If I speak in terms of a layman, a function is nothing but a machine. Well, what does a machine do? Simple!

You give some input to a machine and it will give the output. For example, consider a fruit juice machine. You give the fruits to it and it will give the juice of that particular fruit. Here the fruit is the input and the juice is the output, and the machine is the function in which you put the fruit( the input) to obtain the juice (the output).

Mathematical definition of a function:

Let A and B be two non empty sets. Then a rule 'f' which associates each element of A with a unique element of B is called mapping or function from A to B. If f is a mapping from A to B we write f: A B ( read as f is a function or mapping from A to B) If f associates x A to y B, then we say that y is the image of the element x under the map f and denote it by f(x) and we write y=f(x). The element x is called the pre image or inverse image of y. Now you are wondering what the hell is this image, pre image, x, y, set... Take a chill pill dear! Come back to my illustration of a function in which i gave you the example of a fruit juice machine. There is one set of fruits and there is one set of juices. You can select a fruit from the set of fruits and put it in the machine to get a juice which is contained in the juice set. In the definition set A is the set of fruits and the set B is the set of juice. The particular fruit which we are selecting is called the variable x here. And the unique image i.e the juice you get is called y which is contained in the juice set B. Independent variable and dependent variable: You tell me - In a machine the output will depend upon the input or the other way round? Correct, the output will depend on the input. If in a machine fruit is the input and juice is the output, you can independently select the fruit and accordingly you will get the juice. So the input is the independent variable and the output is the dependent variable. Let me define independent and dependent variables in technical terms: Let f: A B ( f be a mapping from A to B). Since x can denote any element of the set A , so x is called the independent variable on A. Again since value of y depends on x, hence y is called a dependent variable over a subset of B. When a function is not defined ? As I told you in the definition of a function , if 'f ' is a function from A to B, then each element in A has a UNIQUE IMAGE in B. Means if an element x1 in A corresponds to two different elements y1 and y2 in B, then f is not a function. Example: y=f(x)= x Take x=4. For x=4 , we get two values of y, i.e + 2 and -2. So y is not a function.

Now my friend asked me- Kunal, is it a function? f(x)=y= x2 I said yes. Then he says that for y=4, we have two values of x i.e +2 and -2. So how come it is a function? But it IS a function. Get back to what i told you. let me repeat it. If 'f ' is a function from A to B, then each element in A has a UNIQUE IMAGE in B. Here both sets A and B are sets of real numbers. Now for a real number +2, we have a unique image 4. And for -2 also we have an image 4 which is UNIQUE for -2. Means had we got a situation here in the above example that for +2 or any real number for that matter, we got two different values of y i.e not a unique image, then it would not have been considered a function. Still some people argue. For them let me take an example. Ramu and Samu are the sons of Veeru. Even though Ramu and Samu have the same father , the father of Ramu is unique i.e Ramu doesn't have more than one father. Similarly Samu also has only one father. It doesn't matter if their father is the same person or not. What matters in the definition of a function is that they must not have more than one father. Consider another example: A weighing machine measures the weight. There are different packets as inputs and the weight is the output. So for one input there cannot be two weights. But for two packets there may be same weight. What matters is that for one packet there must not be more than one weight. So the summary is: For a function to be defined, for one independent variable there should not be more than one dependent variable. But for two or more independent variables, there may be a single dependent variable. To express values a variable can take, we use the following notations: 1) Open

interval:

If x can take values which lie strictly between a and b then we can write a<x<b or x(a,b) 2) Closed

interval:

If x can take values which lie strictly between a and b or x can be equal to a or x can be equal to b, then we can write axb or x [a,b] 3) Half

open interval:

If only one end point is included for values of x then the interval is called as half open interval. ax<b or x [a,b) a<xb 4) or x (a,b]

Infinite intervals:

If x can take all real values then we can write as <x< or x (where R is the set of real numbers. 5)Other a<x a x x<b x b , ) or x R

notations:
or or or or x (a, x [a, x (x () ) ,b) ,b]

6) If x can take specific values, say x=a, x=b, and x=c, then we can write x { a,b,c}

Domain:
While defining real valued functions, we have to observe some restrictions. One such restriction is that we can never divide by zero. Hence in the function y= f(x) = 1/(x-1) , the value of x cannot be equal to 1 because the denominator will become 0 when x=1 Domain of y=f(x) is the collection of all inputs that operator can take so that the output of operator exists. OR The set of values of x for which y takes real values ( so that function is well defined) is known as the set of Domain for that function. Hence the domain of y= f(x) in the above example is xR- {1} or x(,1) (1, )

Co-domain:
If f is a function or mapping from A to B, then the set B is called the co-domain.

Range:
Range of y=f(x) is collection of all outputs ( f(x) ) corresponding to each real number in the domain. OR The set of values which y can take is known as the set of Range for that function. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES TO EXPLAIN DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE: EX.1. Let A = { 1,-1,2,3,-3} B= { 1,4,9,10,11} The rule f given by f(x)=x2 is a map from A to B. Domain f={ 1,-1,2,3,-3} Range f= { 1,4,9} Co-domain f={ 1,4,9,10,11} EX.2. Let A = { 1,-1,2,3} B= { 2,-2,4,6} The rule f given by f(x)=2x is a map from A to B Domain f={ 1,-1,2,3} Range f={ 2,-2,4,6} Co-domain f={ 2,-2,4,6} Thus it is clear that the range is a subset of the co-domain. In some cases, the range and co-domain may be same. If a function y=f(x) satisfies f(-x)=f(x) for all values of x, then y=f(x) is called an even function. NOTE:

As an even function satisfies f(x)=f(-x), f(x) possess the same value for values of x which are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. For example, f(-1)=f(1), f(-2)=f(2), f(-3)=f(3),... Therefore graph of an even function is symmetrical about y-axis i.e left half is mirror image of right half and right half is mirror image of left half, considering yaxis as the mirror.
Illustrating the concept: 1) Consider f(x)= x2 f(-x)= (-x)2 =x2 = f(x) Here, f(x) = x2is an even function. Graph of f(x)= x2 is symmetrical about Y axis.

2) Consider f(x)=cos x f(-x)= cos(-x)= cos x =f(x) So, f(-x)= f(x) Hence, f(x)= cos x is an even function. So the graph of f(x)= cos x is symmetrical about Y axis.

If a function y=f(x) satisfies f(-x) = -f(x) for all values of x, then y=f(x) is called an odd function. NOTE:

As an odd function satisfies , f(-x)= -f(x), f(x) possess values equal in magnitude but opposite in sign for all values of x which are also equal in magnitude but with opposite signs. For example: f(-1)= -f(1), f(-2)=-f(2), f(-3)=-f(3), ... Therefore graph of an odd function is symmetrical about origin i.e if we rotate the graph in the right half about origin through 180 degrees, then we get graph in left half.
Illustrating the concept: 1) Consider f(x)=x3 f(-x)=(-x)3 =-x3=-f(x) So f(x) satisfies f(-x)=-f(x) Hence f(x)=x3 is an odd function.

2) Consider f(x)=sin x f(-x)= sin(-x) = -sin x =-f(x) Hence f(x)= sin x is an odd function.

So the graph of f(x)= sin x is symmetrical about the origin.

Note: As graph is symmetrical about origin, left half of the graph can be drawn by taking the reflection of
the right half in both X axis as well as Y axis.

Right half of f(x)=x3

Reflection of right half in Y axis.

Reflection of the reflected part in X axis.

1) Sum: a) even + even =even b) even +odd = neither even nor odd c) odd + even = neither even nor odd d) odd + odd = odd 2) Difference: a)even -even = even b)even - odd = neither even nor odd c)odd-even = neither even nor odd d) odd-odd= odd 3) Product: a) even * even = even b) even * odd =odd c) odd * even =odd d) odd * odd = even 4) Division: a)even /even = even b) even / odd = odd c) odd/even = odd d) odd/ odd = even 5) a) If f(x) +f(-x) =0, then f is an odd function. b) If f(x)- f(-x) =0, then f is an even function. 6) The derivative of an odd function is an even function and the derivative of an even function is an odd function. 7) The square of even or an odd function is always an even function. 8) Any function y= f(x) can be written as y= f(x) = (odd part of f(x) ) + (even part of f(x) ) i.e. y= f(x) = [f(x)-f(-x)]/2 + [f(x) + f(-x)] /2

A function f(x) is said to be periodic function of x, if there exists a positive real number T such that f(x+T) = f(x)

The smallest value of T is called the period of the function. Note: The positive T should be independent of x for f(x) to be periodic. In case T is not independent of x, f(x) is not a periodic function. Definition( Graphically): A function is said to be periodic if its graph repeats itself after a fixed interval and the width of that interval is called period. For example: Graph of f(x) = A sin x repeats itself after an interval of 2, so f(x) = A sin x is periodic with period 2

Standard results on periodic functions: Function 1. sin x, cos x, secn x, cosecn x tann x, cotn x
n n

Period , if n is even 2 if n is odd , n is even or odd

2. 3.

| sin x| , | cos x| | tan x | , | cot x | | secx| , | cosec x|

x= {x} x1/2 , x2 , x3 +2 , etc

4. 5.

1 Period does not exist.

1) If f(x) has period T , then a) c f(x) is periodic with period T. b) f(x+c) is periodic with period T. c) f(x) + c is periodic with period T. d) f(x) -c is periodic with period T. e) If a constant is added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided in the periodic function, period remains the same. f) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period. g) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist. But in case of a trigonometric function since domain and range are restricted and defined, hence inverse exists. 2) If f(x) is periodic with period T, then kf(cx+d) has period T/mod(c) , hence period is affected by coefficient of x only. 3) If f(x) and g(x) are two functions with period T1 and T2 respectively, and h(x) = af(x) + b g(x) , then h(x) has period = LCM of (T1, T2) NOTE: There are some exceptions to the above result: For example: Period of f(x) = |sinx| + |cos x| is /2 instead of Period of f(x) = sin4x + cos4 x is /2 instead of Period of f(x) = |tan x| + |cot x| is /2 instead of

4) If f(x) is a periodic function with period T and g(x) is any function such that range of f is a proper subset of the domain of g, then g(f(x)) is periodic with period T. For example: sin(xHOW TO TAKE LCM: a) LCM of (p/q, r/s, t/u ) = LCM of (p,r,t)/ HCF of (q, s , u) b) LCM of rational with rational is possible. c) LCM of irrational with irrational is possible but LCM of two irrational number of different kind ( for example 23 and 32 ) does not exist d) LCM of rational with irrational is not possible. For example: LCM of , 2, 2 is not possible as , 2 are irrational numbers, whereas 2 is a rational number. ) =sin {x} is periodic with period 1 as {x} is periodic with period 1.