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Department of Management Studies

ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is derived from two Greek words: Ergon means work and Nomoi means natural laws. Hence, ergonomists study human capabilities in relationship to work demands. Scope and concern of Ergonomics: Ergonomics deals with the human factors that affect the work efficiency of the employees and their quality of production. It is the scientific application of designing a workplace wherein the employees can interact safely with the workplaces equipment. Also called biotechnology or human engineering, ergonomics is designed to prevent injuries in the workplace and maintain comfort among employees. Ergonomics aims to achieve two objectives: health maintenance and consistent productivity. In ergonomics, the design of the work area is tailored to how the pieces of equipment are to be used. The equipment, on the other hand, is designed in such a way that an employee can use it safely and comfortably. The ergonomic expert has to consider the users capabilities, limitations, and work routine to achieve the best fit between the equipment and the users. Different Aspect of Ergonomics: Human Factor: This is psychological aspect, which deals with human error. Ergonomics Aspect: This is physiological aspect, which deals with fatigue of human.

Stress and Strain Concept in context of industry: Stress refers to some undesirable condition, circumstances, task or other factors that effect on individual. Causes of stress: Type of job. Complexity of the job. Duration of the job. Timing of the job. Physical Environment: Heat, Noise & Vibration, Dust, Illumination. Psychological Social Environment: Leaders guideline, Co-ordination with coworkers. The reduction of stress can be done by proper designing and modification of work equipment, work environment, changing work schedule or other means.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Physiological

Department of Management Studies

Job demands+ Job Stress= Workers Strain. Strain is due to too much stress on an individual. More strain causes more human error. Effect of strain on human body: Abnormal changes in blood pressure. Abnormal changes in heart rate. Abnormal changes in body temperature. Abnormal changes in respiratory rate. Handling of strain depends on individuals capability. Workers Strain Jobs stress.

Assessment of human capabilities & limitations: Human being as information receiver Human Eye: Components of Human Eye: The eye is made up of three coats, enclosing three transparent structures. The outermost layer is composed of the cornea and sclera. The middle layer consists of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its circulation from the vessels of the choroid as well as the retinal vessels, which can be seen in an ophthalmoscope. Within these coats are the aqueous humor , the vitreous body, and the flexible lens. The aqueous humor is a clear fluid that is contained in two areas: the anterior chamber between the cornea and the iris and exposed area of the lens; and the posterior chamber, behind the iris and the rest. The lens is suspended to the ciliary body by the suspensory ligament (Zonule of Zinn), made up of fine transparent fibers. The vitreous body is a clear jelly that is much larger than the aqueous humor, and is bordered by the sclera, zonule, and lens. They are connected via the pupil.

Accommodation: A change in the curvature of the lens in order to adjust light rays coming from different distances to be focused on retina. Accommodation is the process by which the vertebrate eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image (focus) on an object as its distance changes. Accommodation is carried out by the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens contracting. This narrows the diameter of the ciliary body, relaxes the fibers of the suspernsory ligament, and allows the lens to relax into a more convex shape. A more convex lens refracts light more strongly and focuses divergent light rays onto the retina allowing for closer objects to be brought into focus.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color differentiation and the perception of depth. Rod cells, or rods, are concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and works as low light photoreceptor. Cone cells, or cones, are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for color vision; they function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells that work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea, but gradually become sparser towards the periphery of the retina. Activation of cones is very faster than rods.

Adaptation: In ocular physiology, adaptation is the ability of the eye to adjust to various levels of darkness and light. Changes in the sensitivity of rods and cones in the eye are the major contributors to dark adaptation. Rods are more sensitive to light and so take longer to fully adapt to the change in light. Rods, whose photo pigments regenerate more slowly, do not reach their maximum sensitivity for about half an hour. Cones take approximately 910 minutes to adapt to the dark. Bright light adaption is quicker than dark adaption.
Dark Adaptation Bright Light Adaptation Dark

Human Being as Information processor: Memory: In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Processes of memory: From information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory: Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information) Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity) Short-term Memory: Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 72 items memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 215), then a three-digit chunk (123) and lastly a four-digit chunk (4567). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

Long-term Memory: Long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. The information in short-term memory can be transferred into long term memory by repetition. Long term memory is imperfect in nature. Working memory gives back information in the same form as it was stored but Long term memory cant able to give back the same information due to emotion, experience constraints.

Attention: Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources. Focused Attention: Concentration on one or few channels of information and not distracted by other channels of information is known as focused attention. Example: Listening voice of someone in a crowd. This is advantageous in decision making. Divided Attention: This is the highest level of attention and it refers to the ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands. This type of sharing is also referred as timesharing. Example: Driving a car while talking to someone simultaneously. Performance of one or more of the tasks often decline. Human as Decision Maker: People give undue importance to early evidence or information. People dont extract as much information as they should extract. People often treat all the information as if it were of equal reliability. People tend to seek information that confirms the chosen course of action & avoid information, whose outcome contradicts the chosen course of action.

Human being as Decision Taker: Response Time

Reaction Time

Movement Time

Stimulus Reception Time

Processing Time

Time taken in selection of Action

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

Reaction time: It is time taken from onset of stimulus to the finalization of decision is called reaction time.

Factors which affect reaction time are: Stimulus modality: Reaction time to auditory stimuli is faster than visual stimuli. auditory More discriminable the stimulus, shorter the reaction time. Repetition tends to reduce the reaction time.

Movement Time: Time taken in execution of decision is called movement time. Factors which affect movement time: Distance to move. Movement by leg or hand (movement of leg is faster than hands). Preferred movement (By Right/Left Hand/Leg).

Importance of Response time in work system design Human Cognitive Reliability Correlation (HCR) is based on the premise that an operators likelihood of success or failure in a time critical task is dependent on the cognitive process used time-critical to make the critical decisions that determine the outcome. Three Performance Shaping Factors (PSFs) Operator Experience, Stress Level, and Quality of Operator/Plant Interface - also xperience, influence the average (median) time taken to perform the task. Combining these factors enables response-time curves to be calibrated and compared to the available time to perform the task. Using these curves, the analyst can then estimate the likelihood that an operator will take the correct action, as required by a given stimulus (e.g. pressure warning signal), within the available signal) time window. Workstations are usually designed for the 5th to 95th percentile values of the anthropometric data of concerned workforce. Why? Percentiles are shown in anthropometry tables and they tell you whether the measurement given g in the tables relates to the 'average' person, or someone who is above or below average in a certain dimension. If you look at the heights of a group of adults, you'll probably notice that most of them look about the same height. A few may be noticeably taller and a few may be noticeably noticeably

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

shorter. This 'same height' will be near the average (called the 'mean' in statistics) and is shown in anthropometry tables as the fiftieth percentile, often written as '50th %ile'. This means that it is the most likely height in a group of people. If we plotted a graph of the heights (or most other dimensions) of our group of people, it would look similar to this: First, notice that the graph is symmetrical so that 50% of people are of average height or taller, and 50% are of average height or smaller. The graph tails off to either end, because fewer people are extremely tall or very short. To the left of the average, there is a point known as the 5th percentile, because 5% of the people (or 1 person in 20) is shorter than this particular height. The same distance to the right is a point known as the 95th percentile, where only 1 person in 20 is taller than this height. Usually, you will find that if you pick the right percentile, 95% of people will be able to use your design. For instance, if you were choosing a door height, you would choose the dimension of people's height (often called 'stature' in anthropometry tables) and pick the 95th percentile value in other words, you would design for the taller people. You wouldn't need to worry about the average height people, or the 5th percentile ones they would be able to fit through the door anyway. At the other end of the scale, if you were designing an aeroplane cockpit, and needed to make sure everyone could reach a particular control, you would choose 5th percentile arm length because the people with the short arms are the ones who are most challenging to design for. If they could reach the control, everyone else (with longer arms) would be able to. Explain the concept of Circadian Rhythm and its role in shift working system: A circadian rhythm is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed in plants, animals,fungi and cyanobacteria. The term circadian comes from the Latin Circa , meaning "around", and diem or dies, meaning "day". Permanent Shift: Least or No effect on circadian rhythm. Whether it is night shift or day shift, the person get adjusted with the life. Night shift is harmful (specially for female worker), which affects the metabolism of the worker and also leads to sleep debt.

Rapidly Rotating Shift: There is no such significant effect on circadian rhythm of the worker. Worker can maintain social life as well.

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

Slowly Rotating Shift: It adversely affect the circadian rhythm of the worker (Since for changing the circadian rhythm at least 7-10 days are required (Sleeping at night Working at night or vice versa) and shift will change at that point). Frequent change in in circadian rhythm causes deterioration like sleep debt, digestive problem, internal bleeding etc. Productivity of worker reduced. Concentration power also decreases which leads to accidents.

Metabolism Process: Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

Glycolysis:("splitting of sugar"): This step happens in the cytoplasm: One Glucose

(C6H12O6) is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. Results in the production of 2 ATPs for every glucose. Transition Reaction: Pyruvic Acid is shuttled into the mitochondria, where it is converted to a molecule called Acetyl CoA for further breakdown. The Krebs Cycle, or Citric Acid Cycle: Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, the liquid-y part of the mitochondria: In the presence of Oxygen gas (O2), all the hydrogens (H2) are stripped off the Acetyl CoA, two by two, to extract the electrons for making ATP, until there are no hydrogens left - and all that is left of the sugar is CO2 - a waste product - and H2O (exhale). The Krebs cycle results in the production of only ~4 ATPs, but produces a lot of NADH, which will go on to the next step. The Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis ("the big ATP payoff"). Occurs in the christae of the mirochondria, the folded membranes inside the chloroplast: Electrons from Hydrogen are carried by NADH and passed down an electron transport chain to result in the production of ATP. Results in the production of ~32 ATPs for every glucose. At the onset of physical work (like sprint), muscles doesnt need oxygen. Why? Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of

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Department of Management Studies

fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen. Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose since 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain plenty of energy. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting. Explain the concept of Static and Dynamic effort components in job situations and the actions to be taken to make the job comfortable. Static Efforts: Prolong state of muscles contraction. Cause of more fatigue. Blood circulation becomes slow. Blood flow will reduce. If power requirement in static effort situation is greater than 60% of maximum power then blood flow will be stopped.

Dynamic Efforts: Squeeze the body muscles regularly. Causes less fatigue. Blood circulation is high.

Improving of working method: Removing of static effort activity or convert them in dynamic effort activity. Make rearrangement of the activities so that dynamic effort activity & static effort activity should come in alternate manner. There should be small rest period in between static effort activities. Power requirement in static effort activities should not exceed 20% of the maximum power.

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Department of Management Studies

O2 Uptake:

For 8 hour job situation, O2 uptake should not exceed 33% of VO2 (Max.). For 1 hour job situation, O2 uptake should not exceed 60% of VO2 (Max.). O2 uptake in order to perform any job is equal to energy cost of the job. 1 Litre/Minute O2 uptake is equivalent to 4.92 (or 5.00) Kcal/Minute.

Measurement of VO2 (Max.): Step testing Method: Instruments Required: Small bench or chair (height<=40CM). Up down activities 20-25 cycles/minute. Oxylog for measurement of O2 consumption. Telemetry System of Heart Rate Measurement.

Procedure: Selection of the subject. Subject should not have hypertension problem. Representative of the group (represents the entire group). Person should be highly motivated. Assign job, need to be continued till exhausts with normal pace i.e. 20-25 cycles per minute. Note down in every minute Heart Rate and Oxygen consumption.

Observation Table: Time 0 minute 1 minute 2 minutes . . Heart Rate ---H1 H2 . .

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

O2 Consumed ---O1 O2 . .

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Department of Management Studies

Graph: Y X= O2 Consumption (in litre) Y= Heart Rate (220-Age of the subject) 200 Best fit Line 100

X 1 2 3 4 5

For most of the person, O2 uptake level will reach at its maximum level at 220-Age of the subject.

Advantages of Step testing Method: Very simple and can be organized in field situation. In case of interruption of the job in between due to the exhaustion, there also it may be possible to evaluate VO2 (max.).

Disadvantages: It may not give accurate VO2 (max.) due to the assumption of 220-Age of subject.

Sub-maximal Method: Instruments Required: Treadmill or bicycle ergo meter. Oxylog

Procedure: Selection of the subject. Subject should not have hypertension problem. Representative of the group (represents the entire group). Person should be highly motivated, because termination of experiment in between will not give any useful result.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

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Department of Management Studies

Set load to 300 kg-m/minute. And tell the person to start job for 3 minutes. Set load to 600 kg-m/minute. And tell the person to start job for 3 minutes. Set load to 900 kg-m/minute. And tell the person to start job for 3 minutes. Set load to 1200 kg-m/minute. And tell the person to start job for 3 minutes. After terminating point, in spite of increasing effort O2 consumption will not increase. At this point take the reading of O2 uptake, it will give the value of VO2 (max.)

Graph:

Advantages of Sub-maximal Method: Give accurate value of VO2 (max.).

Disadvantages: If it is not continue till terminating point, there may not be conclusion.

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

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Department of Management Studies

Why Rest Allowance is required? For recover from fatigue. Regain energy (When reserve energy exhausted then rest period will give time to regain energy).

Factors considered for rest allowances: What should be the working time after which rest period is required? What should be the duration of rest?

Suggestion about rest analysis: American Industrial Hygiene Association:

W-1.5 4.0

Rest time (%) =

-1

X 100

Where W= Energy cost of the Job. 1.5 Kcal/min = 1.5 =Basal Energy Requirement (Minimum energy requirement for own existence). By observing above formula we can say that rest time is required only when energy cost of the job is more than 5.5 Kcal/min. Example: If energy cost of the job is 6.5 Kcal/min. Then rest time % calculated by above formula is 62.5%, which means when a subject worked for 10 minutes then he required 6.25 minutes of rest period. Given by Dr. K. Murnel:

Rest time =

Tx(W-5) W-1.5

Where T = Working time. W = Energy cost of the Job. By observing above formula we can say that rest time is required only when energy cost of the job is more than 5 Kcal/min.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

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Department of Management Studies

Example: If working time is 10 minutes and energy cost of the job is 8 Kcal/min then rest period comes 4.65 min. Given by E. Muller: Every person has maximum reserve energy as 25 KCal. This energy can only be utilized if the job demands exceed 5 KCal/min (W). During rest, one can regain energy at rate of 5 KCal/min. (Out of which 1.5 KCal/min is for basal energy requirement). Therefore effective energy regain = 3.5 KCal/min. We regain 5KCal/min whether we are working or not (from digestion & other activies). Rest time should provide to recover maximum reserve energy. Rest period is of 7 to 8 minute is necessary. Woking time can be calculated as

Working Time =

25 W-5

Example: If energy cost of the job is 6 KCal/min then working time calculated from above formula is 25 min. It means that subject require rest after working period of 25 min and rest period should be of 7 to 8 min. Arrangement of rest period is more important than total rest period. Justify. According to Dr. E. Muller, every person has maximum reserve energy as 25 KCal, which can be utilised if energy cost of job is more than 5 KCal/min. During rest, an individual can regain his/her maximum reserve energy within 7 to 8 minutes (by cellular respiration and other things). Working time can be calculated according to required energy cost of the job, after that subject will require rest period of 7 to 8 min. The rest time after 7 to 8 minutes is not useful for regaining the energy, so after that rest time is not useful from point of efficient use of Human Resource. Therefore arrangement of rest period is more important than total rest period for effective and efficient use of Human Resource.
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad