European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 11, Number 2 (2009)

Media Penetration and Cultural Identity Among Young Adults in Malaysia

Samsudin A. Rahim School of Media and Communication Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43650 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: samsudinrahim@yahoo.com Tel: +60193104542; Fax: +60389213542 Latiffah Pawanteh School of Media and Communication Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43650 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia Abstract The prevailing trends of technological developments and globalisation of the economy appear to be ushering a more interdependent future. The tide of transformations whether it is economic, social or cultural transcending nations borders are inevitable consequences of globalisation. Thus, this study hypothesizes that a society experiencing high media penetration is vulnerable to the inappropriate and contradictory values that are conveyed through the cultural commodity, implicating media penetration in one way or another of influencing the constructions of cultural identity. The primary assumption of the study that media penetration has a relationship with the creation of cultural identity among young adults has some empirical evidence in the form of correlational relationships. Several media orientation items indicate positive relationships on strengthening traditional values on sexuality, reinforcing respect for parental authority and enhancing commitment to ones family. On the other hand, there are indictors of media orientation that contribute negatively in terms of forging new liberal attitudes towards sexuality, questioning parental authority and less commitment towards the family.

Keywords: Media Penetration, Cultural Identity, Young Adults, Malaysian Media, Media Orientation

1. Introduction
Mediative experience in both print and electronic media without a doubt has had a significant influence on the development of individuals and societies. The impact of international happenings on local events and cultural identity is further accelerated by the advancements of communication technology and media globalisation. Thus, the inter-penetration of local identities and social systems with the global systems becomes commonplace. Our social world today differs distinctly from that experienced by our ancestors for it is in many ways a singular world yet plural in the alternatives offered. Although, there may be resemblances and even at times a standardised symbolic environment and framework of reference, the diversity and prevalence of the local systems inevitably creates new forms of variances and fragmentations in living experiences. The propensity of local cultures to diffuse or assimilate unfamiliar influences and practices does not however minimise or diminish the pervasive impact of global media on cultural identities and social systems. 225

European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 11, Number 2 (2009) In light of globalisation, Steven Ross, Head of Times Warner asserts that the emergence of the new communication media will help transcend the differences between cultures and societies and to work towards a more genuine mutual trust and understanding (Morley and Robin, 1995). On the contrary, internationalisation through globalisation makes the maintenance of national sovereignty and identity increasingly difficult as the composition of economic, cultural productions and consumption become increasingly transnational (Collins, Garnham and Lockleys, 1995). Sussman (1997) cautioned that without national identity, people in the developing countries can not be mobilised towards consensus on future plans. Liebes and Curran (1998) further argue that the media plays a central role in our understanding of civil society. Media is not only regarded as a space where information is circulated so that citizens can be well-informed, but rather as a cultural space where actors and events become typified into more general codes and more generic story forms that resonate with the societys culture. Crane (2002) argues that increasingly rapid dissemination of all types of media will pose problems for the maintenance of national identities as cultures undergo increasing hybridization. The primary question then is what is the mediating role of culture? Does culture constrain the media, or does the media alter culture and in so doing, transforms identities and forms of life? This paper seeks to address those questions by exploring the relationship between media penetration and cultural identity among young adults. It will describe the various aspects of media penetration and will look specifically at media orientation and three value traits being value orientations of cultural identity.

2. Media and Cultural identity

Media penetration is the phenomenon that encompasses three media aspects namely environment, use and content by members of society. As it is, the media has often been seen as powerful shaper and cause of homogenisation between cultures (Fitzgerald, 1991). Meyrowitz (1985) argues that the media contributes to social change by being the missing link between culture and personality. Electronic media has altered the geography of social life allowing people to become direct audiences to performances anywhere in the world and giving them access to audiences that are not physically present. In addition, media has recreated the terms that we use to define ourselves through the blurring of physical settings, social situations and the division between private and public domains. Thus, reconstructing the traditional conception of physical and social space, creating a cultural space that belongs to no one and yet to everyone. Essentially, what this means is that anyone who identifies with that symbolic environment can articulate his/her identity within the terms available (Giddens, 1991 As it is, the concept of cultural identity can be a reference to the collective self-awareness that a particular group embodies and reflects. the cultural identity of a society is defined by its majority group (Bochner, 1973). The concept is akin to the idea of a national character that describes a set of traits that members of a given community share with one another above and beyond their individual differences. These traits include a set of values and attitudes towards life, death, family, kinship, god, nature and society. In its collective sense, the concept of cultural identity includes typologies of cultural conduct that is appropriate and inappropriate for various situations, values, beliefs and the daily patterning of activities. As such, cultural identity is socially constructed, bestowed and sustained (Adler, 1975; Berger, 1963). Hersley (2006) asserted that in the interest of sharing our cultural strengths with others, we may lose sight of the importance of maintaining cultural integrity for the one being influenced. This concern is previously referred to as cultural domination or cultural imperialism. Both terms relate to the phenomenon of the unadulterated flow of western values into the non-western societies especially those in the developing countries (Schiller, 1969). This concern is grounded in the rationale that the world is multicultural and that various regions have their sovereignty, unique cultural beliefs, values and norms that hold the society in a cohesive manner. 226

European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 11, Number 2 (2009) As it is, the western media or more so the powerful and rich American media industry threatens this pluralism through massive flow of information, both ideologically and culturally laden from the West to the other countries. With it come ideas, attributes, images, issues and agendas that may or may not be readily agreeable and acceptable within the local context. Consequently, it creates unrealistic hopes, expectations and violations that if left unchecked will lead to a disruption of local norms (Servaes, 2006). According to Grixti (2006) one area where the influence of foreign media is particularly noticeable is in what the young themselves believe to be a more liberated approach to sex, entertainment and life generally.

3. Development of Media Industry in Malaysia

Malaysia envisions achieving the status of a developed nation by the year 2020. Vision 2020 as it is popularly known has been cautiously designed to accomplish the desired status yet, simultaneously retaining local values and traditions. To achieve that vision, there is a need to create an informed and knowledgeable society, concurrently instilling values that are deemed appropriate within the population especially amongst young adults. Time-aged values such as tolerance of ethnic, religious and diverse socio-economic backgrounds, respect for the elders, discipline, good working ethics, as well as having good religious and moral practices need to be sustained and inculcated in the face of newly emerging values. Young adults between the ages of 15 to 24 constitute about 20 percent of the 26 million Malaysian population. They are considered by the government as national asset and the future of the nation. Griffin (1997) considered young adults as the key indicator of the state of a nation, it is expected to reflect the cycle of booms and troughs in the economy, shifts in cultural values over sexuality, morality, and family life, concepts of nationhood, and occupational structures. The development of the media industry in Malaysia can be divided into three eras: the era of public media domination, era of privatisation and information explosion, and the era of globalisation and democratisation of information. In the era of public media domination, the media can be seen as a salient and influential subsystem within the larger social system of the society. In addition, since the media provides information in various modes throughout the society, it naturally exerts a considerable influence over the values, norms and lifestyle of the local populace. Thus, the local media enacted its agenda-setting function and within its prescribed role of purporting the governments policies on economic development and restructuring of society, played a significant role in national development. It was mobilised as part of the government machinery and utilised towards attaining the objectives of the various policies. The electronic media; radio and television broadcasting, was solely owned by the government and adhered to the needs of government agencies and politicians. They functioned as an arm of the Ministry of Information and aired programmes on current affairs spurring the advancements of desired social goals. However, this does not mean that the publics needs for information and entertainment were neglected. It was just that the electronic media echoed and projected the interests and concerns of the dominant group. In contrast, several groups that represent the interest of the various ethnic communities privately own the print media. The ownership based on ethnicity is reflected via the diversity of content, organisation and interests. Hence, this interesting mix of ethnic ownership allows for the flourishing of the print media industry in various languages including English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Nevertheless, these in the form of dailies and magazines were circumscribed within the operating rules provided by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The second phase of the development of media industry was facilitated by the privatisation policy. Although the government has sanctioned the expansion of the media industry via the establishment of 227

European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 11, Number 2 (2009) commercial radio and television stations, it needs to determine the role of these entities in national development. The 1990s has seen an accelerated growth of the media industry in the fields of broadcasting as well as in print. Compared to television, radio services were commercialised at a later date. Radio Malaysia, governed by the Ministry of Information, operates five national channels catering to different ethnic groups in their vernacular language. In addition, Radio Malaysia operates Radio Music, using the National Language and English in its announcements. Radio Malaysia also operates regional stations from each of the 13 state capitals of the federation, known as Radio 3. The first commercial radio station Time Highway Radio was established very much later in 1993. Subsequently three other commercial radio stations were given licences to operate: Suara JohorBest 104 (1994), Radio Rediffusion (1995) and Radio Kenyalang (1996). The launching of Malaysia East Asia Asian Satellite (MEASAT 1) on January 13, 1996 and subsequently the introduction of the first direct-to-user (DtU) broadcasting services with 22 television channels and 8 radio channels in October 1996 marked a major shift in the Malaysian communication policy. Prior to this, broadcasting services were confined only to terrestrial broadcast and the ownership of satellite dishes was strictly prohibited. On the other hand, the rapid development of the Malaysian media industry in the 90s is reflective of the economic development and the social transformation that occurred within the society. Furthermore, one cannot discount the effects of prevailing trends in the global communication industry. The Malaysian vision to become an industrialised country and her active participation in international forums has somewhat influenced the development of the media industry especially broadcasting and information technology. Adequate communication channels are a necessity to ensure that Malaysias position and views on international issues can be effectively put forth. In retrospect, to be a global player either in the economic or political sphere, Malaysia should not stand in isolation but rather, should join forces with the rest of the world. In other words, Malaysia must be competitive. The inception of the Multimedia Super Corridor and the launching of Malaysia's own satellite are some of the initiatives undertaken to position Malaysia as an active player in the global arena. Ownership of personal computers and access to Internet is yet another development in the local media scene that spearhead the era of globalisation and information democratisation in the late 1990s. In many developed countries such as the United States, the sales of personal computers have superseded that of televisions. In line with the Information Technology Policy, the Malaysian government has enforced policies to encourage the ownership of personal computers and accessibility to Internet. These include Multimedia Super Corridor, paperless government in Putrajaya, availability of computer loans to civil servants and rebates of computer purchases (instituted in the 1996 budget). It has been reported as a result of these initiatives, internet usage has risen significantly. In 2008, there were 1.9 million household internet users compared to 250,000 in 1997. It is estimated that 34 percent of internet users are between 15-25 years and another 35 percent between 25-40 years (MCMC, 2009).

4. Methodology
This study is an attempt to examine the relationship between media penetration (environment, use and content) and value orientations of cultural identity (obedience to parents, responsibility towards family and sexual orientations) among young adults (16 to 25 years of age). The underlying assumption of this study is the existence of a relationship between media use and media orientation with value orientations of cultural identity. Questionnaires were administered to 1, 200 young adults between the ages of 16 to 25. It was a national survey and efforts were made to ensure representation of the major ethnic composition, socioeconomic background, and the rural-urban residence. 228

European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 11, Number 2 (2009) In this study, media refers to mass media, interactive media and media facilities. Mass media includes radio, terrestrial television, satellite /cable television, and newspapers/magazines. Interactive media refers to the internet and video game players. And media facilities refer to cyber cafs and video arcades. Media environment refers to the media ownership in the respondents respective homes and available media facilities near their homes. The variable was measured by asking each of the respondents, Do you have the following facilities in your home? and Do you have the following facilities in the vicinity of your home? Both of these questions required a dichotomous answer of either yes or no. Media use refers to the number of hours spent on the various media in a week. It was measured by asking each of the respondents, In a week, how much time do you spend watching/listening/reading/surfing the following media? wherein respondents were required to state the duration of time spent. Media orientation refers to the various programmes, news items or software that each of the respondents paid attention to while engaging in the various media. It was measured by asking each of the respondents, When you engage in the following media, how much attention do you give to the following: news item/programme/software? Obedience to parents is defined as the condition of accepting without question all parental decisions. The two items were I respect my parents decision even if the decision does not satisfy me and I must abide by rules that have been determined by my parents at home. To test the responsibility towards the family, respondents were asked three closed-ended questions. The two items were, I am not obliged to help my family since I have my own life to take care of and Returning to my hometown to visit my parents is an outdated ritual. Sexual orientation refers to the attitudinal inclination towards a more liberal orientation on sexual issues. The indicator was assessed by asking each of the respondents if he/she agrees with the following statements: We should not be afraid to befriend those infected by HIV/AIDS, Sex education should be taught in schools, and Socialising between young males and females is a norm in todays modern world.

5. Results
Table 1 is the analysis on the distribution of media environment between two age categories of young adults. The data indicates that more than 90 percent of the respondents have access to terrestrial television, radio, and newspaper. Access to satellite television services is relatively high at around 75 percent. 63 percent of the respondents have access to new technology via personal computers at home whilst the remaining percentage of those who do not possess personal computers at home utilise facilities at cyber cafes. This study reveals substantial access to such facilities among young adults. About 55 percent of young adults in the 21-25 age groups have access to the cyber cafes as compared to 46 percent among those aged 16-20. There is also a considerable increase in internet connection where about half of the respondents admitted that they have access to the internet.

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Table 1: Media Environment
16-20 years % 98 75 63 45 47 92 93 46 21-25 years % 98 76 65 53 54 89 93 55

Media penetration Terrestrial TV Satellite TV Personal computer Internet connections Video games Radio Newspaper Cyber cafes

With regard to media use, it can be observed that the young adults spend a considerable number of hours with one media or the other. Table 2 indicates the average time spent with the various media range from 5 to 35 hours per week. Listening to the radio and watching television programmes seems to be the main preoccupation of young adults. Limited access to satellite TV did not impede media use as the results returned a significant figure of 15 hours per week for those aged 16 20 and 12 hours for those in the 20 25 age groups. Newspaper and magazine use ranged from 5 hours per week among the 16-20 age groups to 7 hours per week among those aged 21-25. An emerging trend in media use in Malaysia is the duration of time spent on computers and playing video games. The study reveals that if total time spent on computers is taken collectively (surfing internet and other software usage) it surpasses the time spent on television or radio. Those between the ages of 21-25 spend the most time, about 28 hours per week employing the various software and facilities. The lower age category of 16-20 years spends 36 hours weekly utilising the various aspects of facilities offered by computer technology. Another emerging pattern in media use in Malaysia is the cumulative time spent playing video games either at the various video arcades or on video game machines at home. The average time spent for both age categories are about 6-7 hours per week.
Table 2: Media Use
16-20 years Hours Per Week 18 15 14 7 6 15 5 7 21-25 years Hours Per Week 19 12 16 12 7 20 7 8

Media use Watching Terrestrial TV Watching Satellite TV Personal computer Surfing Internet Playing Video games Listening to Radio Reading Newspaper Using other computer software

Table 3 represents media orientation, which is the attention paid to various media programmes, news items, and computer software. Based on the mean, young adults seem to have concentrated on entertainment, health and educational based programmes. In addition, those in the 16-20 and 21-25 age groups also paid considerable attention to comedy programmes on television. Religious programmes and political news garnered the least attention.

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Table 3: Media Orientation
16-20 years mean 2.3 2.6 2.5 .2.5 2.2 2.0 2.6 2.5 2.7 21-25 years mean 2.4 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.7

Media Orientation Quiz show Comedy Science fiction Documentary Religious Political news Educational Health Entertainment

The following analysis is the correlation between media orientation and values of cultural identity. In this study, we are concerned with three values, namely family responsibility, obedience to parents and sexual values. In the eastern culture, one is expected to take care of his/her parents and siblings once he/she reaches adulthood. Similarly to respecting the parents, one is still expected to treat his/her parents with respect and listen to their advice as much as possible even upon adulthood. With regard to sexual values, the eastern culture is more conservative and considers the subject taboo. For the age group 16-20 (see Table 4) among the positive and significant items that contribute towards sustaining responsibility to the family are religious (r = .23), documentary (r = .18), educational (r =.19), health (r = .13) programmes of media orientation. In the age group of 16-20, entertainment (r = -.12) contributes negatively to being obedient to parents. Among the positive items of media orientation that correlate with obedience to parents are religious (r =.20), educational (r = .14) and quiz show (r = .21) With regard to sexual values among the 16-20 age group, religious programmes correlates negatively (-.30). Other media orientation items such as entertainment (.11) and educational (.19) correlate positively with young adults sexual values.
Table 4: Correlations between Media Orientation and Cultural Identity (16-20 Years Category)
Family Responsibility -.08* -.11* -.15* -.18* .23* -.07 -.19* -.13* .03 Obedience to parents .21* .04 .03 .12* .20* .01 .14* .10* -.12* Sexual Values .17* .12* .11* -.12* -.30* .03 .19* -.11* .16*

Media Orientation Quiz show Comedy Science fiction Documentary Religious Political Educational Health Entertainment * significant at 0/05

Data in Table 5 shows the correlation between media orientation and values of cultural identity among the 21-25 age groups. Media orientation to health (r = .13), educational (r = .21), religious (r =.13) and documentary (r = .24) programmes contribute significantly to responsibility to the family. As for the 21-25 age group three media orientation items i.e. educational (r = .16), quiz show (.21) and religion (r = .13) instigate parental compliance. Religious programme media orientation correlates negatively with the formation of sexual values (.35)

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Table 5: Correlations Between Media Orientation and Cultural Identity (21-25 Years category)
Family Responsibility .04 -.03 .09 .24* .13* .07 .21* .13* .-01 Obedience to Parent .06 .05 -.00 -06 .13* .00 .16* .06 .00 Sexual Values .13* -.02 -.03 .04 -.35* .11* .19* .08* -.07

Media Orientation Quiz show Comedy Science fiction Documentary Religious Political Educational Health Entertainment * significant at 0.05

6. Discussion and Conclusion

The study of cultural identities has been the domain of the cultural and critical paradigm methodology. Efforts to study cultural identity quantitatively have resulted in methodological problems such as lower correlation between variables. This is due to the strict requirement of reliability standards by the quantitative method, resulting in this study also experiencing similar problems of low correlation. Nonetheless, since this is an exploratory study of cultural identity in Malaysia, the problems associated with the constructing of appropriate indicators for cultural identity in the local context is to be expected. The experience and data from this study will be used as a base to develop the instruments for future research. The primary assumption of the study that media penetration has a relationship with the construction of cultural identity among young adults has some empirical evidence in the form of correlational relationships. The media industry itself being a cultural industry considers its programmes and news items as valued commodities to be packaged according to the needs and demand of its audiences. In the present era of free trade, the cultural commodity catering to the needs of one society can be exported to other societies. However integrated in the exported content, are cultural values that are alien and may contradict the culture of the recipient society. The growth of the media industry in a given society will facilitate the movement of cultural commodities transcending boundaries to fulfil the needs of media airtime and space. At the same time, there are also traces of inappropriate cultural values and norms that are generated and transmitted by the local media industry. Thus, this study hypothesizes that if a society experiences a high media penetration then it will also experience the assimilation of inappropriate and contradictory values that are conveyed through the cultural commodity. As such, it is expected that media penetration in one way or another will influence the construction of cultural identity. This study also illustrates that Malaysia as a society has experienced considerable media penetration since the 1990s. The most notable expansion has been in the broadcasting industry and the use of information and communication technology. The popularity of video games and computer related activities unveils an emerging trend of media use among young adults in Malaysia. To preserve and shape the cultural identity of young Malaysian adults, efforts should be made to manage media penetration. In this study, media penetration has shown to have both negative and positive effects on the construction of cultural identity among young adults. Several media orientation items indicate positive effects on strengthening traditional values on sexuality, reinforcing the respect of parental authority and fortifying the commitment to ones family. On the other hand, there are indictors of media orientation that contribute negatively in terms of evoking new liberal attitudes towards sexuality, questioning parental authority and exhibiting less commitment towards the family. Individually these indicators of media penetration especially media orientation have shown low correlations with items of cultural identity. Nonetheless, when these items are taken collectively its cumulative effects could be higher in a long-term perspective. 232

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