Sunteți pe pagina 1din 6

Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647 www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in tomatoes at different drying conditions


P.H.M. Marl, E.M. Santos, V.R.N. Telis*
UNESP - Departamento de Engenharia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual Paulista, 15054-000, S~o Jose do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil a Received 21 May 2007; received in revised form 25 October 2007; accepted 6 November 2007

Abstract High temperatures and long drying times used in hot air drying can negatively affect the nutritional quality of the nal product. It is generally observed that, if ascorbic acid is well retained, other components are also well retained. Hence, ascorbic acid can be taken as an index of nutrient quality of foods. The interest in dried tomato has increased since its use as ingredients for pizza and various vegetable and spicy dishes has became popular. Tomatoes are usually dried in slices or halves, after seeds and parenchyma removal with a resulting large amount of wastes and an important nutrient loss. The objective of this work was to investigate the effects of drying temperatures on ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in caustic-peeled whole tomatoes (with or without osmotic pre-treatment) and in halved and drained tomatoes. The degradation rates were dependent on samples treatment before drying, as well as on drying temperature. Lower degradation rates were observed in osmotically pre-treated whole tomatoes, whereas higher degradation rates occurred in halved tomatoes. Increasing drying temperature led to higher degradation rates. 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Convective drying; Osmotic dehydration; Vitamin C; Weibull model

1. Introduction The interest in dried tomato products is increasing since their use as ingredients for pizza and various vegetable and spicy dishes became popular. Nevertheless, high temperatures and long drying times found in hot air drying can negatively affect the nutritional quality of nal product. An osmotic dehydration step prior to air drying of fruits and vegetables has been suggested by a number of authors to yield good quality, fully dehydrated or intermediate moisture products of improved stability (Alvarez et al., 1995; Nieto, Salvatori, Castro, & Alzamora, 1998; Nsonzi & Ramaswamy, 1998; Sankat, Castaigne, & Maharaj, 1996). Up to the present moment, drying of whole tomatoes has not yet been the object of an intensive study. The only use for whole tomatoes is in caustic peeling technique in canned tomato. Azoubel and Murr (2004), Shi, Le Maguer, Wang,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 17 3221 2255. E-mail address: vanianic@ibilce.unesp.br (V.R.N. Telis).

and Liptay (1997) studied osmotic drying of whole tomatoes without complete peeling. With the purpose of reducing resistance to mass transfer, the authors punched small holes in tomato skin with a needle, what would be impracticable in industrial scale. Shi et al. (1997) investigated the osmotic dehydration of whole tomatoes submitted to chemical and physical pretreatments to increase skin permeability. Lewick, Le, and Pomaranska-Lazuka (2002) studied the effect of calcium chloride and osmotic dehydration on the kinetics of tomato drying and on product rehydration properties. In these studies the osmotic dehydration was carried out in sucrose/water solutions, but according to Bohuon, Collignan, Rios, and Raoult-Wack (1998), the use of ternary sucrose/NaCl/water solutions present some advantages in osmotic dehydration, such as higher levels of dehydration without over-salting the product, as well as the possibility of increasing the total solute concentration without attaining the saturation limits. In fact, Telis, Murari, and Yamashita (2004) showed that, during osmotic dehydration of tomato quarters in sucrose/NaCl aqueous solutions, the

0023-6438/$34.00 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.003

P.H.M. Marl et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647

1643

NaCl diffusivities increased with decreasing sucrose concentration, whereas sucrose diffusivities were higher when solutions with lower NaCl concentrations were used, reinforcing the interactive character of salt/sugar in osmotic dehydration. In modern food technology, the trend is to maximize nutrients retention during processing and storage. The increasing interest in the antioxidant activity of lycopene e the most abundant carotenoid in tomatoes e has been promoting several research activities on fresh tomato and tomato products (Chang, Lin, Chang, & Liu, 2006; Shi, Le Maguer, Kakuda, Liptay, & Niekamp, 1999; Tavares & Rodriguez-Amaya, 1994). On the other hand, it is generally observed that, if ascorbic acid is well retained, other nutrients are also well retained. Hence, ascorbic acid can be taken as an index of nutrient quality of foods (Gregory, 1996). Ascorbic acid is known to be a labile vitamin that lose activity due to a number of factors, including pH, moisture content, oxygen, temperature and metal ion catalysis (Uddin, Hawlader, & Zhou, 2001). Several works concerning ascorbic acid degradation in foods have suggested rst order decay kinetics and the Bigelow equation has been applied in modeling (Uddin, Hawlader, Ding, & Mujumdar, 2002; Vieira, Teixeira, & Silva, 2001). It is common to characterize rst order reactions in terms of D and z values (thermal death time concept). Singh and Lund (1984) developed a mathematical model to describe the ascorbic acid degradation in stored apple as function of temperature and water activity. Akinyele, Keshinro, and Akinnawo (1990) investigated nutrient losses during and after processing of pineapples and oranges and a number of authors studied vitamin C degradation in various foodstuffs (Prado, Chandra, & Bicalho, 1995; Vieira, Teixeira, & Silva, 2000; Yamashita, Benassi, & Kieckbusch, 1999). In drying process, the loss of ascorbic acid is affected specially by high temperatures. According to Zanoni, Peri, Nani, and Lavelli (1999), degradation rate of vitamin C in tomatoes, at 80 and 110  C, was dependent of temperature and moisture and vitamin C was not detected in samples dried at 110  C to 50% of moisture. Nevertheless, these authors found a 10% residue of vitamin C in samples dried at 80  C until 10% of moisture. Erenturk, Gulaboglu, and Gultekin (2005) investigated degradation kinetics of ascorbic acid during air drying of whole rosehip. These authors found that temperature dependency could be described by Arrhenius relationship, while the activation energy and reaction rate constant could be determined as functions of moisture content. Goula and Adamopoulos (2006) determined a mathematical model for the rate of vitamin C loss in a drying process of tomato halves and tomato pulp. They observed that the reaction constant depended on moisture content of the product, in addition to temperature. Furthermore, the maximum rate constant was observed when the moisture content was between 65 and 70%. These effects were expressed by a linear relationship between temperature, moisture content and natural logarithm of rate constant. Tomatoes are usually dried in slices or in halves. In the last case, seeds and parenchyma are removed and discarded with a resulting large amount of wastes and an important nutrient loss. Drying whole tomatoes, submitted to a chemical pre-

treatment in sodium hydroxide solution to withdraw the skin, would be a feasible alternative to reduce the volume of solid wastes, and could also contribute to decrease the rates of nutrients loss, although with an important increase in organic and chemical pollution of wastewaters. Based on the above considerations, the objective of this work was to investigate the effects of drying temperatures on ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in caustic-peeled whole tomatoes (with or without osmotic pre-treatment in NaCl/ sucrose solution) and in halved and drained tomatoes, at the same drying conditions. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Raw material Ripe fresh tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) of industrial, pear-shaped type were purchased at local market. The fruits were sorted visually for color, size and physical damage and rinsed in fresh water. Whole tomatoes were submitted to caustic peeling by immersion in a NaOH solution (6 g NaOH/100 g solution) at 30  C for 30 min (Santos, Marl, Telis-Romero, & Telis, 2005). Halved tomatoes were not peeled but had seeds and parenchyma manually removed. 2.2. Osmotic treatment Sucrose (food grade) and NaCl (analytical grade) dissolved in distilled water were used as osmotic agents. Whole peeled tomatoes were immersed in a NaCl/sucrose solution (10 g NaCl/100 g solution and 35 g sucrose/100 g solution), for 60 min, at 30  C, maintaining a 1:10 (w/w) tomato/solution ratio (Telis et al., 2004). The treated samples were drained for 1 min, rinsed with fresh running water to withdraw excess solution and slightly wiped with an absorbent paper. 2.3. Convective drying Drying was accomplished with air velocity of 1 m/s, at 50, 60 and 70  C. In general, food is dried at 60  C, a temperature level that provides sufciently high rates of water removal and results in products without excessive loss of nutrients and with pleasant texture. The other temperatures were chosen in order to deviate in 10  C from the central level. The equipment was a pilot scale tray drier with parallel airow, which consists of an airow rate control system, a drying air heating section and a drying chamber. Once the desired operation conditions were achieved, the tomatoes were inserted into the dryer cabinet. The initial moisture contents were determined gravimetrically using a vacuum oven at 60  C for 48 h, and drying kinetics was determined by weighing samples at regular time intervals. 2.4. Ascorbic acid analysis At regular time intervals, three tomatoes were removed from the dryer, cut and grounded, and a sample of 25 g was

1644

P.H.M. Marl et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647

homogenized with 50 g of the extraction solution (2 g oxalic acid/100 g solution). An aliquot of 20 g was taken and diluted to 50 ml with the extraction solution in a volumetric ask and then vacuum ltered. Aliquots of 10 ml of the ltrated were taken for titration with 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (0.01 g/ 100 g solution). The titration end point was detected visually and all analyses were conducted in duplicated (Benassi & Antunes, 1988). In order to improve the uniformity of drying conditions of all samples in the dryer, the drying tray was rotated at each time that samples were removed from the tray to be subjected to ascorbic acid analysis. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Drying kinetics In the present work, the Page model (Eq. (1)) was used to t experimental data of moisture content versus drying time. The parameters of the model were calculated by non-linear regression ( p < 0.05) and the results can be seen in Table 1. The correlation coefcient (R2) and the sum of squared residuals, SSR (Eq. (2)), were considered to evaluate the quality of ttings. M X expktn X0 1 2

led to lower drying times necessary to attain certain moisture content. The osmotic pre-treatment also contributed for decreasing drying times of whole peeled tomatoes (Table 1). The parameter n in the Page model is a behavior index, related to the dependence of drying rate on the drying time. Table 1 shows that n values increased with drying temperature and were higher for halved tomatoes. When n > 1 the drying rate increases with time and contributes to reducing the necessary drying time. 3.2. Ascorbic acid degradation kinetics The average vitamin C content of fresh, whole tomatoes was of 4.00 0.30 mg ascorbic/g dry matter (that corresponds to 20.5 3.5 mg ascorbic/100 g fresh matter), whereas after caustic peeling, this content felt to 3.36 0.56 mg ascorbic/g dry matter, representing a decrease of about 16.0% in the nutrient content. On the other hand, the osmotic treatment in NaCl/sucrose solutions caused additional degradation of ascorbic acid, reducing its content to 2.19 0.24 mg ascorbic/g dry matter: a decrease of 35.0% in relation to peeled tomatoes non-submitted to osmotic treatment. Probably, the reduction of ascorbic acid content observed during osmotic dehydration is related to the extraction of vitamin C by the osmotic solution. Similar results were obtained by Abushita, Daood, and Biacs (2000) when analyzing the content of this nutrient in tomatoes. Sablani, Opara, and Al-Balushi (2006), using the same analytical method in tomatoes soon after harvesting, found values of about 28 mg ascorbic/100 g fresh matter. These authors, studying the vitamin C loss during storage, found that, after a week at 25  C, ascorbic acid content was reduced to 22 mg/100 g fresh matter. Toor and Savage (2005) determined the major antioxidants and antioxidant activity in different fractions (skin, seeds and pulp) of three tomato cultivars and observed that skin fraction of all cultivars had signicantly higher levels of ascorbic acid than pulp and seed fractions. These authors pointed out that removal of skin and seeds of tomatoes during home cooking and processing results in a signicant loss of major antioxidants, since according to their results these parts of the fruit contains 43% of the total ascorbic acid.

2 SSR S Mexp Mpred

In Eq. (1), M (dimensionless) is the ratio between the moisture content at time t (X ) and the initial moisture content (X0), and k and n are the Page drying coefcients, which determine the precise shape of the drying curve. While neither of these parameters have a direct physical signicance, empirical regression equations have been developed relating both parameters to drying conditions and raw material moisture content (Hossain & Bala, 2002; Queiroz, Gabas, & Telis, 2004; Wang, 2002). As expected, results showed that temperature was the main variable affecting drying kinetics. Higher drying temperatures

Table 1 Page parameters for tomato drying curves at different conditions Sample Tomato halves Drying temperature ( C) 50 60 70 50 60 70 50 60 70 K (h1) 0.17 0.01 0.18 0.01 0.21 0.02 0.19 0.02 0.20 0.03 0.18 0.02 0.14 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.26 0.01 n 1.01 0.02 1.20 0.02 1.35 0.08 0.83 0.05 0.89 0.07 1.09 0.04 0.96 0.01 0.85 0.01 0.92 0.01 Drying time (h)* 16.73 10.20 7.09 27.79 20.56 12.55 17.90 16.81 10.52 SSR 0.003 0.001 0.011 0.015 0.042 0.009 0.001 0.0003 0.001 R2 0.998 0.999 0.992 0.985 0.965 0.993 0.999 0.999 0.999

Whole peeled tomatoes

Osmotically pre-treated, whole peeled tomatoes

*Drying time necessary to attain 50% moisture (wb) estimated using Eq. (1) with parameters k and n from Table 1.

P.H.M. Marl et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647

1645

Considering as reference the ascorbic acid content at the beginning of air drying process, degradation curves were obtained for each drying temperature and samples treatment. Fig. 1 shows the results obtained for peeled, whole tomatoes. Similar plots (Figs. 2 and 3) were obtained for halved tomatoes and osmotically treated, peeled, whole tomatoes, respectively. A great dispersion of data was detected, but this could be attributed to the complexity and heterogeneity of natural samples, as well as to the practical difculty of assuring uniform drying conditions in the tray dryer during long time periods. Even though, it is possible to observe a clear trend of faster degradation of ascorbic acid with increasing drying temperature. The solid lines included in Figs. 1e3 represent the adjustment of the Weibull model, given by Eq. (3), to experimental data.  t b ! Ct exp 3 a C0 In Eq. (3), symbols Ct and C0 refer, respectively, to ascorbic acid concentration at a certain time, t, and at the zero time of air drying, while a and b are the tting parameters of the model. Eq. (3) was originally presented in 1939 by W. Weibull to describe the collapse of stressed materials. Since then it was already successfully applied to describe kinetics of chemical, enzymatic or microbiological degradation processes, which also lead the system to collapse. The parameter a can be interpreted as a kinetic reaction constant and represents the characteristic time to collapse, or specically, the time when concentration Ct attains a value corresponding to 36.8% (1/e) of C0. The constant b represents a behavior index and, when b 1, the model is reduced to a rst order kinetics, with a constant degradation rate. When b > 1 the reaction rate increases with time and the degradation curve assumes a sigmoidal shape. On the other hand, if b < 1 the reaction rate decreases with time and degradation rate higher than the exponential is observed at the

1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Ascorbic acid (Ct/C0)

Time (hours)
Fig. 2. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for halved tomatoes at different drying temperatures (-, Tair 50  C; B, Tair 60  C; , Tair 70  C). The solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull model.

process beginning (Cunha, Oliveira, & Oliveira, 1998). Manso, Oliveira, Oliveira, and Frias (2001) obtained good results describing vitamin C degradation in orange juice and nonenzymatic browning kinetics by the Weibull model. Eq. (3) was tted to experimental data by non-linear regression and the quality of the adjustment was evaluated through the statistical parameters R2 and SSR. Except for tomato halves tting of Eq. (3) to ascorbic acid degradation curves gave better results when adopting b 1, i.e. assuming a rst order decay kinetics. This result is in agreement with the works of Erenturk et al. (2005) and Goula and Adamopoulos (2006), which had also observed a rst order decay for ascorbic acid degradation. Nevertheless, for tomato halves, b was greater than unity, indicating higher degradation rates at the end periods of drying. This fact could be related to the drying behavior of tomato halves, which was also different from that observed for whole tomatoes, as shown in Table 1. The n

1,2 1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0 0,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2

Ascorbic acid (Ct/C0)

Acid ascorbic (Ct/C0)

Time (hours)
Fig. 3. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for osmotically treated, peeled whole tomatoes at different drying temperatures (-, Tair 50  C; B, Tair 60  C; , Tair 70  C). The solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull model.

Time (hours)
Fig. 1. Ascorbic acid degradation curves for whole peeled tomatoes at different drying temperatures (-, Tair 50  C; B, Tair 60  C; , Tair 70  C). The solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Weibull model.

1646

P.H.M. Marl et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647

4,5

4,0

3,5

The slopes of the obtained plots for drying of whole tomatoes with or without osmotic pre-treatment were similar, showing a similar dependency on temperature, whereas the slope of the plot corresponding to halved tomatoes was smaller. As expected, the lower exposition to oxygen in case of whole tomatoes was able to retard ascorbic acid degradation. Conclusions Caustic peeling reduced the initial content of ascorbic acid in about 16.0%, whereas osmotic pre-treatment reduced this initial content in about 45.0%. The ascorbic acid degradation rates during drying were dependent on samples treatment before drying, as well as on drying temperature. Although caustic peeling and osmotic pre-treatment caused a signicant reduction in the initial ascorbic acid content of the product, during drying lower degradation rates were observed in osmotically pre-treated whole tomatoes, whereas higher degradation rates occurred in halved tomatoes. Higher drying temperatures increased vitamin C degradation rates. It must be considered, however, that the increase in ascorbic acid retention may not compensate the greater costs and longer processing times due to peeling and osmotic treatment. Acknowledgements Authors thank CNPq (Proc. 502883/03-0 and PIBIC) for nancial support. References
Abushita, A. A., Daood, H. G., & Biacs, P. A. (2000). Change in carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins in tomato as a function of varietal and technological factors. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 2075e2081. Akinyele, I. O., Keshinro, O. O., & Akinnawo, O. O. (1990). Nutrient losses during and after processing of pineapples and oranges. Food Chemistry, 37(3), 181e188. Alvarez, C. A., Aguerre, R., Gomez, R., Vidales, S., Alzamora, S. M., & Gerschenson, L. N. (1995). Air dehydration of strawberries: effects of blanching and osmotic pretreatments on the kinetics of moisture transport. Journal of Food Engineering, 25, 167e178. Azoubel, P. M., & Murr, F. E. X. (2004). Mass transfer kinetics of osmotic dehydration of cherry tomato. Journal of Food Engineering, 61(3), 291e295. Benassi, M. T., & Antunes, A. J. (1988). A comparison of meta-phosphoric and oxalic acids as extractant solutions for the determination of vitamin C in selected vegetables. Arquivos de Biologia e Tecnologia, 31, 507e513. Bohuon, P., Collignan, A., Rios, G. M., & Raoult-Wack, A. L. (1998). Soaking process in ternary liquids: experimental study of mass transport under natural and forced convection. Journal of Food Engineering, 37, 451e469. Chang, C., Lin, H., Chang, C., & Liu, Y. (2006). Comparisons on the antioxidant properties of fresh, freeze-dried and hot-air-dried tomatoes. Journal of Food Engineering, 77, 478e485. Cunha, L. M., Oliveira, F. A. R., & Oliveira, J. C. (1998). Optimal experimental design for estimating the kinetic parameters of processes described by the Weibull probability distribution function. Journal of Food Engineering, 37, 175e191. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M. S., & Gultekin, S. (2005). The effects of cutting and drying medium on the vitamin C content of rosehip during drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 68(4), 513e518. Goula, A. M., & Adamopoulos, K. G. (2006). Retention of ascorbic acid during drying of tomato halves and tomato pulp. Drying Technology, 24(1), 57e64.

ln
3,0 2,5 2,0 2,9x10-3 3,0x10-3 3,0x10-3 3,1x10-3 3,1x10-3

1/T

(K-1)

Fig. 4. Inuence of drying temperature and samples treatment on the Weibull parameter a (-, halved tomatoes; B, whole tomatoes; , osmotically treated whole tomatoes). The solid lines correspond to the adjustment of the Arrhenius equation.

values for Page model were also greater than unity only for tomato halves. The parameter a was dependent on temperature and on the samples treatment. The temperature dependence could be described by an Arrhenius type equation (Eq. (4)), as shown in Fig. 4, where plots of ln a versus the reciprocal of drying temperature in absolute degrees resulted in straight lines. Higher a values indicate lower degradation rates or, in other words, longer time to the nutrient collapse. Fig. 4 shows that drying of whole tomatoes led to a better retention of ascorbic acid and this retention was improved by the osmotic treatment. Ea RT

ln a ln A

Erenturk et al. (2005) observed that the raising of temperature decreased the retention of vitamin C for fruits cut into pieces, especially at the beginning of the drying. When surface area exposed to air was increased, loss of vitamin C also increased. This also was observed to increasing oxygen content in the aireCO2 mixtures used as a drying medium. The results showed that the degradation of vitamin C could be reduced by using an inert gas. In Eq. (4), the parameter Ea is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol K, and A is the linear plot interception with vertical axis. Higher activation energies indicate a greater temperature dependence of the reaction rate. Except for drying of osmotically treated, whole peeled tomatoes at 50  C, Eq. (4) resulted in good tting to the Weibull parameter a. This assay was repeated twice and the results were practically the same, what reduced the probability of experimental error. A possible explanation would be that combination of osmotic treatment with the long drying time necessary to dry the samples at the low temperature (50  C) accelerated the ascorbic acid degradation.

P.H.M. Marl et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 41 (2008) 1642e1647 Gregory, J. F. (1996). Vitamins. In O. R. Fennema (Ed.), Food chemistry (3rd ed.) (pp. 531e616). New York: Marcel Dekker. Hossain, M. A., & Bala, B. K. (2002). Thin-layer drying characteristics for green chilli. Drying Technology, 20, 489e505. Lewick, P. P., Le, H. V., & Pomaranska-Lazuka, W. (2002). Effect of pre-treatment on convective drying of tomatoes. Journal of Food Engineering, 54, 141e146. Manso, M. C., Oliveira, F. A. R., Oliveira, J. C., & Frias, J. M. (2001). Modeling ascorbic acid thermal degradation and browning in orange juice under aerobic conditions. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 36, 303e312. Nieto, A., Salvatori, D., Castro, M. A., & Alzamora, S. M. (1998). Air drying behavior of apples as affected by blanching and glucose impregnation. Journal of Food Engineering, 36, 63e79. Nsonzi, F., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (1998). Quality evaluation of osmo-convective dried blueberries. Drying Technology, 16, 705e723. Prado, M. E. T., Chandra, P. K., & Bicalho, U. O. (1995). Desenvolvimento de um modelo matematico para estimar a degradac~o de vitamina C durante o a armazenamento de alimentos de umidade intermediaria. Ciencia e Tecno logia de Alimentos, 15(2), 138e143. Queiroz, R., Gabas, A. L., & Telis, V. R. N. (2004). Drying kinetics of tomato by using electric resistance and heat pump dryers. Drying Technology, 22(6), 1603e1620. Sablani, S. S., Opara, L. U., & Al-Balushi, K. (2006). Inuence of bruising and storage temperature on vitamin C content of tomato fruit. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, 4(1), 54e56. Sankat, C. K., Castaigne, F., & Maharaj, R. (1996). The air drying behavior of fresh and osmotically dehydrated banana slices. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51, 123e135. Santos, E. M., Marl, P. H. M., Telis-Romero, J., & Telis, V. R. N. (2005). Otimizac~o das condic~es de descascamento qumico para secagem de toa o mates inteiros. In: V Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingenieria de Alimentos. Puerto Vallarta: Resumens. Shi, J., Le Maguer, M., Kakuda, Y., Liptay, A., & Niekamp, F. (1999). Lycopene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration. Food Research International, 32, 15e21. Shi, J., Le Maguer, M., Wang, S. L., & Liptay, A. (1997). Application of osmotic treatment in tomato processing e effect of skin treatments on

1647

mass transfer in osmotic dehydration of tomatoes. Food Research International, 30, 669e674. Singh, R. K., & Lund, D. B. (1984). Kinetics of ascorbic acid degradation in stored intermediate moisture apples. In B. M. Mackenna (Ed.) Proceedings of the 3rd international congress on engineering and food. Engineering Sciences in the Food Industry, Vol. 1. Amsterdam. Tavares, C. A., & Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (1994). Carotenoid composition of Brazilian tomatoes and tomato products. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft undTechnologie, 27, 219e224. Telis, V. R. N., Murari, R. C. B. D. L., & Yamashita, F. (2004). Diffusion coefcients during osmotic dehydration of tomatoes in ternary solutions. Journal of Food Engineering, 61, 253e259. Toor, R. K., & Savage, G. P. (2005). Antioxidant activity in different fractions of tomatoes. Food Research International, 38, 487e494. Uddin, M. S., Hawlader, M. N. A., Ding, L., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2002). Degradation of ascorbic acid in dried guava during storage. Journal of Food Engineering, 51(1), 21e26. Uddin, M. S., Hawlader, M. N. A., & Zhou, L. (2001). Kinetics of ascorbic acid degradation in dried kiwifruits during storage. Drying Technology, 19, 437e446. Vieira, M. C., Teixeira, A. A., & Silva, C. L. M. (2000). Mathematical modeling of the thermal degradation kinetics of vitamin C in cupuacu (Theobroma grandiorum) nectar. Journal of Food Engineering, 43, 1e7. Vieira, M. C., Teixeira, A. A., & Silva, C. L. M. (2001). Kinetic parameters estimation for ascorbic acid degradation in fruit nectar using the partial equivalent isothermal exposures (PEIE): method under nonisothermal continuous heating conditions. Biotechnology Progress, 17, 175e181. Wang, J. (2002). A single-layer model for far-infrared radiation drying of onion slices. Drying Technology, 20, 1941e1953. Yamashita, F., Benassi, M. T., & Kieckbusch, T. G. (1999). Effect of modied atmosphere packaging on kinetics of vitamin C degradation in mangos. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 2, 127e130. Zanoni, B., Peri, C., Nani, R., & Lavelli, V. (1999). Oxidative heat damage of tomato halves as affected by drying. Food Research International, 31, 395e401.

S-ar putea să vă placă și