Page | 1

8. OBLIQUE BENDING {biaxial bending}

8.1. Definition
A cross section is subjected to oblique bending if the normal stresses {direct stresses}
x
are reduced
in the centroid G to the bending moments M
y
and M
z
.


!!!
- the vectorial senses of the M
y
and M
z
from the fig.,
are the positive ones.
M
y
and M
z
are positive when their resultant M
i
tensions
{stretch} the 1
st
quadrant {of y and z positive}.
!!!
- the vectors M
y
and M
z
are always included in the
cross section plan.

- generally, oblique bending appears simultaneously with
oblique shering, produced by the shear forces T
z
and T
y
. If
the shear forces T
z
=T
y
=0 we discuse about pure oblique
bending.





8.2. Mode of loading
- oblique bending with shering appears in 2 main modes of loading:

a. the loads are applied perpendicular to the torsion axis X, and parallel to the principal
planes xGz and xGy.
- we assume that for a c.s. the significant system of axis of G and C are shown in figure:

!!!
- the forces lines must pass through the shere
center C to avoid the existence of a
supplementary solicitation, called torsion.
Otherwise, if the forces act to a certain
distance from C, they must be reduced in C,
and beside M
y
, M
z
, Tz and T
y
a torsional
moment M
t
will act.

- the vectorial forces P
z
produce T
z
and M
y
. The
forces plan is xCz and the force line is Cz. T
z
will
act in C, M
y
act in G. The neutral axis for
bending is G
y
.
- the forces P
y
produce T
y
and M
z
acting in C,
respectively, G. The forces line is Cy, while the
neutral axis is Gz.





Page | 2


b. the forces act in a plan which pass through the shere centre C (contains x axis), but it is
inclined with an angle with respect to the principal system of axis xGz and xGy.

- this case of loading can be reduced to
decomposing from the bending forces P to the
components with respect to G
y
and G
z
axis.

!!!
- in the 1
st
case of loading, the ration M
y
/M
z
isnt
constant along the bare, so the deformed axis will
be a skew {stramb} curve in space.

- in the 2
nd
case of loading M
y
/M
z
is constant, in
any c.s. so, the deformed axis will be a plane
curve.









8.3. The normal stresses
x
in oblique bending
- we consider the beam loaded by 2 equal forces situated to equal distances from supports and
individual with the angle with respect to z axis. For simplification we consider that the c.s. is double
symmetrical.


P
z
= P* cos
P
y
= P* sin

Page | 3

- similarly, M
z
will produce bending
with the neutral axis G
z
and
x
will be
calculated also with Naviers Formula.

- using the hypothesis from strength of
materials regarding the small
deformation of the construction
members and considering the materials
having a linear elastic behavior we may
superpose the effects of each straight
bending from M
y
and M
z
obtaining the
formula of
x
for oblique bending.

- certainly, in strength calculation we are interested in calculation the max normal stress
xmax
R.
-
xmax
will be produced by M
ymax
and M
zmax
, but taken from the same section.


ex:

- sect.2: dangerous sections for oblique bending

M
ymax
= -P*l

M
zmax
= P*l






dangerous sections:

-sect D:
8
*
2
max
l q
M
y
= oblique
bending


-sect B: 0 =
yaf
M straight
bending





2
*a P
M
y
zaf
=
a P M
y z
*
max
=
Page | 4




- in case of oblique bending we have to determine the position of the neutral axis. This is calculated
equalizing
x
to 0.

0 * * = + = y
I
M
z
I
M
z
z
y
y
x
o


y
I
I
M
M
z
z
y
y
z
* * =
- n.a. equation.

- the neutral axis is a straight line which pass through G and it is inclined with an angle with respect
to G
y
axis.

z = -m*y

m = arctg = arctg
|
|
.
|

\
|
z
y
y
z
I
I
M
M
*

!!! The resultant moment M
i
(the vector) dosent act anymore along the neutral axis.

1 1 1
* * y
I
M
z
I
M
z
z
y
y
x
+ = o


2 2 2
* * y
I
M
z
I
M
z
z
y
y
x
+ = o





Page | 5

9. Oblique shering

9.1. Definition
We have seen in the previous chapter that oblique bending is usually accompanied by oblique
shering which is a solicitation produced by 2 shere forces T
z
and T
y
. Applying the shere forces in the shere
center C, their positive convention is:





- if in oblique bending we can use the super position of
both terms from M
y
and M
z
, in oblique shering its more
difficult to make this super position because any time
we have to write a static moment with respect to n.a. (an
inclined straight line) the distances which appear in
there static moment , are difficult to be calculated.





- easier, we shall calculate separate from T
z
,
respectively T
y
, and finally we shall add this values to find in a
certain point.


- from:
y z
y z T
x z
I b
S T
T
z
*
*
: = ,


- from:
z y
z y T
x y
I b
S T
T
y
*
*
: = ,


y
z
T
x
T
x z
, , , + = !!! with algebric signs

9.2. Oblique shering for rectangular c.s.

From straight shering (T
z
)we know that has a parabolic
variation along the side which is parallel to T
z
, having the
max value in the n.a.:

A
T
z
+ = 5 . 1
max
,


- in a similar manner, from T
y
we shall have also a
parabolic variation of along the side parallel to T
y
, with
the max value
A
T
y
+ = 5 . 1
max
,


Page | 6

- lets represent these variations in a perspective view:

- the max. value of is in the centroid G, but as from T
y
is
xy
, we can only compose these max.
values.

9.3. Double T (I) section made from narrow rectangles


Page | 7

9.4. Symmetrical c.s. with 2 webs (inima)


9.5. The shear center position
The shear center C also named the center of bending torsion and it is the 2
nd
significant point of the
c.s. with respect to C the shear unit stresses are reduced, obtaining the main stresses: the shear forces T
z

and T
y
, respectively the torsional moment M
t
.
- for a double symmetrical c.s., C=G, while for a unit symmetrical c.s., C is on the symmetry axis,

9.5.1. The channel (U) cross section

Page | 8

- we admit that a shear force T
z
pass through the shere center C, and from this shere force we make the
corresponding diagrams,
xz
in the web with linear distribution.
- we calculated all significant values of

2
*
*
2
* *
*
*
2
* *
*
*
8
*
2
* *
*
4
* *
2 2
* * *
* *
*
max
1
max
2
h b
I
T h t b
I t
T
h t b
I d
T
h d h t d
I d
T
h
d
h h
t b
I d
T
I b
S T
y
z
y
z
xy
y
z
xz
y
z
y
z
y z
y z
xz
= =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
,
,
,

- we calculate the resultant R of these diagrams, representing the val. of each diagram R=A

*t ( is
constant on the thickness t of the thin profile)
R proportional in the medium line of each rectangle

( )
2
* *
12
*
2 *
4
*
12
*
12
*
4
* *
* *
2
*
2
*
* *
2
*
12
*
2
* *
* *
2
*
*
*
*
3
2
*
2
* *
*
*
* *
3
2
*
2 3 2 3 3
2
2
3 2 2
1 1 1
max
max
h t b h d h
t
t b h d
I
t h b
I
T
t
b h b
I
T
t
b
R
h d h t b
I
I
d h
h d
I d
I
h
h t b
I d
T
d h R
y
y
z
y
z
xy
y
z
y
z
y
z
xz xz xz
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(
(

+ =
= + =
,
, , ,


- we determine the shear center position from the condition that the torsional moment produced by these
resultants, written with respect to C is O.

(M
t
)
c
=0: -R
1
*+R
2
*h=0

y
I
t h b
R
h R
* 4
* * *
2
1
2
= = q


Page | 9

9.5.2. The calculation steps in finding the shear center position
We admit that for a unit symmetrical c.s. we can calculate the shere center position following the
steps:

1) We position C on the symmetry axis
2) In C we apply a shear force perpendicular to the symmetry axis.
3) From this shear force we draw all diagrams.
4) We calculate all significant value function the constant I=k=const.
5) We calculate the resultant of all diagrams R=ct *T and we position this resultant in the
medium line of each corresponding narrow rectangle taking into account the shear stress
senses.
6) We write the condition that the torsional moment given by these resultants, with respect to C is
0.
(M
t
)
c
=0 in order to avoid a supplement solicitation: the torsion.


Page | 10

10. Bending and axial action(exccentric tension or compression)

10.1. Definition
A c.s. is subjected to bending with axial force if the interior unit stresses

are reduced to: an axial
force N and 2 bending moments M
y
and M
z
.












- the stresses from this fig. will produce oblique bending with
axial force. This case of solicitation can appear when certain
force F parallel to the bare axis G
x
acts in a certain point Q(y
0
; z
0
):





N = F

M
y
= F*Z
0
= N*Z
0


M
z
= F*y
0
= N*y
0


Oblique
bending +
axial for



A particular case of solicitation is the one when 1 bending moment is 0, obtaining straight bending with
axial force.



N = F N = F

M
y
= F*Z
0
M
y
= 0

M
z
= 0 M
z
=F*y
0

straight
bending+N
- all these stresses, M, M
y
, M
z
produce normal stress , which in general appears simultaneously with the
shear stress , produced by T
z
and T
y
. is calculated from oblique shering.
Page | 11


10.2. The calculation of the normal stresses from oblique bending with axial force

We admit a c.s. is subjected by 2 bending moments and an axial force, acting positive.

From statically point of view the same solicitation can be represented assuming the internal stresses N, M
y
,
M
z
are reduced in Q to a axial force N applied to the exentricities y
0
, z
0
(b), distance which must be:

Similar to oblique bending we may superpose these 3 relations, taking into account the hypothesis of the
small deformations and admitting a linear elastic behavior of the material:
y
I
M
z
I
M
A
N
z
z
y
y
x
* * + + = o


|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
+ + =
= =
A
I
y y
A
I
z z
A
N
y
I
y N
z
I
z N
A
N
y N M z N M
z y
x
z y
x
z y
* *
1 *
*
*
*
*
* ; *
0 0
0 0
; 0 0
o
o


In the above relation :

, representing the square of the gyration{inertia} radius:

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
2
0
2
0
* *
1 *
z y
x
i
y y
i
z z
A
N
o


From the above relation, we observe that if y=z=0 {in the centroid G},

, so in the centroid the

normal stress appears only due to the axial force.

Page | 12

10.3. The neutral axis position
It will be determined from the condition that in the n.a.,
x
=0 =>
0
* *
1
2
0
2
0
= + +
z y
i
y y
i
z z

- the equation give the n.a. position, representing the equation of a straight line which doesnt pass
anymore{like in straight or oblique bending} through the centroid G. Thats why the n.a. may intersect the
c.s. (a) dividing it into a tension and compression part, or it may be tangent (b), or outside completely from
the c.s. (c). In these 2 final cases, the normal stresses will have a unique sign (+ or -) depending on the
axial force sign. This situation appears in case of big axial forces.


The n.a. position can be determined from the above equation if we make an turn y=0, respectively
z=0, obtaining the n.a. cuts{taieturi}:
= ; 0 z
0
2
z
i
z
y
n
=

= ; 0 y
0
2
y
i
y
z
n
=

- this means that the n.a. will pass through the points A(y
0
,0) and B(0,z
0
).
( )
( ) + = =
+ = =
A
I
i
N
M
z
A
I
i
N
M
y
z
z
y
y
y
z
2
0
2
0
;
;

- observing the relation of the n.a. cuts, we may conclude that the point of application of the axial excentric
force N, Q(y
o
,z
o
) and of the n.a. given by the cuts y
n
,z
n
are always situated on one part and the other with
respect to the c.s. centroid G(y
n
and z
o
, respectively z
n
and z
o
) have always opposite signs.
- also, the n.a. position is given {concerning its inclination} by the bending moment M
y
and M
z
{like in the
case of oblique bending}. The influence of N on the n.a. position is produced bt the displacement of n.a.,
from the position given onley by oblique bending {for N=0}


Page | 13

10.4. Geometrical correlations between the excentric point f application of N and n.a.
The excentric axial force acts in the point Q(yo,z
o
), where

y
o
and z
o
appear in the relation
of y
n
and z
n
, so, the following correlations may be written:

a) the n.a and the axial force N will be situated always in
opposite quadrant with respect to centroid G, obtaining in
consequence max. normal stress in the extreme point close
to N position.

b) as far is the point Q with respect to the centroid G, as close
is the n.a. with respect to G, and inversely.
- if y
o
= z
o
= (N) yn = zn = 0
(the case of oblique bending My, Mz)
- if y
o
= z
o
= 0 (My = Mz ) yn = zn
(the case of axial solicitation, N )

c) the n.a. inclination is due only to the bending moment M
y

and M
z
, the axial force presence having the effect of
displacement the n.a. in the opposite reaction with respect to
Q.

d) if the point Q is situated on a principal inertia axis, n.a. will
be perpendicular to that axis.




*z
I
M
A
N

0 M 0 z
z
y
i
y
z
z
x
y 0
n
0
2
z
n
+ =
= =
=
=



e) if the point Q(y
o
,z
o
) is displaced on a straight line d-d, the n.a.
is rotated around a point Q from the n.a.


Page | 14

( ) R
y
I
M
z
I
M
A
N
y
I
M
z
I
M
A
N
x x x
z
z
y
y
x
z
z
y
y
x
< =
=
+ + =
min max max
min
max
, max | |
* *
* *
o o o
o
o
10.5. The strength verification in case of bending with axial force

xmin









xmax


- for the rectangular c.s. the general situation is for oblique
bending with axial force:
6
*
6
*
2
12
*
2
2
3
min
max
h b
W
h b
h
h b
z
I
W
W
M
W
M
A
N
W
M
W
M
A
N
z
y
y
z
z
y
y
x
z
z
y
y
x
=
= = =
=
+ + =
o
o



- in this case, if the excentric axial force N is situated on a principal inertia
axis {ex.:G
y
}, we shall have the partial case of straight bending with axial
force.

Page | 15

We note the excentricity y
o
with e Mz = N*e.
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
b
e
A
N
W
e N
A
N
z
x
* 6
1
*
o
- the normal stress
x
for the rectangular c.s.

- due to the presence of the excentricity e of the axial
force, we may have 3 different situations:

a) if
x
b
e o >
6
will have 2 different extreme values: one
of compression, one of tension.

b) if
0
* 2
6
min
max
=
= =
x
x
A
N b
e
o
o


c) if <
6
b
e : both extreme values will have the same
sign (+ or -)















Page | 16

10.6. Excentric compression in case of materials which cant undertake tension (materials with
weak tensile strength)

From previous paragraph we have seen that the position of the excentric axial force N which gives implicit
the n.a. position, give different distribution of the normal stresses .

)

- there are elements of construction made from materials which
have a very weak tensile strength, practically neglected: simple
concrete, brick(stone) masonry, the foundation soil. For them
its recomanded to work mainly in compression, thats why the
elements made from this material (mainly the foundations) must
have such dimension in order to be subjected only to
compression (or a small part may be subjected to tension),
solicitation undertaken by the reinforcement.
- in order to see if a construction element is subjected only to
compression, we are interested in finding a domain from the
member c.s. where if the excentric force N is applied only
compressive stresses
x
will exist. This domain is called central
core (sambure central) or kern.


10.6.1. The central core
It is a ficticous notion representing the geometric place of all points of application of the excentric axial
force N, corresponding to the n.a. tg to the c.s. always is in a central zone, situated around the centroid G.

- if the excentric force N is inside the central core or at limit on the
central core content the entire c.s. will be subjected only in
compression (for N>0).
- if the excentric force N is outside the central core n.a. will
intersect the c.s. having both tensile and compressive normal
stresses.






Page | 17

The central core properties:
a) The c.s. and the c.c. are reciprocal figures meaning that for every side of the c.s. it will
correspond a c.c. vertex.

b) The central core of a convex polygonal section is also a convex polygon, having the nr. of vertex
equal to the nr. of sides of the polygon in which the c.s. is inscribed.

c) If the c.s. is symmetric with respect to 1 or 2 axes, the central core vertex will be also
symmetric.

d) The n.a. tg to the c.s. contour, should not intersect the c.s.


e) The coordinates of the central core vertex are calculated in the principal inertia system of axes.

In order to represent the central core of a c.s. we represent on turn n.a. obtaining coordinates of
corresponding vertex P
i
(y
vi
,z
vi
), calculated with the relations:

Page | 18

10.6.2. The central core for some usual c.s.

a) The rectangular c.s

!!!For the rectangular c.s. the c.c. is a rhomb with the semi diagonal

, respectively

- the same central core have the c.s. which may be inscribed into a rectangle.

Page | 19

b) The circular c.s.

- the central core is also a circle of radius

.




10.6.3. The active zone in case of materials with weak tensile strength

We have seen in the chapter of centric compression that the most dangerous in the case of foundation
is the one of contact between foundation and soil where we had to check if
xmax
R
t
.
Now, in case of excentric compression we have to take into account the possibility that a part of this
contact surface is subjected to tension, producing tensile stresses that cant be overtaken by foundation and
soil.

For any c.s. there are possible 2 situations:

1. The axial compressive stresses N acts in the central core (a) or at the limit of the central
core (b), situation when the entire c.s. will be compressed.

2. The compressive force N acts outside the core the n.a. cutting now the c.s. dividing it
into a compressed zone, called active zone and a tension zone which will be completely neglected.

Page | 20

The excentric force N is carried out only by the compressed part on the c.s. (active zone). The
corresponding axis which cuts the c.s. is no longer the n.a., but an axis called zero axis (zero-because
x
=0
in this axis). It has a different position from n.a., being close to the most compressed fibre of the c.s.
We are interested in finding the position of this 0 axis(dist.
o
).
Assuming that
x
has a linear variation we may write the normal stress at a certain level ,

We write the stresses acting in c.s. with respect to 0 axis, from a strength calculation.

- the axial excentric force:

()

- the bending moment:

()

I
o
the moment of inertia of the active area with respect to 0 axis.

- dividing relation (b) to relation (a) we obtain
0
related to the compressive force N position.

c distance from the excenric force position to the most compressed fibre: la=
0
+c
- replacing la in the relation (a) we obtain:
(

- when N is outside the central core



) ( *
0
0
max
c
S
N
+ = q o
Page | 21

For the rectangle c.s.
h

The max normal stress:

)




!!! When N acts outside the central core and only for rectangular c.s.

Page | 22

11. Energetical methods for calculating the bar disolacements

11.1. The strain energy (energia de deformatie)
Using energetical methods, the total potential strain energy U
d
, has the general formula:

)
Applying this formula for the simple case of solicitation: axial solicitation, straight bending, straight
shering and torsion, we get the following expression for the strain energy.

]
The terms EA, EI, GA and GI
t
are modulus of rigidity corresponding to axial solicitation straight
bending, straight shering and torsion.
G shear modulus (transversal modulus of elasticity)

()

- for mild steel: G=8.1x10
5
daN/cm
2

A transformed area of the c.s.

, k shape factor

k = 1.2:
k = 22.4:

I
t
moment of inertia in torsion.

- based on the method of virtual displacement Castigliono demonstrated two theorems very useful in
displacement calculations.
- the 1
st
theorem is :
For a linear structure the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to P
i
is equal to
the corresponding displacement d
i
considering that the strain energy is expressed as a function of
loads.

- we apply this theorem for the strain energy written before:

]

- but in case of a linear elastic structure, the 1
st
derivative of any stresses can be noted with:

,

- n, m, t, m
t
influence coefficients representing internal stresses provided by a virtual unique force
P
i
=l
- as the diagrams n, m, t and m
t
may have maximum linear variation, the integrals, which are infinite
sums may be transformed into finite sums.
}
dx
I * E
m * N
- the most important term



Page | 23

- the displacement d
i
can be calculated using thise finite sum applying the rule of integration ofVeresciaghin,
which introduces a new form for d
i
:

O
=
I E
d
i i
i
*
*q


- where: -
i
the area of the real diagram of moment.
-
i
the ordinate corresponding to the area.
- i the number of intervals on which M
i
and m
i
have continuous variation.

-
i
, measured in m
i
diagram on the line corresponding to the centroid of
i.
!!!
i
and
i
are taken with algebraic signs.







- neglecting the term

(which takes account the static nature of

displacement) from the above relation, we may write Mohr-
Maxwell formula for the displacement calculation (its also
called the unit load method for linearly elastic structures).

- the formula was demonstrated 1
st
by Maxwell in 1874, but it was 1
st
used by the german engineer in 1864.
- supplementary, the formula has 2 other terms regarding the displacement produced by temperature
variation and from supports.
- in the above formula N, M, T and M
t
are internal stresses obtained from real loads; n, m, t, m
t
are
internal stresses obtained from a virtual action.
- a virtual unit force applied in the section where the deflection v and w, respectively the elongation l,
should be calculated.
- a virtual unit moment 1 applied in the section where the rotation should be calculated.


Page | 24

12. Pure torsion

A member is subjected to pure torsion if in any c.s. the single stress is the moment of torsion M
t
(torque).









---
---
---









- generally, construction members are subjected to torsion, but associated with other solicitation: bending,
axial solicitation, shering.
- the study of torsion is a complex problem, because only for circular or ring-shaped sections the
fundamental hypothesis used in strength of materials, can be used. For other type of c.s., rectangular c.s.,
section made from narrow rectangles (open or closed) these hypothesis are no longer valid, imposing the
using of Theorem of Elasticity. This is a consequence of the fact that durin the member torsion, the c.s. are
distorted (every point from a c.s. has different deformations). Only for circular sections, due to the symmetry
of solicitation and geometry, this distortion doesnt appear (the c.s. remain plane after deformation).

- a rectangular section becomes after twisting approximately a hyperbolic paraboloid.

!!! If the c.s. distorsion is freely produced, the torsion is called free or uniform. If the distorsion is
prevented, we discuss about prevented or non-uniform torsion.
- in this chapter we discuss about free torsion.

Page | 25

12.1. Torsion of bars with circular (or ring-shape) sections
12.1.1. Geometrical aspect

We consider a model with a circular section, rectangular shered by parallel circles angle equidistant
generatrics.

- the bar is subjected at both ends by 2 equals moments of torsion.
- after torsion, the circular sections remain plane and equidistant, the single modification being the
inclination of longitudinal generatrics, all with the angle . So, the single specific def. will be the angular
deformation, .
- as the initial plane c.s. remain plane after deformation. Bernoullis hypothesis is still valid.
- we isolate a differential element from this model, of length dx. To understand better the phenomena we
consider that this differential element is fixed at one end (the bottom bar) which the other end is free.

Page | 26


- the c.s. from the top part (free end) will be rotated with a differential angle d.
- the angle between the twisted generatrics BD and the initial generatrics BD represents the modification
of straight angle, being in fact the specific deformation
- due to the symmetry of deformation, the relative displacement of B, BB is perpendicular to
- to express the specific deformation we write this displacement from 2D: DOBB and DBBD.

Where the specific rotation (twist), representing the angle of rotation per unit length

*

12.1.2. Physical aspect

- admitting the bar has a linear elastic behavior, Hooks low is valid, so:

- so, the single distinct stress is the tangential stress which is proportional with the radius .
- will have a linear variation with zero value in the centroid and max. value on the circle contour, for = R
The tangential stress sense is given by the torsional moment sense.



12.1.3. Statical aspect

- from statical point of view N
t
=M
to
.
- this stress, N
t
can be written from interior from a strength calculation.

- the specific angle

- the term GI
p
is the modulus of rigidity of free torsion.
- we replace in formula

Page | 27

- we are interested in the max value of which corresponds to =R

- radius

- to use a general formula for the entire solicitation of free torsion we shall replace I
p
and W
p
with I
t
, W
t
(for
circular c.s. W
t
= W
p
and W
t
=I
t
).

- we may calculate also the total rotation :

- observing the relation of we may conclude that its similar to Naviers formula, but only from
mathematical point of view. From mechanical point of view its completely different because it can be
applied only to circular sections.

12.2. Torsion of beams with non-circular sections
- as we explained before the relation from the previous paragraph are no longer valid, because different
points from a c.s. have different displacements, the c.s. being distorted.
- a good solution for these twisted bars was given by the french scientist Barrie de Saint-Verne. Anyway, he
used the methods from theory of elasticity. After that, he obtained very good results making an analogy
between the phenomena of torsion and that of deformation of an elastic membrane. The procedure the
analogy of the elastic membrane, applying the observation that both phenomenon have an identical structure
with different equation containing partial derivatives.

- explanations of the membrane theory:
-we assume that a box is provided with a lid which has a hole of the same form and dimension as the
bar c.s.

- over this hole an elastic membrane (has no rigidity in bending) is tensioned by a constant tension
force on contour.
- the box is provided with another hole on a lateral surface, where a gas is introduced under a
pressure p which will act on the box walls.
- due to these 2 forces the membrane is deformed becoming a curved surface, the tension force from
the membrane equilibrating the exterior forces. It was demonstrated that the different equation of the
deflected surface of the membrane has the same form as the equation which govern the stress distribution in
a c.s. of a torsion bar.
- these equations may be written for the elastic membrane:

Page | 28

- we shall use 3 similitudes:
1) the tangent to a counter line in any point of the deflected membrane corresponding to the direction of

x
stress in the c.s. point of the twisted bar.
2) the moment of torsion M
t
is twice the value included by the surface of the deflected membrane and
the horizontal plane.
3) the max slope of the membrane in any point is even the tangential stress in the corespomding point
in the twisted bar.

12.2.1. The narrow rectangular cross sections
- a rectangle is considered to be narrow if

. for this section, the influence of the short side is

neglected, so in the membrane analogy, the deflected shape of the membrane may be generatrics parallel to
the long side.
- we consider a strip having a unit width and we represent in section the arc corresponding to this strip with
the forces acting on it.
- as the membrane has no rigidity in bending we write the bending moment and we make it equal to zero.
From symmetry condition we may write only for a half of arc.

- replacing the expression of

from the member analogy we have x=Gy

2

- this equation is the equation of a parabola of 2
nd
degree, representing even the equation of the deflected
membrane.
- thats why well similitudes
1) the direction of is || to the long sides of the narrow rectangle.

2) the slope of the membrane is even the

- the above relation proved the linear variation of with value for y=0 and max. value for y =

3)M
t
is 2x val.

- replacing this in the formula of :
Page | 29

- the max value of is for

12.2.2. The broad rectangular c.s.







A rectangle is considered to be broad if

.
If for the narrow rectangle has the same distribution along
the long side of the rectangle for the broad rectangle is max in
central line and 0 in corner. Its max on the rectangle counter and 0 in
the centroid, but it has a parabolic variation.

, , numerical factors function the ratio

h/t 1 1.5 1.75 2 2.5 3 4 5
0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299
0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.292
1 0.252 0.82 0.795 0.766 0.753 0.745 0.744

Page | 30

12.2.3. Sections made from narrow rectangles, having an open contour(simple conex sections)

- for the simple conex sections we generalize the formulas for 1 narrow rectangle;

- at the 3
rd
power will be always the thickness

- W
t
corresponds to the rectangle having the greatest thickness, t
max
;

;

- the stress distribution in each narrow rectangle is identical to the one of a narrow rectangle ( || to the long
sides).
- if the c.s. is made only from 1 laminated profile (I, U), or if its connected by bolds or rivets, it is affected
by a coefficient becoming :

=1.2



=1.12




=1



=1 {welded}



=0.5 {riveted{bolded}}

Page | 31

12.2.4. The c.s. made from narrow rectangles, but with a closed contour(duble conex sections)

- the surface is considered as the
area closed by the medium line of
each rectangle.

indicates that
max

will be in the rectangle of the
minimum thickness;

- the stress distribution on each
rectangles thickness .



Page | 32

13. Torsion of thin-walls members which have the cross-sections prevented from working(prevented
or non-uniform torsion)

13.1. Generalities. The phenomena of working torsion

- the members studied in pure torsion have the c.s. completely free to work(torsion). In reality, the
construction members are supported, so the c.s. are prevented from working.
- we have seen the case of a torsion rectangular c.s., which after torsion gecame a hyperbolic paraboloid.

- besides the c.s. distortion, a distortion of the median line will exist. As the median line G
x
axis remains in
the initial plane the c.s. median plane is zero (

.
- lets consider now a bar having an I c.s. subjected to torsion by two equal moments acting in the end of
bars. We represent, after torsion a top view of the member, observing the flanges positions.

- as the above bar is free to work(torsion), it is subjected to free uniform torsion.
- now lets consider the same bar, but having an end fixed(built in).
- now that end cant be distorted.
Page | 33







- due to the built-in support a new deformation will appear,
the distortion of the c.s. median line varying along the bar
from zero in the fixed support to a max. value in the free
end. In this case we discuss about prevented torsion.

- the preventing of the medium line distortion represents the
preventing of the elastic deformation along the bar axis G
x
.
For this reason a new normal stress will appear
As this normal stress varies along the bar axis, it must
be equilibrated by a new tangential stress .





- from these observation we may conclude that due to this prevented deformation, 3 distinct stresses will
appear in the c.s. (only from torsion):


1)A normal(direct) stress produced by the flanges bending:

- this normal stress
doesnt
introduce any known internal stress
because the moment M which
produce the flanges bending are
equilibrated. Any way it must be
introduced a new internal
stress(fictious) as an measure of the
resultant of these normal stresses.
The new stress is called bimoment
B.
- so, the bimoment will produce the
normal stress .






Page | 34

2)As we explained before a tangential stress produced by the distortion of the median line
along the bar axis will equilibrate
x
.

Prevented torsion Free torsion

- the resultant of this tangential stress, reduced in the shere center define a moment of torsion M called
moment of prevented torsion.

3)As the moment of torsion which produce this solicitation isnt overtaken completely by
M, a free moment of torsion M will produce also a tangential stress calculated from pure(free)
torsion.

-from these three stresses: , and only the one is known from pure torsion.

13.2. The normal stress and the tangential stress

As we have seen, is produced by the new stress bimoment B, being demonstrated that :

Where: - - the sectorial coordinate (sectorial surface) [cm
2
];
- I the sectorial moment of inertia [cm
6
];

- the bimoment b is calculated function the total rotation angle of the deformed bar.

- the tangential stress is produced by the prevented moment of torsion , being calculated:

Where: - S sectorial static moment [cm
5
];

Page | 35

- between the bimoment B and the prevented moment of torsion M , a differential relation exists (similar
to the one between the bending moment and the sher force).

- the stresses and are yet unknown because the total angle of rotation is unknown.

13.3. The differential equation of the rotation angle

Where: - k the bar characteristic at flexuranl torsion;
- k
2
the ration between the rigidity in pure torsion and in prevented torsion;

- as the differential equation of the rotation angle is unknown, the solution is the sum of a general and a
particular solution;

- finally, the solution of the differential equation is:

( )

( )

Where:

- are called parameters in origin for x=0; they are calculated from
boundary condition written in supports:
- for a simple supported or hinged support.

()

()

;

x = 0 x =



()

()


()

()

- for a fixed support:
x = 0




()

()

Page | 36

-
P
the particular solution, the solution of unknown differential equation depending on the type of
loading:

+



Page | 37

14. Computing of section in elasto-plastic domain

14.1. Generalities

- all strength calculations considered in all previous chapters it was used the hypothesis of the linear elastic
material, where Hooks law is valid (=E*). We considered in all previous calculations that the max
normal stress
xmax
is limited by the design strength:
max
R, but Hooks law can be written until the yield
limit, when reaches the yield value
c
.
- but, for a ductile material (mild steel) the reaching of
c
in a point doesnt produce the failure of that
element of the construction. After producing the plastic deformation in one point, the strength capacity isnt
consumed. This means that we can stil increase the load until the reaching of the complete limit state.
- to study an element beyond the elasticity limit, the material must be homogen and isotropic. The material
behavior can be illustrated in the ideal elasto-plastic curve (Prontdls curve) for ductile material with yield
plateau.



- the yield limit for common steel:
- in Romania standards: R
c
=2400 daN/cm
2

- in Eurocode 3: f
y
=235 N/mm
2







14.2. Pure bending in elasto-plastic domain

- we consider a bar having a symmetrical c.s. subjected to pure bending.


Page | 38

- in diagram (a) M
y
produces a normal stress
x
characteristic to a linear elastic material, the stress
distribution being linear with zero value in the n.a.
- the max normal stress xmax doesnt reach the yield limit.
()

- we continue to increase the load until in the most solicitated fibre the normal stress reach c (diagram
(b)). In this situation we compute the limit elastic moment.
()

- if the load continues to increase, the specific deformations are increased in the plastified zone exceeding
the yield specific deformation
c
according to Parnells diagram, if >c, the normal stress remain
const. and equal to c. in the reman elastc zone Hooks low s stll vald being proportional to .
- the stress distribution from diagram (c) shows that in the extreme zone reach c these zones being
completely plastified, while a central zone in still in the elastic zone, with the characteristic limit
variation.
- if the load is increased, the elastic zone is reduced and the limit situation is the one when the entire
c.s. is plastified. We say that in that zone it was produced a plastic hinge (d).
- in diagram (d) we observe a different distribution of the normal stress, with rectangular blocks in all
fibers =c). in this situation we compute the limit plastic moment Mlim.pl. ,still unknown because we
observe that now the passing from the tensional section of area At to the compressed section of area Ac
is made at an unknown level, corresponding to the plastic n.a.
- to determin the plastic n.a. position, we write the axial force from a strength calculus N
res
which must be
equal to the one determined from static calculus N
res
= N
st
. But, from the bar loading the single distinct
stress is M
y
so, N
res
= N
st
= 0.

- this final relation shows that plastic n.a. divides the c.s. into 2 equal areas(while elastic n.a. divided it
in 2 parts of equal static moments).
- to compute the limit plastic moment, we write M
y
from a strength calculation:

)()

- plastic strength modulus.

the static moment of the tensioned area respectively compressed area, written with respect to
elastic n.a or plastic n.a..
- for the rectangular c.s.:

- we can introduce a characteristic notion of the plastic calculus, called index of efficiency:

Page | 39

15. The buckling of compressed bars

15.1. Generalities

- the buckling problem specific only to axially compressed members.
- the phenomena of buckling represents a problem of stability in sense that any compressed element can lose
its stability and not a problem of resistance.
- for linear elements (bars) we discuss about buckling, but for plane elements (plates) we discuss about local
buckling.
- the problem of buckling is a very complex problem, which uses some simplifying hypotesys having a
linear elastic behavior.
- the axial compressive force is centric applied;
- the bar axis is considered to be perfectly straight;
- these hypothesis consider that the compressed member has an ideal behavior without imperfections. In
reality, the bars have geometrical and structural imperfections which makes the differences between the real
and ideal bar.
- the method which studies the real bar is the one which uses the notion of divergence of equilibrium
which consider the imperfections that affects the real bar.
- the ideal bars are studied in buckling using the concept of bifurcation of equilibrium.
- in what follows we shall study the ideal bar being intrusted in finding the 1
st
force of bifurcation which
corresponds to the 1
st
phase of losing the bar stability critical force of buckling.

15.2. The calculation of the critical force of buckling using the statical method
15.2.1. The double hinged bar

- we consider a double hinged column axially compressed by the force F. if the load F is unstable, transverse
deflection will appear and finally the column fails. For slender columns, buckling occurs at a certain stress
beyond the yield limit and for this reason this critical stress isnt related to the strength of materials.
- the phenomenon elastic instability(buckling)

Page | 40

15.2.2. The cantilever(grinda)

Boundary condition:


()


()

()

cos

cos



- the solution for this equation:
()

The 1
st
(min.) force of buckling correspond to:
n

()

- for cantilever


We write the bending moment at a certain level x and we introduce it into the differential equation of the
deformed axis.

The above equation is a differential homogen equation having only a general solution: w=Asin kx +Bcos kx
We observe that the general solution depends on 2 constants, A and B which will be calculated from
boundary condition written in supports.


()


()

Obviously , A 0
sin k=0
the solution for this equation is : k = n
Page | 41

For different values of n, we obtain different critical force of buckling. We are interested in finding the
1
st
(min) force of buckling, for n=1

- for the double hinged bar

For the bar hinged at one end and fixed at the other,

( )

15.2.3. Eulers critical force of buckling

Observing the above relation for the critical force of buckling for several types of supporting, Euler
developed in 1744 the generalized Eulers formula:

- where:
Ei - modulus of rigidity in bending, which corresponds to the min. axis of inertia (EI
min
)

f
- the length of buckling:

- the coefficient of buckling length depending on the type of support.















= 1 = 2 = 0.7 = 0.5 = 1 = 2

f
=
f
= 2
f
= 0.7
f
= 0.5
f
=
f
= 2








Page | 42

For the critical force of buckling we may calculate the corresponding critical buckling stress with the known
formula:

Where:

- the slenderness coefficient

- the max. slenderness coefficient is limited for any material by an admissible slenderness coefficient,
a

(
max

a
).
- we observe that the critical force of buckling was calculated taking into account the influence of the
bending moment (the buckling is produced by bending).
- however, for composed columns (steel, wood), the sher force is imp. affecting .

15.3. The calculation of compressed members using the practical method of the buckling coefficient

With this method the verification of compressed members in buckling (stability) is made with the formula:

Where: the buckling coefficient which is taken with the minimum value between y and z
- i is taken from tables, function:
- the slenderness coefficient ;
- the c.s. shape;
- the yield limit Rc = 2400 daN/cm
2
(OL37);
- the buckling curves A, B, C;
- min
- the above relation corresponds to the axially compressed member (the single stress acting in any c.s. is N)
- for excentric compressed members, the formula becomes:

)
;

Where: - C
x
coefficient of reduction the bending moment, function on the bending moment
variation on the bare length;
-
g
coefficient which takes into account the lateral buckling of the bent bar(coefficient de
deversare);