CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY

EUREKA ELECTROSOFT SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD (EESPL)

..making IT happen Augmentation is a dream virtue of every performer we at EESPL envisaged on a theme for providing a new epitome of IT solutions in the embedded Telecom & Software based Product development services. Our edge right from the start was creating a perceptible differentiation among the plethora of communized IT solutions. EESPL - where progress is a winning habit Eureka ElectroSoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. (EESPL) is primarily operating as a registered R & D lab for the development and conception of Advanced Automation related software and hardware solutions. Our expertise includes electronics and software based stand alone solutions as well as combined integrated solutions termed as Electrosoft Solutions. At EESPL over the years we have developed a core competency to maximize the quality & innovation parameter while working on any task. Our proven values have made us as a prime leader in providing customized solutions. EESPL the background and essence of operations The year 2002 witnessed the birth of a visualization which was to impart economy with a pinnacle swiftness of innovation in contemporary Industrial IT Solutions. There came EESPL and a new chapter of imparting excellence in IT techniques came into subsistence. That was the foundation and today the road voyaged by EESPL encompasses years of reliance, accomplishments and above all unlimited bonds. Bonds that speak for themselves, relationships that reflect factual progress. Triumph at EESPL is defined as the never ending smile on our dear customers face. At EESPL we do not impart conception, we create endearing teams. Indulging within minds, Imparting technologies Understanding the pulsation of a customer forms our principal challenge. Assurances that mean results, efforts that capitulate advancement and outcomes that move imaginings form the spirit of our day after day working. Timeliness is of chief value to us and understanding the modern day race for time, we deliver the maximum in minimum and that too with precision. Our approach of operation also constitutes of a dedicated Registered Research and Development lab to make available the final deliverables with thread bare technologies. Our precedence is often devised on the scale of our customers desires. After carefully analyzing on the need based approach we craft a well planned set of operations each fragment is build with an in depth focus on customers requirements.

Vision & Mission:

Our corporate vision is to provide a fully functional IT platform to all complex tasks thereby inducing a greater sense of effectiveness and to consistently create value for money, by providing solutions which enable our customers to achieve excellence and sustainable competitive edge. Mission target Our mission statement is to provide endearing technologies of future in the present era and for that we are committed to develop innovative and the most valuable solutions to our customers as our motto is Changing Ideas into Reality. Our Core Values: Innovation Flexibility is the key to our offerings, and intrinsic to this flexibility, is the spirit of Innovation that we bring to our products and services - from the very first stage of design to implementation and customer support. Competence At EESPL we always pride ourselves on the vision, skills, expertise and professionalism of our team. Our team members make use of their keen Competence to foresee industry trends and meet demanding customer needs. And the working of their collective minds in a highly supportive environment ensures that our products and services retain a competitive edge at all times. Quality Objectives Quality forms the basis of our work culture. To impart the right and the leading technology, we follow the most rigorous norms. Each of our product stage goes through multi check points. Every possible situation is thought of and a remedial action is built in. The presence of our dedicated Quality Analysis team makes sure that the minutest details are met with precision. We fully understand the global quality perspective and we follow in tandem with the same. QUALITY TESTING Extensive industry exposure, expanded skills and comprehensive experience in executing key projects for reputed global companies enable us to bring world-class technology, true-value professional expertise & immense knowledge of successful project management. Quality Assurance is one of the key focus areas and once a solution is developed, our Software Testing Team steps in to perform the rigorous rituals, required to deliver a robust, flawless product/application. Software testing at Olive is performed at several points in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), as an application is constructed component by component into a functioning system. Our qualified testers carry out intense testing for bugs and flaws and fix the same - all within the strictest time frame.

Eureka Embedded & Advanced Software Trainings (EEAST)

Preparing the Visionaries of Tomorrow Today

Right from origin Eureka Electrosoft Solutions emerged as a futurist leader in industrial, corporate training and engineering project assistance. Covering the grounds of embedded and advanced software technologies it was aptly christened as ElectroSoft Embedded & Advanced Software Technologies (EEAST). EEAST is a name to reckon with for the engineering project guidance workshops and trainings. In trainings the foremost emphasis is laid on covering the gap between the theoretical and real practical aspects of the technology. What is done by mind is seldom forgotten, but, what is done by hand is remembered a lifetime. Based on this principle our Training & Project oriented workshops create a foundation of real time project based culture. All this goes a long way in creating learning by doing methodology wherein the wisdom is mastered perfectly. Since the invent of copious training kits and development boards is completely in-house, hence there is no dearth of functional training resources. Provision flexible training modules ranging from one month to six months durations, provide a success oriented launch pad. Each module is carefully crafted to nurture the students with practical aspects as well as the theoretical concepts which they have harvested during the general curriculum process. In campus and corporate trainings also form the serviceable phase of EEAST.

CHAPTER 2 TRAINING MODULE

CHAPTER 2.1 POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION

Transformer

Bridge Rectifier

Shunt Capacitor

Voltage Regulator

The power supply circuit comprises of four basic parts: The transformer steps down the 220V a/c. into 12V a/c. The transformer work on the principle of magnetic induction, where two coils: primary and secondary are wound around an iron core. The two coils are physically insulated from each other in such a way that passing an a/c. current through the primary coil creates a changing voltage in the primary coil and a changing magnetic field in the core. This in turn induces a varying a/c. voltage in the secondary coil. The a/c. voltage is then fed to the bridge rectifier. The rectifier circuit is used in most electronic power supplies is the single-phase bridge rectifier with capacitor filtering, usually followed by a linear voltage regulator. A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into a non-zero average value. A rectifier transforms alternating current into direct current by limiting or regulating the direction of flow of current. The output resulting from a rectifier is a pulsating D.C. voltage. This voltage is not appropriate for the components that are going to work through it. 7805
1N4007 12-0-12 V 1000uF O/P 16 V TRANSFORMER

The ripple of the D.C. voltage is smoothened using a filter capacitor of 1000 microF 25V. The filter capacitor stores electrical charge. If it is large enough the capacitor will store charge as the

voltage rises and give up the charge as the voltage falls. This has the effect of smoothing out the waveform and provides steadier voltage output. A filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and the d.c voltage is obtained across the capacitor. When this capacitor is used in this project, it should be twice the supply voltage. When the filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor must be short and the RC discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no discharge. When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the positive peak, the rectifier output voltage starts to fall but at this point the capacitor has +Vm voltage across it. Since the source voltage becomes slightly less than Vm, the capacitor will try to send current back through the diode of rectifier. This reverse biases the diode. The diode disconnects or separates the source the source form load. The capacitor starts to discharge through load. This prevents the load voltage from falling to zero. The capacitor continues to discharge until source voltage becomes more than capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak value Vm. When capacitor is charging the rectifier supplies the charging through capacitor branch as well as load current, the capacitor sends currents through the load. The rate at which capacitor discharge depends upon time constant RC. The longer the time constant, the steadier is the output voltage. An increase in load current i.e. decrease in resistance makes time constant of discharge path smaller. The ripple increase and d.c output voltage V dc decreases. Maximum capacity cannot exceed a certain limit because the larger the capacitance the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor. The voltage regulator regulates the supply if the supply if the line voltage increases or decreases. The series 78xx regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. An unregulated input voltage is applied at the IC Input pin i.e. pin 1 which is filtered by capacitor. The out terminal of the IC i.e. pin 3 provides a regular output. The third terminal is connected to ground. While the input voltage may vary over some permissible voltage range, and the output voltage remains constant within specified voltage variation limit. The 78xx ICs are positive voltage regulators whereas 79xx ICs are negative voltage regulators. These voltage regulators are integrated circuits designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications. These regulators employ current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output currents in excess of 1 A. These regulators have internal thermal overload protection. It uses output transistor safe area compensation and the output voltage offered is in 2% and 4% tolerance.

CHAPTER 2.1 LED INTERFACING

LED Interfacing
Like a normal diode, an LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for an LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED efficiency. The refractive index of the package material should match the index of the semiconductor, otherwise the produced light gets partially reflected back into the semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat, thus lowering the efficiency. This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED is coupled to a medium with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air. The refractive index of most LED semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all cases the LED is coupled into a much lower-index medium. The large index difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients), and this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is reflected back at the LEDpackage and package-air interfaces. The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a domeshaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. An anti-reflection coating may be added as well. The package may be cheap plastic, which may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted. Other strategies for reducing the impact of the interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and reemit the reflected light (called photon recycling) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface to reduce the reflectance, either by introducing random roughness or by creating programmed moth eye surface patterns. Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, producing the following colors: Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) red and infrared Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) green

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) high-brightness orange-red, orange, yellow, and green Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) red, orange-red, orange, and yellow Gallium phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green Gallium nitride (GaN) green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue also white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate blue Silicon (Si) as substrate blue (under development) Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate blue Zinc selenide (ZnSe) blue Diamond (C) ultraviolet Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN), aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) near to far ultraviolet (down to 210 nm) With this wide variety of colors, arrays of multicolor LEDs can be designed to produce unconventional color patterns.

Circuit Diagram

D L D L D L D L D L D L D L D L E E E E E E E E

1 D 2 D 3 D 4 D 5 D 6 Y D C 7 D 8 D C C R ? A Y P S N T A P R R 1 L ? 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 U P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

V C C

4 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 / / / / / / / / A A A A A A A A D D D D D D D D P0 P1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 . 0 2 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 / / / / / / 2 /2A /2A A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A 1 2 8 3 9 41 51 61 71 81 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 0 / T 2 P 3 . 0 / R 1 1X D / T 2 P E 3 X . 1 / T1 X2 D P 3 . 2 / I N 3T O 1 P 3 . 3 / I 1N 4 T 1 P 3 . 4 / 1T 5O P 3 . 5 /1 T 6 1 P 3 . 6 / W 7 R 1 P 3 . 7 / R D P A P 2 L E S / P E 2 9 N 3 0 R O G

1 9 1 8 X T A L 1 X T A L 2 9 R S T 3 1 A E A / V C P 5

T 8 9

2 0

CHAPTER 2.2 DC MOTOR

Circuit Diagram
1 2 3 M M G O 2 T O R S T E P P E R

V Q 1

2C
P N P 3 6 9 Q 2 Q 3

Q 4 3 6 9

R 4

R 5

4 7 0

o h m

4 U

2 1 5 3

1 6 4 1 7 5

1 8 6 1 9 7 2 0 8

2 1 9 2 2

0 3 1 4

P C

1 O N N E C T O R D B 2 5

D.C. MOTOR
Working Principle: The principle upon which the d.c. motor works is very simple . If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, mechanical force is experienced on the conductor, the direction of which is given by the Fleming's left hand rule and hence the conductor moves in the direction of force. The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the conductor is given by: F = B Ic Lc newtons where B is the field strength in teslas , Ic is the current flowing through the conductor in amperes and Lc is the length of the conductor in metres.

1 2 2 5 1 3

1 1 4

1 2 1 2

When the motor is connected to the d.c. supply mains a direct current passes through the brushes and the commutator to the armature winding ; while it passes through the commutator it is converetd into a.c. so that the group of conductors under successive field poles carry currrent in the opposite direction. Also the direction of the currrent in the individual conductors reverse as they pass away from the influence of one pole to that of the next. The split phase arrangement of the motor creates two fluxes B1and B2 which induces voltage around them in the rotor and under the influence of these induced voltages current flows in the rotor. The current i1 produced by flux B1 reacts with flux B2 and develops force F1.The quantities are going to be expressed as : B1=B1max . sin(wt) B2=B2max . sin(wt + ) It may be assumed with negligible error thet the paths in which the rotor current flow has negligible self-inductance and hence the rotor currents are in phase with their respective voltages. i1(db1/dt)=.B1max.cos wt i2(db2/dt)=K. B2 max.cos (wt +X) Since the two forces (f1and f2 ) developed are in opposition .Therefore the net force F acting on the movable element is given as: F=F2-F1(B2.i1-i2.b1) F=K B1 max.B2 max sin r) EMF Equation: Back EMF, Eb=Flux *ZNP/60A where Z= total number of armature cunductors N= Speed in r.p.m P= total number of poles A= Total number of parallel paths. V= Eb + IaRa Ia= (V - Eb)/Ra where V = Terminal voltage Ia= Armature current Ra= Armature resistance Eb= back e.m.f. Types of D.C. motor: (i) Permanent magnet motors: It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets encircling the armature . Field coils are usually notrequired. However some of these motors do have coils wound on the poles . If they exist , these coils are intended only for recharging the magnets in the event that they loose their strength.

(ii) Seperately excited D.C. motors: These motors have field coils similar to those of a shunt wound machine, but the armature and field coils are fed from diferent supply sources and may have different voltage ratings. (iii) Series wound D.C. motor: As the name indicates, the field coils, consisting of few turns of a thick wire are connected in series with the armature. The crosssectional area of the wire used for the field has to be fairly large to carry the armature current ,but owing to the higher current , the number of turns of wire in them need not be large. (iv) Shunt wound D.C. motor: These motors are so named because they basically operate with field coils connected in parallel with the armature. The field winding consists of a large number of turns of comparatively fine wire so as to provide large resistance. The field current is much less than the armature current, sometimes as low as 5%. (v) Compound wound D.C. motor : A compound wound D.C. motor has both shunt and series field coils. The shunt field is normally stronger of the two. Compound wound motors are of two types:. (a) Cumalative compound wound motor. (b) Differential compound wound motor.

CHAPTER 2.1 RELAY

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC solenoid valve

Figure no 2.15: Electromagnetic Solenoid Valve

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energised, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetised. The magnetised core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energised the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energised from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil.

As there are always some chances of high voltage spikes back from the switching circuit i.e. heater so an optocoupler/isolator MCT2e is used. It provides and electrical isolation between the microcontroller and the heater. MCT2e is a 6-pin IC with a combination of optical transmitter LED and an optical receiver as phototransistor. Microcontroller is connected to pin no 2 of MCT2e through a 470-ohm resistor. Pin no.1 is given +5V supply and pin no.4 is grounded. To handle the current drawn by the heater a power transistor BC-369 is used as a current driver. Pin no.5 of optocoupler is connected to the base of transistor. It takes all its output to V cc and activates the heater through relay circuit. The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energised the armature and contacts are released. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil. Relay has five points. Out of the 2 operating points one is permanently connected to the ground and the other point is connected to the collector side of the power transistor. When Vcc reaches the collector side i.e. signal is given to the operating points the coil gets magnetized and attracts the iron armature. The iron plate moves from normally connected (NC) position to normally open (NO) position. Thus the heater gets the phase signal and is ON. To remove the base leakage voltage when no signal is present a 470-ohm resistance is used.

Circuit diagram
phase D11 1 V CC R2 2 MCT2E 6 5 4 3 1 2 R4 BC-369 V CC RELA Y J4 5 NC 4 NO 1 2 HEA TER

From P3.0 of microcon troller

CHAPTER 2.1 STEPPER MOTOR

STEPPER MOTOR
Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on either speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. Stepper motor is a form of ac. motor .The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied [39]. For every input pulse, the motor shaft turns through a specified number of degrees, called a step. Its working principle is one step rotation for one input pulse. The range of step size may vary from 0.72 degree to 90 degree. In position control application, if the number of input pulses sent to the motor is known, the actual position of the driven job can be obtained. A stepper motor differs from a conventional motor (CM) as under: a. Input to SM is in the form of electric pulses whereas input to a CM is invariably from a constant voltage source. b. A CM has a free running shaft whereas shaft of SM moves through angular steps. c. In control system applications, no feedback loop is required when SM is used but a feedback loop is required when CM is used. d. A SM is a digital electromechanical device whereas a CM is an analog electromechanical device [40].

Open Loop Operation One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop system. Open loop control means no feedback information about position is

needed. This type of control eliminates the need for expensive sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Control position is known simply by keeping track of the input step pulses [39]. Every stepper motor has a permanent magnet rotor (shaft) surrounded by a stator. The most common stepper motor has four stator windings that are paired with a center-tapped common. This type of stepper motor is commonly referred to as a four- phase stepper motor. The center tap allows a change of current direction in each of two coils when a winding is grounded, thereby resulting in a polarity change of the stator. Notice that while a conventional motor shaft runs freely, the stepper motor shaft moves in a fixed repeatable increment which allows one to move it to a precise position. This repeatable

Fig 3.20: Rotor Alignment

fixed movement is possible as a result of basic magnetic theory where poles of the Same polarity repel and opposite poles attract. The direction of the rotation is dictated by the stator poles. The stator poles are determined by the current sent through the wire coils. As the direction of the current is changed, the polarity is also changed causing the reverse motion of the rotor. The stepper motor used here has a total of 5 leads: 4 leads representing the four stator windings and 1 common for the center tapped leads. As the sequence of power is applied to each stator winding, the rotor will rotate. There are several widely used sequences where each has a different degree of precision. Table shows the normal 4-step sequence. For clockwise go for step 1 to 4 & for counter clockwise go for step 4 to 1.

W i n d i n g W i n d i n g

A1 2 3 B

W i n d i n g

6 W Ci n d i n g

Fig 3.21: Stator Windings Configuration

Step 1 2 3 4

Winding A 0 1 1 1

Winding B 1 0 1 1

Winding C 1 1 0 1

Winding D 1 1 1 0

Table 3.6: Input Sequence to the Windings

Step Angle & Steps per Revolution Movement associated with a single step, depends on the internal construction of the motor, in particular the number of teeth on the stator and the rotor. The step angle is the minimum degree of rotation associated with a single step. Step per revolution is the total number of steps needed to rotate one complete rotation or 360 degrees (e.g., 180 steps * 2 degree = 360) [31]. Since the stepper motor is not ordinary motor and has four separate coils, which have to be energized one by one in a stepwise fashion. We term them as coil A, B, C and D. At a particular instant the coil A should get supply and then after some delay the coil B should get a supply and then coil C and then coil D and so on the cycle continues. The more the delay is introduced between the energizing of the coils the lesser is the speed of the stepper motor and vice versa.

Circuit diagram

1 2 3

M M

G O

2 T O

T E

V Q 1

2C
P N P 3 6 9 Q 2 Q 3

Q 4 3 6 9

R 4

R 5

4 7 0

o h m

4 U

2 1 5 3

1 6 4 1 7 5

1 8 6 1 9 7 2 0 8

2 1 9 2 2

0 3 1 4

P C

1 O N N E C T O R D B 2 5

1 2 2 5 1 3

1 1 4

1 2 1 2

CHAPTER 2.1 SEVEN SEGAMENT DISPLAY

Seven Segment
The seven-segment LED display has four individual digits, each with a decimal point. Each of the seven segments (and the decimal point) in a given digit contains an individual LED. When a suitable voltage is applied to a given segment LED, current flows through and illuminates that segment LED. By choosing which segments to illuminate, any of the nine digits can be shown. For example, as shown in the figure below, a 2 can be displayed by illuminating segments a, b, d, e, and g.

Seven segment displays come in two varieties - common anode (CA) and common cathode (CC). In a CA display, the anodes for the seven segments and the decimal point are joined into a single circuit node. To illuminate a segment in a CA display, the voltage on a cathode must be at a suitably lower voltage (about .7V) than the anode. In a CC display, the cathodes are joined together, and the segments are illuminated by bringing the anode voltage higher than the cathode node (again, by about .7V). The Digilab board uses CA displays. The seven LEDs in each digit are labelled a-g. Since the Digilab board uses CA displays, the anodes for each of the four digits are connected in a common node, so that four separate anode circuit nodes exist (one per digit). Similar cathode leads from each digit have also been tied together to form seven common circuit nodes, so that one node exists for each segment type. These four anode and seven cathode circuit nodes are available at the J2 connector pins labelled A1-A4 and CA-CG. With this scheme, any segment of any digit can be driven individually. For example, to illuminate segments b and c in the second digit, the b and c cathode nodes would be brought to a suitable low voltage (by connecting the corresponding circuit node available at the J2

connector to ground), and anode 2 would be brought to a suitable high voltage (by connecting the corresponding circuit node available at the J2 connector to Vdd).

Circuit diagram

CHAPTER 2.1 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

LCD - Liquid Crystal Display

LCD Display

Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are widely used in recent years as compares to LEDs. This is due to the declining prices of LCD, the ability to display numbers, characters and graphics, incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, their by relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD and also the ease of programming for characters and graphics. HD 44780 based LCDs are most commonly used. LCD pin description The LCD discuss in this section has the most common connector used for the Hitatchi 44780 based LCD is 14 pins in a row and modes of operation and how to program and interface with microcontroller is describes in this section.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

G V D D D D D D D D E R R C V G

n d c c 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 / S o c n W

n t r a 2s t c d
1

Fig 3.21 LCD Pin Description Diagram

VCC, VSS, VEE The voltage VCC and VSS provided by +5V and ground respectively while VEE is used for controlling LCD contrast. Variable voltage between Ground and Vcc is used to specify the contrast (or "darkness") of the characters on the LCD screen.

RS (register select) There are two important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is selected, then allowing to user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home etc.. If RS=1, the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD. R/W (read/write) The R/W (read/write) input allowing the user to write information from it. R/W=1, when it read and R/W=0, when it writing. EN (enable) The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high power, a high-to-low pulse must be applied to this pin in order to for the LCD to latch in the data presented at the data pins. D0-D7 (data lines) The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the LCDs internal registers. To displays the letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS =1. There are also command codes that can be sent to clear the display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor. We also use RS =0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to receive the information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W =1 and RS =0, as follows: if R/W =1 and RS =0, when D7 =1(busy flag =1), the LCD is busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept any information. When D7 =0, the LCD is ready to receive new information.

CODES COMMAND TO LCD INSTRUCTION

(HEX) 1 2 4 6 5 7 8 A C E F
10

Register Clear display screen Return home Decrement cursor(shift cursor to left) Increment cursor(shift cursor to right) Shift display right Shift display left Display off, cursor off Display off, cursor on Display on, cursor off Display on, cursor blinking Display on, cursor blinking Shift cursor position to left Shift cursor position to right Shift the entire display to the left Shift the entire display to the right Force cursor to beginning of 1st line Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line 2 line and 5x 7 matrix

14 18 1C 80 C0 38

LCD pin description

Pin 1 2 3 4

Symbol VSS VCC VEE RS

I/O I

Description Ground +5V power supply Power supply to control contrast RS=0 to select command register, RS=1 to select data register.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

R/W E PB0 PB1 DB2 DB3 DB4 DB5 DB6 DB7

I I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

R/W=0 for write, R/W=1 for read Enable The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus

Circuit diagram