proteins and all blood cells. 6. The substances which are filtered out of the blood include: water, amino acids, glucose, urea and inorganic ions including sodium, chloride and potassium. Selective reabsorption 1. The sodium-potassium pumps remove sodium ions from the cells in the proximal convoluted tubule. This is done via active transportation. 2. The concentration of sodium ions in the cell cytoplasm is reduced 3. Sodium ions are transported into the cell with glucose or amino acids via facilitated diffusion. 4. Glucose and amino acid concentrations increase in the cell. 5. Glucose and amino acids can diffuse out of the opposite side of the cell into the tissue fluid. Some may be actively removed from the cells. 6. The glucose and amino acids in the tissue fluid diffuse into the blood and are carried away. 7. Salts, glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed which reduces the water potential in the cells and increases the water potential in the tubule fluid. 8. So water enters the cells. 9. The water is then reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis. 10. Larger molecules like small proteins that may have entered the tubule are reabsorbed by exocytosis. i. Explain, using water potential terminology, the control of the water content of the blood, with reference to the roles of the kidney, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland Roles of the Kidney o In the descending limb o Loss of water by osmosis to the surrounding tissue fluid. Diffusion of sodium and chloride ions into the tubule from the surrounding tissue. The lower down the descending limb the lower the water potential. At the base the sodium ions diffuse out. In the ascending limb

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Higher up the sodium and chloride ions are actively transported our into the tissue fluid. The wall is impermeable to water so it cannot leave. The fluid loses salts as it moves up the ascending limb. As the fluid moves up the tubule the water potential increases. Active transport is used to adjust the concentrations of various salts.

Distal convoluted tubule

Collecting duct Water moves by osmosis from the tubule fluid into the surrounding tissue. It then enters the blood capillaries.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) o o Cells in the wall of the collecting duct have receptors for ADH. ADH causes a chain of enzyme controlled reactions inside the cells, inserting vesicles containing water permeable channels (aquaporins) into the cell surface membrane. o If there is more ADH, there will be more aquaporins so more water is reabsorbed by osmosis into the blood so less urine is passed out of the body. o How are the levels of ADH controlled? The water potential of the blood is monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain. When the water potential of the blood is low the osmoreceptor cells lose water by osmosis causing them to shrink and stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus. This leads to the neurosecretory cells producing ADH which flows down the axon to the terminal bulb in the posterior pituitary gland where it is stored till needed. When the neurosecretory cells are stimulated they send action potentials down their axons to release ADH. The ADH enters the blood capillaries to transport it around the body to their target cells which are the collecting ducts. When the water potential of the blood rises, less ADH is released.

j. Outline the problems that arise from kidney failure and discuss the use of renal dialysis and transplants for the treatment of kidney failure Kidney failure o o Most common causes are: diabetes mellitus, hypertension and infection. It means that the body is unable to remove excess water, urea and salts.

Also, the body is unable to regulate the levels of water and salts in the body.

Dialysis o It removes wastes, excess fluid and salt from the body by passing the blood over a partially permeable dialysis membrane which allows exchanges between the blood and dialysis fluid. o Because the dialysis fluid contains the right concentrations of salts, urea, water and other substances in the blood plasma, it means that any substances in excess will diffuse across the membrane into the dialysis fluid and any that there is not enough of will diffuse into the blood. o o It has to be combined with a carefully planned diet. Haemodialysis o Blood from a vein is passed through a machine that has an artificial membrane. Heparin is added to avoid clotting. It is usually performed at a clinic, three times a week for several hours. Peritoneal dialysis The filter is the bodys own abdominal membrane (peritoneum). A permanent tube is implanted into the abdomen. Dialysis solution is put through the tube which fills the gap between the abdomen and organs. After several hours the solution is usually drained. It is usually performed in several consecutive sessions daily at home or at work and you can walk round while it is being done.

Kidney transplantation o o o o The old kidneys are usually left in place unless they are likely to cause infection or are cancerous. They kidney can be from a living relative or a dead person. The patient is under anaesthetic and the new kidney is places in the lower abdomen where it is attached to the blood supply and the bladder. Patients are given immunosuppressant drugs to help prevent rejection.

k. Describe how urine samples can be used to test for pregnancy and detect misuse of anabolic steroids Pregnancy testing o o Human embryos secrete human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG). Because it is a relatively small glycoprotein it can be detected in urine as early as 6 days after conception.

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In home pregnancy testing, a portion of the strip is placed in urine. If any hCG is present it will complementary bind to a monoclonal antibody which has a blue bead attached. The hCG antibody complex moves up the stick and attaches to a band of immobilised enzymes forming a blue line.

Anabolic steroid testing o o o o Anabolic steroids increase protein synthesis in cells resulting in a buildup of cell tissue especially in muscles. They have a half-life of about 16 hours and remain in the blood for several days. Because they are relatively small molecules they can enter the nephron easily. Gas chromatography o The urine sample is vaporised with a gaseous solvent and passed down a long tube lined by an absorption agent. Each substance dissolves differently in the gas and stays there for a unique time known as the retention time. The substance comes out of the gas and is absorbed into the lining. This is analysed to create a chromatogram. Standard examples are then run so that the drugs can be identified and quantified in the chromatograms. Mass spectrometry can also be used to analyse a urine sample.