Use of Fresh Palm Fruit Extract as a Feed Ingredient in the Diet of Larval African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus

Abstract
Three experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, the acceptance time of pelleted diets sprayed with fresh palm fruit extract (FPFE), commercial palm oil (COM), or a control diet to African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, fingerlings was investigated. In Experiment 2, the effects of five diets on growth and survival of African catfish larvae were determined: (1) bambara nut waste-based (BW) diet; (2) bambara nut waste-based diet with 5% of diet formula of FPFE (BWP); (3) bambara nut waste-based diet with 5% of diet formula of FPFE plus 1.5% of diet formula of Spirulinapowder (BWPS); (4) fish waste-based diet (FWP); and (5) brine shrimp, Artemiasp., nauplii (control). In the BWP, BWPS, and FWP diets, fresh palm fruit extract was sprayed on the diets as a feed attractant. The Spirulinapowder was included in BWPS as an additional attractant. In Experiment 3, the effects of seven diets on growth and survival of the African catfish larvae were investigated: (1) BW; (2) BWP; (3) FWP; (4) a bambara waste-based diet with 5% COM (BWC); (5) a fish waste-based diet with 5% of formula as COM (FWC); (6) a fish waste-based diet with neither FPFE nor COM, and (7) brine shrimp nauplii (control). African catfish finger-lings accepted the pellets containing FPFE in significantly less time (P < 0.01) than they did the other pelleted diets. Inclusion of FPFE as 5% of diet formula significantly (P<0.05) improved the growth and survival of African catfish larvae fed formulated diets. Inclusion of Spirulinaat 1.5% of diet formula had no effect. Brine shrimp was nutritionally superior to the formulated diets for the African catfish larvae during the first 28 days of feeding. The results indicate that FPFE can be added to a diet for African catfish at 5% of diet formula. However, brine shrimp nauplii fed to larvae had the highest percentage survival and highest growth rates of any of the treatments.

Temperature preferences and optimum temperature for growth of African sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) larvae and postlarvae
Abstract
The optimum temperature for the primary nursing of Clarias gariepinus larvae and postlarvae was experimentally determined using two complementary methods. Growth of larvae was monitored at different temperatures ranging from 22 to 33C. The final

temperature preferendum of juveniles was determined in a horizontal thermal gradient. High growth rates were recorded between 25 and 33C and the best was at 30C. Size variation of fishes reared at 22C was significantly greater than those batches reared at higher temperatures. The final temperature preferendum was found to be 30C which corresponds to the temperature at which highest growth rate was recorded, and it is concluded that this temperature is probably optimal for most physiological processes.

Effect of Low-Temperature Incubation of Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Eggs on Development, Survival, and Growth
Abstract
To determine whether the embryonic period of channel catfish lctalurus punctatus could be extended at low temperatures, fertilized channel catfish eggs were incubated at five constant water temperatures: 4, 11. 16. 21, and 26 C. Low-temperature incubation of catfish eggs extended the embryonic period at 16 (244%) and 21 C (56%) when compared to the control hatchery incubation temperature of 26 C. All eggs incubated at 4 and 11 C died within 2448 h. Developmental stage had a significant (P > 0.05) effect on percent hatch at 16, 21, and 26 C. Eggs held at 16 C prior to embryonic axis formation died within 48 h. Larvae from eggs hatched at 16 C were incompletely developed and died upon acclimation to 26 C for growth tests. Growth of fry reared at 26 C, following egg incubation at 21 C. paralleled that of fry from eggs incubated at 26 C. The underdevelopment of fry at 16 C combined with the significant effect of egg stage on survival at this temperature suggests that 16 C is below the lower thermal tolerance limit for normal development in this species. The period prior to the formation of the embryonic axis may be considered a vulnerable stage in channel catfish development. Increasing the embryonic period through low temperature incubation would increase the duration of juvenile availability for researchers and commercial operations.

Effect of Ovaprim doses and latency periods on induced spawning of Clarias batrachus: Observation on larval deformity
Ovaprim Issue Date: Oct-2007 Publisher: CSIR Abstract: Induced spawning of C. batrachus was conducted at different Ovaprim dose and latency period combinations to observe the deformed larvae among the hatchlings. For the purpose, four doses of Ovaprim (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 ml/kg body weight) and five latency periods (11, 14, 17, 20 and 23 hr) were considered in 20 different combinations. There were no deformed larvae in the females injected with all four doses and stripped at 11 hr latency, as the eggs did not hatch. The percentage of deformed larvae (4-7%) did not vary significantly at 1.0-2.0 ml dose level in combination with 14-17 hr latency periods. While

increasing the latency period beyond 17 hr at 1-1.5 ml dose level, the percentage of deformed larvae increased significantly and touched as high as 11%. The results indicated that 1-1.5 ml dose in combination with 14-17 hr latency are suitable to reduce the deformed larvae among the hatchlings during induced spawning of C. batrachus.

Aquaculture implications of growth variation in the African catfish: Heterobranchus longifilis (Val.) reared under controlled conditions
Individual (mass) selection experiments were undertaken on different batches of Heterobranchus longifilis siblings to investigate factors such as significant size variation among larvae and juveniles that influence the darting (shooting) phenomenon. Darting was studied by subjecting treatment groups of fish larvae to (1) different feeding levels: 3% and 10% of body weight, and continuously at equal stocking rate. (2) different stocking rates: 600, 300 and 150 fish/30 L at the same feeding level. (3) effects of introduction of shelter under similar stocking and feeding levels and regime. A darting (shooting) event was registered when fish darted abruptly over a length of approximately three times the estimated total body length. The study concluded that food and density were the critical epigenetic factors responsible for size variation in juvenile H. longifilis.

Effect of Rearing Density and Feeding Regimes on Growth and Survival of African Catfish, Heterobranchus longifilis (Valenceinnes, 1840) Larvae in a Closed Recirculating Aquaculture System.
Abstract
Heterobranchus longifilis larvae were reared over a 35 d period to evaluate the effects of stocking densities and feeding regimes on growth and survival. In experiment 1, larvae (12.32.1 mg) were stocked into glass aquaria at densities of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 larvae L1. Larvae were fed on Artemia nauplii ad libitum. Significant variations in terms of growth performance and feed utilization occurred at all levels of density treatments. Specific growth rate (SGR), body weight gain (BWG), and feed efficiency (FE) of the larvae decreased significantly as density increased. However, survival rate increased with the increase of stocking density. In experiment 2, larvae (13.41.1 mg) stocked at a density of 15 larvae L1, in the same conditions as experiment 1, were fed on three different regimes:

Artemia nauplii; 35%protein beef brain; and 35%protein commercial catfish feed (CN+). SGR, BWG, and coefficient of variation (CV) of larvae fed on Artemia nauplii were significantly higher than those fed on beef brain and CN+. The survival rate of larvae fed on beef brain was significantly higher (88.409.75%) than those of Artemia (69.216.69%) and CN+ (40.406.22%). The results of this study suggest that the optimum stocking density is 15 larvae L1 and the beef brain can be used as alternative feed to Artemia in rearing H. longifilis larvae.

The Development of a Functional Digestive System in the African Catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell)
Abstract
The morphological and physiological development of the intestine, stomach, liver and pancreas of the African catfish, Clarius guriepinus (Burchell 1822), was investigated from hatching until 9 days after the start of exogenous feeding by histological, histochemical and immunohistochemical procedures. During the yolk sac period, lasting 48 hours at 30 C, the digestive system develops from a rather undifferentiated system into a distinct liver and pancreas and a segmented intestine (parts I to III). Insulin and glucagon producing cells were clearly found in the endocrine pancreatic islets from 14 hours after hatching onwards, while at the start of exogenous feeding, the exocrine pancreas showed an intense zymogen colouration. Exogenous feeding started three days after fertilization, i.e., 48 hours after hatching. At that moment, the rearing temperature was lowered to 27.5 C. The first day of feeding was referred to as day zero, changing into day 1 when the first 24 hours of feeding were completed. From the start of exogenous feeding onwards, aminopeptidase, nonspecific esterase and ATP-ase were detected in the digestive system. Morphologically, the stomach was completed at day 4 of exogenous feeding. Gastric acid secretion started on day 4 and lead to a pH below 3.3 in the stomach on day 5. During the first four days of exogenous feeding, C-t-gastrin immunopositive cells were found throughout the gut, including the gastric epithelium. After day 4, the C-t-gastrin cells were only detected in the anterior intestine. The completeness of the stomach development was also marked by the appearance of non-specific esterase activity in the stomach epithelial cells on day 5. All data together clearly indicate that in Clarius gariepinus, the ontogeny of a functional digestive system has been completed on day 5 after the start of exogenous feeding, marking thereby the end of the larval period.

The Use of Decapsulated Cysts of the Brine Shrimp Artemia as Direct Food for Carp Cyprinus carpio L. Larvae

Abstract
Decapsulated Arremia cysts have been evaluated as a direct food source for larvae of the carp Cyprinus carpio L. All decapsulated cyst diets gave excellent survival of carp larvae during the first two weeks of culturing. Unlike traditionally brine-stored decapsulated cysts, dried Artemia embryos provided growth results comparable to those obtained with freshly hatched Artemia nauplii. Furthermore, except for Artemia embryos that lost their hatchability after long-term storage in air, several other inactivation treatments, simulating improper harvesting and processing of cysts, did not produce a significant decrease in the nutritional quality of the decapsulated cysts. Using decapsulated cysts 89 a direct food source for carp larvae, instead of nauplii, the quantity of cysts needed can be reduced by about 25% to 35% after one and two weeks of culturing, respectively. Moreover, the use of decapsulated cysts advances the possible commercialition of poor-hatching and less expensive cyst products for culture of carp larvae.

Quantitative feed requirements of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell) larvae fed with decapsulated cysts of Artemia: I. The effect of temperature and feeding level
Abstract
In a series of four experiments, the effects of temperature (range: 25.032.5C) and feeding level on the growth performance and survival rate of first-feeding larvae of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell) was assessed. Feeding occurred with dried decapsulated cysts of Artemia. Growth performance was determined on the basis of growth rate, food conversion ratio, energy conversion efficiency, protein efficiency ratio, and apparent net protein utilization. A new approach to assess growth rate and feeding levels in larval nutrition studies is presented and discussed. The quantity of decapsulated Artemia cysts and the time needed to raise larvae of Clarias gariepinus up to a weight of 50 mg for different combinations of temperatures and feeding level were determined. Recommendations are made for optimal temperature and feeding level under practical farming conditions.

The Development of a Functional Digestive System in the African Catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell)
Abstract

The morphological and physiological development of the intestine, stomach, liver and pancreas of the African catfish, Clarius guriepinus (Burchell 1822), was investigated from hatching until 9 days after the start of exogenous feeding by histological, histochemical and immunohistochemical procedures. During the yolk sac period, lasting 48 hours at 30 C, the digestive system develops from a rather undifferentiated system into a distinct liver and pancreas and a segmented intestine (parts I to III). Insulin and glucagon producing cells were clearly found in the endocrine pancreatic islets from 14 hours after hatching onwards, while at the start of exogenous feeding, the exocrine pancreas showed an intense zymogen colouration. Exogenous feeding started three days after fertilization, i.e., 48 hours after hatching. At that moment, the rearing temperature was lowered to 27.5 C. The first day of feeding was referred to as day zero, changing into day 1 when the first 24 hours of feeding were completed. From the start of exogenous feeding onwards, aminopeptidase, nonspecific esterase and ATP-ase were detected in the digestive system. Morphologically, the stomach was completed at day 4 of exogenous feeding. Gastric acid secretion started on day 4 and lead to a pH below 3.3 in the stomach on day 5. During the first four days of exogenous feeding, C-t-gastrin immunopositive cells were found throughout the gut, including the gastric epithelium. After day 4, the C-t-gastrin cells were only detected in the anterior intestine. The completeness of the stomach development was also marked by the appearance of non-specific esterase activity in the stomach epithelial cells on day 5. All data together clearly indicate that in Clarius gariepinus, the ontogeny of a functional digestive system has been completed on day 5 after the start of exogenous feeding, marking thereby the end of the larval period.

The effect of group composition on the welfare of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
Abstract
Within fish farming grading, i.e. the process of sorting to approximate size, changes the group composition from heterogeneous to homogeneous. Although this procedure is considered an acute stressor, the long-term consequences of grading on aggression and stress levels have not yet been investigated. The objective of this study was to quantify the consequences for welfare of rearing African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in groups of homogeneous low-, middle- and heavy-weight fish as compared with a heterogeneous group. Two thousand fish were grown for 8 weeks. Afterwards, fish were individually weighed, tagged and manually selected. Four treatments were established according to weight (mean S.D.): homogeneous low- (L, 83.0 8.2 g), homogeneous middle- (M, 140.2 8.7 g), homogeneous heavy-weight (H, 198.0 8.1 g) and a heterogeneous group (HET, 139.7 48.4 g). Fish were sampled three times (days 13, 27 and 34) to determine aggression levels (number of skin lesions and percentage of fish bitten). Blood samples (for cortisol and glucose analysis) were taken at the end of the experiment before and after a stress test (netting). Despite all treatments exhibited high aggression levels (>50%), the H treatment exhibited the lowest aggression levels (58.34 0.92% of fish bitten as compared with 74.13 2.52% in L; 69.70 4.38% in M and 69.94 3.29% in HET, P = 0.002). Aggression significantly decreased over time in the M and H treatment but not in the L and HET

treatments. In addition, heavy fish reared in heterogeneous groups exhibited higher number of skin lesions in the body (2.0 0.1) than fish with similar weight reared in homogeneous groups (1.4 0.1) (P = 0.002). Also, middle-weight fish showed lower cortisol values (before the stress test) in the homogeneous group (45.7 7.5 ng/ml) as compared with middleweight fish in heterogeneous groups (73.5 13.3 ng/ml). The stress response in low-weight fish was also affected by the group composition. After a stress test, the glucose levels were higher for low-weight fish reared in homogeneous (7.1 0.4 mmol/l) than in heterogeneous (5.1 0.7 mmol/l) groups. This study suggested that the group composition affects welfare in African catfish, particularly in the L treatment where aggression levels were as high as 74%. Middle-weight and heavy fish seemed to benefit from living in homogeneous while light fish from heterogeneous groups.

Feed utilization, growth and survival of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) fingerlings cultured under different photoperiods
Abstract
This study assessed the effects of three photoperiods on growth, feed utilization and survival of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus fingerlings. Fish of initial weight 1.15 0.03 g(mean SEM) were exposed to 24 h of darkness (DD), 12 h of darkness and 12 h of light (DL) and 24 h of light (LL) for a period of 70 days in a partial flow-through system. The fingerlings were cultured in triplicate groups and fed on 35% crude protein prepared diet at 5% body weight. Fingerlings reared in darkness (DD) had significantly (P < 0.05) highest feed intake, weight gain, protein efficiency ratio, specific growth rate and percentage survival followed by fingerlings cultured in DL which were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those in LL. Also, the fingerlings cultured in DD had significantly (P < 0.05) lowest uneaten feed and feed conversion ratio, than those reared in DL and LL. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the water temperature and pH of fingerlings cultured under the three different photoperiods, however, dissolved oxygen concentration was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced when the fingerlings were cultured in 24 hour darkness. Fish cultured in DD had darker skin colorations than those in LL. The results of this study show that growth, feed utilization and survival of C. gariepinus fingerlings were improved when cultured in 24 h of darkness.

Rearing of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and vundu catfish (Heterobranchus longifilis) in traditional fish ponds (whedos): Effect of

stocking density on growth, production and body composition

Abstract
African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) (initial body weight: 34.8 4.8 g) and vundu catfish (Heterobranchus longifilis) (initial body weight: 39.1 8.2 g) fingerlings were stocked at densities of 4, 6 or 8 fish m 3 in traditional fish ponds (whedos) constructed in the floodplain of the Oueme River (South Benin, West Africa), for 70 days from March to June 2005. Fish were fed twice a day with 34% crude protein feed formulated with locally available ingredients. The effects of stocking density were evaluated in growth responses, gross production and body composition. Water quality variables were similar (p > 0.05) in all compartments. Temperature and pH were at the optimum level for fish. Dissolved oxygen ranged from 0.9 to 1.2 mg l 1 during the experiment and secchi disc transparency was low (< 14 cm). In both species, growth responses increased with the increasing density, significantly in African catfish stocked at density of 8 fish m 3 compared to the other densities (4 and 6 fish m 3) but not significantly in vundu catfish. Production data ranged from 3.1 0.5 to 22.8 4.5 t ha 1 year 1 in African catfish and from 6.1 1.2 to 15.1 3.1 t ha 1 year 1 in vundu catfish. Production increased with increasing stocking densities but only significantly (p < 0.05) between the density of 8 fish m 3 and the other densities. In both species, carcass fat increased with increasing density (p < 0.05) while carcass protein and moisture decreased (p > 0.05). These results are important because they indicate that, as far as growth rate and production are concerned, African catfish is more profitable than vundu catfish for culture at high density in whedo.

The effects of density, light and shelter on the growth and survival of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822) fingerlings
Abstract
The effects of stocking density, light and shelter on the growth and survival of Clarias gariepinus fingerings was evaluated. In this experiment African catfish with initial individual mean weight 0.790.1 g were reared at two different stocking densities5 fish l1 and 10 fish l1 in either sheltered or unsheltered tanks with reduced and normal light condition. In all conditions growth rate was significantly affected by stocking density. The growth rate was significantly higher at low densities and in reduced light conditions where shelter was provided. Survival rate was in excess of 79% in all treatments and was not affected by treatment.

Survival and growth of silver catfish larvae exposed to different water pH

Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the influence ofwater pH (5.5, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 8.5) on survival and growth ofsilver catfsh (Rhamdia quelen) larvae. Larvae were obtained frominduced spawning in November and maintained under controlledconditions of 25 (1) C using a water re-use system incontinuously aerated 40 L polyethylene tanks (350 larvae/tank).Larvae were fed until satiation six times a day. At days 0, 7, 14,and 21 and after yolk absorption, 10 larvae from each group wererandomly chosen to evaluate length, weight, and specific growthrate (SGR). Length, weight, survival, and biomass at the end of 21days were significantly higher at pH 8.0 and 8.5. As expected,specific growth rate decreased with time. These results suggest that 8.08.5 isthe best pH range for survival and growth of the larvae of thisspecies.

Stress and the welfare of cultured fish

Abstract
Cultured species of aquatic animals span more than five phyla. Animal welfare attention is directed towards the vertebrates because of the their neural complexity, and is currently focused on the finfish because of the size and visibility of that segment of the aquaculture industry. The characteristics of the aquatic environment and their impact on the animal have forced growers to develop cultural practices designed to control and minimize animal stress. This was not done as a result of social awareness, but out of necessity to keep fish alive and healthy; and managing stress is a principal key in ensuring animal welfare. Aquatic farmers are aware of the consequences of fish stress, but have limited knowledge of the basic biological principles of animal stress and have little exposure to the linkages between these concepts and the issues critical to animal welfare. Although the industry has many tools available for monitoring and preventing stress, not all growers have had exposure to the information that is available or know of its value when addressing issues of animal welfare.

Fertilization, hatching, survival and growth rates in reciprocal crosses of two strains of an African catfish Heterobranchus longifilis Valenciennes 1840 under controlled hatchery conditions

Abstract
A diallelic cross between two strains [Layo strain (LS) and Noun strain (NS)] of the catfish Heterobranchus longifilis Valenciennes was carried out under controlled hatchery conditions to estimate their reproductive performance and aquaculture potential in terms of fertilizability, hatchability, survival, growth and heterosis. The average fertilization rate of all mating groups was as high as 90.4%, the fertilization rate of the purebred NS (95.2%) being significantly higher than that of the purebred LS or the reciprocal crosses (P <0.05). The average hatching rate of all genetic groups was as high as 84.7%, the hatching rate of NS (89.4%) being significantly higher than that of the purebred LS or the reciprocal crosses (P <0.05). The mean survival rate of all crosses from hatching up to the onset of exogenous feeding stood at 94.2%, without showing a significant difference (P >0.05) between the crosses. During the larval rearing period, which extended from the onset of exogenous feeding up to 15 days of age, NS displayed a significantly lower growth rate (P <0.001) than that of the purebred LS and their reciprocal hybrids. There was no significant difference (P >0.05) in survival rate (mean 84.7%) between the four crosses at the end of the larval rearing period. During the juvenile rearing phase, the mean growth performance of all crossbreds was similar to that of the purebred LS and significantly different from that of the purebred NS (P <0.001). The final individual weights attained by LS, NS, LS NS and NS LS were 3.31, 0.71, 3.97 and 3.66 g respectively. The increase in weight attained by the fastgrowing crossbred LS NS was 562.2%, 20.4% and 8.7% more than that of NS, LS and NS LS respectively. The survival rate of NS (57.1%) was significantly lower (P <0.001) than that of all the rest of the crosses. The crossbreds displayed about 15.1% heterosis in mean body weight relative to the fast-growing purebred LS. It was concluded that cross-breeding of H. longifilis strains could be advantageous because of the hybrid vigour in the progeny.

Predation capacity of tadpoles (Bufo regularis) using African catfish Heterobranchus longifilis larvae: impact of prey characteristics on vulnerability to predation
Abstract
Rates of predation by tadpoles of Bufo regularis on larvae of the African catfish Heterobranchus longifilis were determined under controlled laboratory conditions. Predation rates were high on early stage yolk-sac and first-feeding larvae, which have a poorly developed escape ability. A steady decline in predation rates was found with an increase in the size of the larvae. Predation rates were significantly related to prey density. The relationship between larval biomass eaten and biomass available suggested that tadpoles were not satiated when feeding on the largest larvae, probably because of the improved escape ability of these larvae. Prey movement was not found to be an important

factor eliciting predation by tadpoles. Starved larvae were more vulnerable to predation because of a poor escape response. Our results indicate that tadpole predation may represent a substantial source of mortality of catfish larvae in earthen primary nursing ponds.

Effect of Salinity on Embryonic Development, Hatchability, and Growth of African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus, Eggs and Larvae
Abstract
Effects of salinity on embryonic development and growth of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, eggs and larvae were studied. Eggs were incubated at 27-29C in 2,4,6,8, and 10 ppt sodium chloride. Rate of embryonic development was delayed in all salt solutions by 15, 15,28 and 30 minutes, in 2,4,6, and 8 ppt sodium chloride, respectively, when compared with the control group (0% salt); total mortality occurred at 12 hours after gastrula stage in the 10 ppt concentration. Percentage hatching was 45.1,47.7, 59.5,49.2, and 26.6% while percentage deformity was 10.4, 16.1, 52.0, 28.6, and 71.6% in 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 ppt salt treatments, respectively. There were significant differences (P <0.05) in the hatching percentage and in deformity percentage between 4, 6, and 8 ppt. Rate of yolk absorption was significantly faster in the control and 2 ppt salt treatments, but slower in 4, 6, and 8 ppt. Rate of increase in length was slower with increasing salinity. The optimum salinity for African catfish eggs and was between 0-2 ppt and acceptable up to 6 ppt. The results suggest that increasing salinity delayed hatching and development of African catfish eggs and larvae, respectively, as well as increased the deformity of the larvae.

Experiments for the improved use of decapsulated Artemia cysts in intensive culture of African catfish larvae
Feeding dried and vitamin C enriched decapsulated Artemia cysts to African catfish larvae increased their growth rate significantly after 6 days over those fed only freshly decapulated cysts. Groups fed with Artemia nauplii had a significantly higher growth during the experiment, although this difference was not considerably important in practice. Tank colour had no influence on growth. Because of their lower price, the decapsulation of lower quality cysts can be an appropriate feed source in intensive cultures of African catfish larvae.

Artificial reproduction and fingerling production of the African catfish, Clarias

gariepinus (Burchell 1822), in protected and unprotected ponds

Abstract
In order to obtain an appropriate and reliable method for the mass production of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell) fingerlings. experiments on artificial reproduction and pond rearing were carried out in the Republic of Congo in 1987-1991. Reproduction could be induced throughout the year using common carp pituitaries (3 mg kg1 female). The average relative fecundity of females varied between 1.3% 0.3 (SEM) and 14.3%1.3 (SEM). The average hatching percentage of the eggs varied between 28.4% 4.5 (SEM) and 59.1% 3.7 (SEM) respectively, in the dry and rainy season. The fluctuation of the relative fecundity as well as the fluctuation of the hatching percentage follows the seasonal fluctuation in rainfall and temperature. The use of a net cage made of mosquito netting (1 m3, 0.5 mm mesh size) and the roots of water hyacinth (E. crassipes) as an egg incubator proved to be reliable. In ponds not protected against frogs an average of 5.0 2.9 (SEM) fingerlings m2 per 40 days cycle were obtained, whereas in ponds completely surrounded by a wall of aluminium roof plates (0.8 m high) the average production was 32.3 3.3 (SEM) fingerlings nr- per 40 days cycle, when they are stocked with approximately 100 larvae m2. Increasing the larval stocking density or extending the rearing period did not improve the final production. The main causes of low production in unprotected ponds are competition for food resources due to the presence of phytophagous frog larvae and cannibalism among the fingerlings of Clarias gariepinus. An analysis showed that the system is labour orientated, technically reliable and economically feasible when the fingerlings can be sold for USS 0.07 apiece.