CP Lesson 2 - Goal Setting

Coaching Process A
Lesson 2: Goal Setting

Aims
To define goal setting
To conceptualize goal setting into the sports

coaching environment
Goal Orientation
Franzi Stampfi, who guided Roger Bannister
to the first sub four minute mile in 1954 said
“The coaches job is 20 per cent technical
and 80 per cent inspirational” (Bryant, 2000).
“There is no doubt that goal setting is a

powerful and effective strategy for
enhancing the performance of athletes” (Cox,
1998).
“There is no doubt that goal setting is a

powerful and effective strategy for
enhancing the performance of athletes” (Cox,
1998).
What is goal setting?
One of the most common motivational tools used
by coaches and sports psychologists is goal setting
(Weinberg, 1994).
(Weinberg, 1994).
A goal can be defined simply as what the

individual is trying to do (Weinberg, 1994; Locke &
Latham, 1985)....
(Weinberg, 1994).
A goal can be defined simply as what the

individual is trying to do (Weinberg, 1994; Locke &
Latham, 1985)....
but is in-fact far more complicated. Despite

primarily being a motivational tool, goal setting is
used for building self-confidence, enhancing
technique and managing time and other resources
(Locke and Latham, 1985; Minovi, 1998).
Early Research
Early Research
Majority of early studies were in industry

Early Research
Majority of early studies were in industry
Argued this research can be carried over

because both require physical and mental
action directed towards a goal (Locke and
Latham, 1985)
This has been refuted by several authors including:
Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975;

Weinberg, Bruya & Jackson, 1985 & Weinberg, Bruya,
Jackson & Garland, 1987.

However more recent research has given reason for

the negative results:


Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure

to manipulate control group.


Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure

to manipulate control group.
Weinberg & Weigand (1993) agree with Locke’s

methodological problems, but also believe that there
is a difference between both the tasks and the
participants in the organisation/industrial, when
compared to those in the sports settings
Cohen (1988, 1992) highlights the statistical
problems in comparing the two settings with
the sports setting having much smaller
sample sizes.
sample sizes.
In response to the conflicting results in goal

setting literature, Kyllo and Landers (1995)
conducted a meta- analytic review.
sample sizes.

Using the procedure described by Hedges &

Olkin (1985) they statistically combined 36
studies and their results showed that, by
setting goals, performance was improved by
one-third of the standard deviation (ES =
0.34).
sample sizes.

Using the procedure described by Hedges &

Olkin (1985) they statistically combined 36
studies and their results showed that, by
setting goals, performance was improved by
one-third of the standard deviation (ES =
0.34).
Criteria for setting goals
For goal setting to be effective in a sporting

environment the goals must encompass
various criteria such as Specificity, difficulty
level, type of goal orientation, time
constraints, both long-term and short-term
goals and acceptance from the athlete (Locke
& Latham, 1985).
For goal setting to be effective in a sporting

environment the goals must encompass
various criteria such as Specificity, difficulty
level, type of goal orientation, time
constraints, both long-term and short-term
goals and acceptance from the athlete (Locke
& Latham, 1985).
SCUK recommend SMARTER

Specific
Specific
Measurable
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Realistic
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Realistic
Time constrained
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Realistic
Time constrained
Exciting
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Realistic
Time constrained
Exciting
Recorded
Specific
Measurable
Accountability
Realistic
Time constrained
Exciting
Recorded
Difficulty level
Difficulty level
problematic due to the lack of ability to

operationalise the difficulty, Locke (1991)
suggests a level in which no more than 10
per cent of the subjects reach their goals
Difficulty level
problematic due to the lack of ability to

operationalise the difficulty, Locke (1991)
suggests a level in which no more than 10
per cent of the subjects reach their goals
Kyllo and Lander (1995) describe this as

“somewhat arbitrary” and tested a difficulty
of 25 per cent, concluding that more
research is needed.
Goal Orientation
Goal Orientation
There are two distinctive goal perspectives
and various authors have used different
terminology to describe these two types of
goal orientation including:
Goal Orientation
Outcome and Performance (Steffin, 1995;

Cox, 1998),
Goal Orientation

Cox, 1998),
Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al,

2000).
Goal Orientation

Cox, 1998),
Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al,

2000).
Task and Ego (Fuzhong et al 1998; Weinberg,

1994; White et al 1998)
Task Goals
Task Goals
Task goal setting involves:
Task Goals
The mastering of technique

Task Goals
Developing new skills and quality of play

Task Goals
Evaluated by personal improvement and self-

reference
Task Goals
Evaluated by personal improvement and self-

reference
Athletes who set task goals are intristically

motivated
Ego Goals
Ego Goals
Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability

to display superiority.
Ego Goals
Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability

to display superiority.
Athletes who set ego goals are extrinsically

motivated (Fuzhong et al, 1998; Steinberg et
al, 2000; White et al; 1998)
Which type of orientation?
It has been demonstrated in the industrial,
organisational and sports settings that task goals
show greater improvements to performance than
ego goals (Duda 1988; Duda, 1989; Weinberg, 1994).
This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less

boredom and less anxiety (Fox et al, 1994; Hall
1990).
This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less

boredom and less anxiety (Fox et al, 1994; Hall
1990).
More recent research has indicated that a

combination of task and ego goals may be
preferable for optimum performance.
Combining Orientation
Steinberg et al, (2000) demonstrated that using both
task and ego goals enable greater achievements in
sport than single goal orientation.
Other researchers, such as Hom et al, 1993; Fox et al,

1994 and Duda, 1989 have found similar results.

Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both

goal perspectives has two sources of success and
several reasons to continue participation”.

Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both

goal perspectives has two sources of success and
several reasons to continue participation”.
Steinberg & Maurer, (1999) suggest that the type of

goal allocated to a task is dependant on the situation
and timing, this is also supported by Jackson and
Roberts, (1992).
Any Questions?
References
Barnett, M.L. (1977). Effects of two methods of goal
setting on learning a gross motor task. Research
quarterly, 48, 19-23.
Bryant, J. (2001). Faster higher stronger. Sports

coach UK. (12): 5
Cox, R.H. (1998). Sport psychology. Concepts &

applications. 4th ed. Great Britain: McGraw- Hill.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the

behavioural sciences (2nd ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological

bulletin. 112: 155-159.
Duda, J.L., (1989). The relationship between goal
perspectives, persistence and behavioural intensity among
male and female recreational sports participants. Leisure
sciences, 10: 95-106.
Duda, J.L. (1989). Goal perspectives, participation and

persistence in sport. International journal of sports
psychology. 20: 42-56.
Fox, K., Goudas, M., Biddle, S., Duda., J., & Armstrong, N.
(1994). Children’s task and ego goal profiles in sport.
British journal of educational psychology. 64: 253-261.
Fuzhong, L., Harmer, P., Duncan, T.E., Acock, A, &

Yamamoto, T. (1998). Confirmatory factor analysis of the
task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire with
cross-validation. The American alliance for health, physical
education, recreation and dance. 69 (3): 276- 283
Hall, H., Weinberg, R., & Jackson, A. (1987). Effects of
goal specificity, goal difficulty, and information feedback
on endurance performance. Journal of sports
psychology. 9: 43-54.
Hall, H.K.(1990). A social cognitive approach to goal-

setting: The mediating affects of achievement goals and
perceived ability. Doctorial dissertation, university of
Illinois, urbana-champaign.
Hedges, L.V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for

meta- analysis. New York: academic press.
Hollingsworth, B. (1975). Effects of performance goals

and anxiety on learning gross motor task. Research
quarterly. 46, 162-168.
Jackson, S.A., & Roberts, G.C. (1992). Positive
performance states of athletes toward a conceptual
understanding of peak performance. The sports
psychologist. 6: 156-171.
Kyllo, L.B., & Landers, D.M. (1995). Goal setting in sport

and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the
controversy. Journal of sport and exercise psychology.
17: 117-137.
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1985). The application of

goal setting to sports. Journal of sport psychology. (7):
205-222.
Locke, E.A. (1991). Problems with goal setting research

in sport and their solutions. Journal of sport and
exercise psychology. (3): 311-316.
Steinberg, G.M., & Maurer, M. (1999). Multiple goal strategy:
Theoretical implications and practical approaches for motor
skill instruction. Journal of physical education, Recreation
and Dance. 70 (2): 61-70.
Steinberg, G.M., Singer, R.N., & Murphey, M. (2000). The

benefits of sports achievement when a multiple goal
orientation is emphasised. Journal of sport behaviour. 23 (4):
407-417.
Weinberg, R.S., Bryua, L., & Jackson, A. (1985). The effects

of goal proximity and goal specificity on endurance
performance. Journal of sports psychology. 7: 296-305.
Weinberg, R.S., Bryua, L., Jackson, A., & Garland, H. (1987).

Goal difficulty and endurance performance: a challenge to
the goal attainability assumption. Journal of sports
behaviour. 10: 82-92.
Weinberg, R.S. (1994). Goal setting and performance in
sport and exercise settings: a synthesis and critique.
Medicine and science in sport and exercise. 26 (4):
460-477.
Weinberg, R.S., Stitcher., T., & Richardson, P. (1994).

Effects of seasonal goal- setting program on lacrosse
performance. Sport psychologist. (2): 166-175.
Weinberg, R.S., & Weigand, D. (1993). Goal setting in

sport and exercise: A reaction to Locke. Journal of
sport and exercise psychology. 15, 88-95.
White, S.A., Duda, J.L., & Keller, M.R. (1998). The

relationship between goal orientation and perceived
purpose of sport among youth sports participants.
Journal of sport Behaviour. 21 (4): 474 –480.

CP Lesson 2 - Goal Setting

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Coaching Process A

Lesson 2: Goal Setting

To define goal setting

To conceptualize goal setting into the sports

“There is no doubt that goal setting is a

“There is no doubt that goal setting is a

A goal can be defined simply as what the

A goal can be defined simply as what the

but is in-fact far more complicated. Despite

Majority of early studies were in industry

Majority of early studies were in industry

Argued this research can be carried over

Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975;

Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975;

However more recent research has given reason for

Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975;

However more recent research has given reason for

Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure

Barnett, 1977; Hall et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1975;

However more recent research has given reason for

Locke, (1991) - methodological flaws such as failure

Weinberg & Weigand (1993) agree with Locke’s

In response to the conflicting results in goal

In response to the conflicting results in goal

Using the procedure described by Hedges &

In response to the conflicting results in goal

Using the procedure described by Hedges &

For goal setting to be effective in a sporting

For goal setting to be effective in a sporting

SCUK recommend SMARTER

problematic due to the lack of ability to

problematic due to the lack of ability to

Kyllo and Lander (1995) describe this as

Outcome and Performance (Steffin, 1995;

Outcome and Performance (Steffin, 1995;

Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al,

Outcome and Performance (Steffin, 1995;

Mastery and Competitive (Steinberg et al,

Task and Ego (Fuzhong et al 1998; Weinberg,

The mastering of technique

The mastering of technique

Developing new skills and quality of play

The mastering of technique

Developing new skills and quality of play

Evaluated by personal improvement and self-

The mastering of technique

Developing new skills and quality of play

Evaluated by personal improvement and self-

Athletes who set task goals are intristically

Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability

Ego goals are a demonstration of the ability

Athletes who set ego goals are extrinsically

This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less

This is attributed to greater task enjoyment, less

More recent research has indicated that a

Other researchers, such as Hom et al, 1993; Fox et al,

Other researchers, such as Hom et al, 1993; Fox et al,

Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both

Other researchers, such as Hom et al, 1993; Fox et al,

Duda, (1989) argues that “a person who stresses both

Steinberg & Maurer, (1999) suggest that the type of

Bryant, J. (2001). Faster higher stronger. Sports

Cox, R.H. (1998). Sport psychology. Concepts &