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VERBS - words that serve as the predicate of a sentence, content words that denotes an action or a state. Two senses of verb: 1) the verb is one of the elements in clause structure (They linked hands, I can believe you etc.) 2) the verb is a member of a word class, like a noun or pronoun As a word there are three categories: a) full verbs believe, follow, like, etc. have four morphological forms (base, -s form, -ing form, -ed form) b) primary verbs be, have, do (be has eight morphological forms highly irregular) c) modal auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, must, could, might, should, would called central modals i. marginal modal auxiliaries used to, ought to, dare, need ii. modal idioms combination of auxiliary and infinitive, or adverb they have non-finite forms and are always first in verb phrase (had better, would rather, have got to and be to iii. semi-auxiliaries verb idioms which are introduced by one of the primary verbs have and be. They have non-finite forms (be able to, be bound to etc.) All these four types of modals are called verbs of intermediate function. Only b, c can act as main or auxiliary verb Auxiliary verbs (primary + modals) they become the operator when they occur as the first verb of the finite verb phrase Auxiliary function = aux. verbs all of them help in creation of some tenses, help in information of meaning. Modal verbs - relating to or expressing the mood of a verb Meanings of the modals: a) intrinsic modality includes permission, obligation, volition involves some intrinsic human control over events b) extrinsic modality includes possibility, necessity, predication involves human judgement of what is or is not likely to happen Verbs can be: a) Dynamic verbs (progressive verbs) - do not express only some state or state an action. They can be used in progressive tenses. (read, write, listen) a) Stative verbs (non-progressive verbs) - express aspects of meaning. Gives formulation only about some state (to have, like). They are never used in progressive tenses - are used in simple tenses only. b) Dynamic or stative - There is limited number of verbs which have in some context either static or dynamic usage. Examples are perception verbs (to hear, to taste, to touch, to see) Form see gives more information about perception (I can see something) or is used in dynamic style (When are you seeing your doctor?) Finite verbs in their s form and past form - always finite Non-finite verbs - -ing participle and ed participle always non-finite. Finite verb phrases a verb phrase in which the first or only word is a finite verb, the rest of the verb phrase (if any) consisting of non-finite verbs. They can be distinguished as follows. Finite verb phrases: a) Can occur as the verb phrase of independent clauses. b) Have tense contrast, ie the distinction between present and past tenses (He is a / He worked as a ) c) There is person and number concord between subject of a clause and the finite verb phrase. a. I read b. He reads typical for the 3rd person singular d) They have mood, which indicate the speakers attitude to the predication (factual, nonfactual counterfactual). There are four different modes: a. Indicative mood marked / unmarked b. Imperative mood to express commands and other directive speech c. Conditional mood to express conditions d. Subjunctive mood used to express a wish, recommendation Subjunctive mood - a mood that represent an act or state (not as a fact but) as contingent or possible. There are types: Present subjunctive expressed by the base form of the verb. For be the subjunctive form is distinct from the indicative forms am, is, are. For other verbs the subjunctive is distinctive only in the 3rd person singular (p. 43) 1) mandative subjunctive used in that clause after an expression of such notions as demand. The employees demanded that he resigned 2) formulaic (optative) subjunctive used in set expressions. God save the Queen. / Suffice it to say that. Past subjunctive were subjunctive only as past form of be. It is hypothetical in meaning. If I were rich I would Voice active or passive it applies only to sentences where the verb is transitive (obligatory followed by an object) Tense a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection (there are no future inflected forms)
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Stative sense of verb they refer to a single unbroken state of affairs Dynamic senses of verbs used with the present perfect to refer to sequence of separate events Aspect a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the action of verb is viewed with respect to type (only two aspects in English perfect and progressive) has examined present perfect / is examining present progressive NOUNS - words that can be used to refer to a person or place or thing, words that can serve as the subject or object of a verb Nouns proper and common count (concrete bun, pig, abstract remark, difficulty), noncount -(concrete butter, gold abstract music, laziness). We distinguish number, gender, case a) Countablity countable and noncountable b) Gender enters the province of grammar by determining the selection of reference pronouns: wh-, personal and reflexive. According to wh-items who and which there are two broad gender classes a. Personal human reference (male, female, dual and common) and collective the sex of the persons concerned is irrelevant b. Nonpersonal nonhuman reference including inanimates Marked gender we can identify from the word (morph) the gender male or female Non-marked gender - we cannot identify gender from the word Dual gender can be used for both marked and non-marked gender - teacher c) Number operating through subject verb control and pronominal reference every noun must be: a. Singular relates to quantity one for count nouns, to the unique referent for most proper nouns and to undifferentiated mass for noncount nouns. b. Plural relates to two or more for count nouns, to unique referent for some proper nouns and to individual operational units that are seen as reflecting plural composition. d) Case English have only two cases a. Unmarked common b. Marked genitive (possessive) The childs coat / the coat belonging to child. Genitive is not used with all nouns equally but tends to be associated with those of animate gender personal reference. The other requires ofconstruction. PRONOUNS - function words that are used in place of a noun or noun phrase. They can be generally divided into: a. Specific central (personal, reflective, possessive, reciprocal), relative, interrogative, demonstrative b. Indefinite universal, partitive, quantifying - central -personal, reflective myself, themselves, possessive my/mine, reciprocal each other, one another - relative which, that , who, whom etc. - interrogative who, what - demonstrative this, those - indefinite positive (universal both each, assertive some, several, non-assertive any, either), negative nobody, neither Determiners - a limited class of noun modifiers that determine the referents of noun phrases. They can be - Central determiners the, a, this, zero - Pre-determiners half, all, double - Post-determiners seven, many, few ADJECTIVES - the word class that qualifies nouns. Their characteristics is: - Can occur in attributive position can pre-modify a noun - Can occur in predicative position can function as subject complement - Can be pre-modified by the intensifier very - Can take comparative and superlative forms Adjective can be characterized as stative or dynamic and gradable or non-gradable. ADVERBS - the word class that qualifies verbs or clauses - they modify something other than a noun. Traditional adverbs is characterized as: 1) clause element adverbial (He quite forgot about it) 2) premodyfier of adjective and adverb Types of adverbs: - Simple just, only, well - Compound somehow, somewhere - Derivational have suffix ly created from adjectives (sideways, clockwise)
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Conjuncts conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance (all the same, despite etc) Disjuncts marked by separation of or from usually contiguous elements. Style disjuncts convey the speakers comment on style and form of something Content disjuncts make observation on actual content PREPOSITIONS a closed class of items connecting two units in a sentence and specifying a relationship between them. Usually monosyllabic items (at, for, on, in). Complex prepositions: Simple preposition preceded by a participle, adjective, adverb, conjunction (owing to, devoid of) Simple preposition followed by a noun and then further simple preposition (in charge of, by means of ) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE the sequence of preposition and its complement

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