DASAR TEORI

Alluvial fan Alluvial fans are cone-shaped deposits of coarse stream sediments, sheet-flood deposits, and debris flows that form where a narrow canyon stream suddenly disgorges into a flat valley. Unlike most systems, fans are distinguished on the basis of geomorphic character rather than by a characteristic fluvial style. Alluvial fans are recognized as sensitive recorders of the evolution of piedmont basins and their margins (e.g. Heward 1978; Nemec & Postma 1993; Blair & McPherson 1994; Lloyd et al. 1998). Alluvial fans constitute a widespread facies in intramontane basins due to strong local uplift and subsidence along faults within actively deforming orogens. Alluvial fans generally form in settings where a hinterland with a steep relief lies adjacent to a lower gradient basin, separated by a strong change in the slope gradient, for example by a synsedimentary active fault (Heward 1978). Fans in intramontane settings show a high degree of diversity because of complex basin geometries, contrasting source areas over short distances, and different tectonic movements that influence fan geomorphology and facies. Modern alluvial fans are most common in areas of high relief, such as the bases of mountain ranges, or downslope of major fault scarps. In both of these cases, there is an abundant supply of sediment readily available to flux into the fan environment. Arid or semi-arid environments, where there is less vegetation to slow sediment transport (and precipitation is often delivered in short, violent bursts) are particularly favorable to fan formation. Fans that build into standing bodies of water are called fan deltas.

Most fans can be divided into three basic parts Morphology: upper, mid, and distal. 1. The upper fan, or proximal fan, has the steepest slope (as much as 15) and the coarsest sediments. It is generally comprised of fanglomerates and channel sands and is dominated by high velocity channel and debris-flow deposition. Streamflow is often confined to a single, entrenched channel 2. The midfan is characterized by a gentler slope (~5) and sediment of more moderate size (pebbly sands and coarse sands dominating). Narrow, branching channels and sheetfloods dominate depositional processes Fan sheetflood deposits can be easily distinguished from the debris-flow deposits. The sheetflood deposits consist of finingupward sequences of moderately sorted and imbricated pebbly sandstones (Nichols, 1999). 3. In the distal fan or fanbase, slopes are much shallower (~1) and sedimentation is dominated by flood processes and deposits. The distal fan environment, at the toe of the fan, is grading into the non-fan environments downslope of the toe Proximal settings: Texturally immature, very coarse-grained, angular-subrounded clasts. Conglomerates, matrix supported clasts-supported fabrics. Unstable minerals present [f (source rock)] = compositionally immature (usually) Debris flow deposits: massive, un-bedded, very poorly sorted, mud matrix. Usually there is a confined permanent channel that may contain an intermittent stream Distal settings on alluvial fans.

Better

sorting (sands can be well sorted), fine-grained. Sandstones dominate with thin gravel layers in channels. Minor mudstones possible. Unstable minerals still present, but amount depended on climate and source composition. Main channel branches into many side channels (braided channels). Periodic rainfall produces sheet flows over the flat surface and mudflows can occur.

Diagram above shows general depositional model for ancient alluvial fans developed based on Devonian examples of Norway. From Stell and Gloppen (1980). Types alluvial fans Stanistreet and McCarthy (1993) recognized three types of alluvial fan geometries. debris-flow-dominated fans braided fluvial fans low-sinuosity/meandering fluvial fans

Debris- flow dominated Poorly sorted Pebbles, gravels, boulders dominate No sedimentary structures Possibly reverse graded bedding in base Flow is initiated when strength is exceeded Freezes after short distance Although some travel up to 24 km (Sharp and Nobles, 1953) Mud- flow dominated Similar but sand and muds dominate According to Wells & Harvey (1987) debris-flowdominated successions are typical for alluvial fans with relatively small catchment areas and high slope gradients. Maximum slope gradients may be estimated as 28 based on comparable debrisflow- dominated recent fans. Streamflow processes dominate Stream- channel sediments Long narrow bodies of coarsest materials

Poorly sorted Sediments settle out of suspension VERY high sediment load Deposit gravels even! Very coarse grains are deposited (> sand) Fines (and water) settle through

Sheetflood deposits

Sieve deposits

Move downslope, from coarse to fine grain Low sediment supply: scoured between systems High sediment supply: continuous transition to braided streams, then meanders Fluvial Facies Means by which sediment is transferred across the land surface towards its eventual resting place (Collinson, 1996). Characteristics of streams gradient- water flows downhill increase slope, increase velocity Three styles of flow alluvial fan- debris accumulates at base of slope braided stream- high bedload; multiple channels meandering stream Fluvial Processes- Transport/Deposition Debris flow Bedload Suspended load

Figure. Alluvial fan sheetflood deposits compared with debris flows. After G. Nichols,

Sedimentology & Stratigraphy, Blackwell

Alluvial fan architecture Alluvial fan deposits tend to be poorly sorted and very coarse, usually gravel and cobble sizes dominate. All fans have basically the same general form and the same general features (e.g., an active channel, old channels that are no longer active, an apex, a toe).

KONGLOMERAT Tekstur

Ortokonglomerat - sokongan butiran Parakonglomerat - sokongan lumpur/matrik Polimiktik - klasnya terdiri daripada beberapa jenis batuan

Komposisi

Oligomiktik - klasnya terdiri daripada satu jenis batuan Intraformasi - klas berasal daripada lembangan pengendapan yang sama Ekstraformasi - klas berasal / dibawa daripada luar lembangan pengendapan

Asal

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