Grade Eleven Biology Notes

Bridget Walsh Unit One (Chapter 4 Genetics) Genetics- the study of how traits are passed from one generation to the next Genotype- internally coded, inheritable information, refers to the combination of alleles for a particular trait that is present in an individual Phenotype- outward appearance or physical manifestation of the trait Allele- alternate form of a gene located at a particular place on a chromosome Trait- characteristic Gene- factor that controls a trait An organism that is homozygous dominant has the same phenotype as an organism that is heterozygous If an organism has the dominant phenotype, its genotype is not necessarily known A pedigree illustrates inheritance patterns over several generations, type of flowchart, uses symbols A dominant trait is always expressed Mendel succeeded in discovering the laws of inheritance when others failed because: o Chose appropriate organism to study Pea plant Commercially available Easy to grow, matures quickly Sex organs enclosed in flower=easy to control o Designed and performed the experiment correctly o Analyzed data properly Mendels 1st experiment was a monohybrid cross because he was only testing one trait (plant height) He knew that the short pea plants were purebred because o Short x short =always short plants o Tall x tall = mostly tall some short o Conclusion: short must be the recessive gene For his 1st experiment he crossed pure bred tall plants with pure bred short and the first generation was all tall, in the second generation there was a 3:1 ratio of tall to short plants which because Mendels famous ratio Conclusions: o Each parent starts with 2 factors;1 dominant and 1 recessive

o 1 factor comes from each parent o Offspring inherits 1 factor from each parent, if dominant is present it will be expressed o Recessive will only be expressed is only recessive factors are present Law of Segregation- Inherited traits are determined by pairs of factors (alleles). These factors separate in the gametes Pedigrees: the keys to reading them! o If a trait is not expressed in either parent but it is expressed in the children, you know it is recessive o If the trait is not expressed in both parents but it is in the children than you know both parents must be heterozygous for that trait Generations: P F1 F2 o P- parent generation o F1- 1st filial generation o F2-2nd filial generation Punnet squares are an easy and simple way of determining genotype and phenotype they are used to calculate the probability of inheriting a particular trait Someone might be interested in genetics to determine how much is heredity and how much is nurture (farmer for example) Test cross- a dihybrid crossed with the recessive for both traits Autosomal inheritance- the inheritance of traits determined by genes on the autosomal chromosomes An autosomal dominant disorder occurs when the disease causing allele is dominant and an individual has one or both copies of the allele An autosomal recessive disorder occurs when the disease causing allele is recessive and an individual has both copies of the allele Mendels 2nd experiment was a dihybrid cross, that is he allowed the F1 generation to selfpollinate the results represent a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 Law of Independent Assortment: o This second law of inheritance states that the inheritance of alleles for one trait does not affect the inheritance of alleles for another trait Modes of Inheritance (Beyond Mendels Law) o Incomplete dominance Not all traits are purely dominant or recessive, when this occurs the blending of two traits can take place and this is called incomplete dominance o Co-dominance Both alleles are expressed like a chicken with black and white feathers o Sex- linked Inheritance Trait located on one of the sex chromosomes (X or Y) o Multigenic The gene is present in several chromosomes o Epitasis

The expression of one gene affects the expression of another gene Somatic cell- any cell in our body that is not a sex cell Haploid number is half the diploid number In humans the sex of the child is dependant largely on the father Mode of inheritance for human blood type is codominance and multiple alleles Zygote- fertilized egg Homologous chromosomes are similar not identical The number of chromosome pairs is half the number of chromosomes Alleles do not assort independently if they are linked Diploid advantage o Refers to gene expression. The advantage lies in the event of genetic damage or mutation. Where only one of the chromosomes is necessary for expression the presence of two can offer a back up in the event the other doesnt function properly. In addition it offers greater potential for survival in the event option A is not well suited to the changing environment; if the presence of a B option is available it might be the expression that could help. Without diploid chromosomes a genetic strain could die out.

Evolution Important to note that populations evolve not individuals an individual does not aquire evolutionary changes. Evolution takes place over many generations and is a slow, gradual process. A difference amongst individuals is variation not evolution. 2 organisms belong to the same species if they can reproduce and their offspring are viable Changes within a species result of random DNA mutations = variation Adaptation is a structural, behavioural or physiological process that helps an organism survive and reproduce in a changing environment The founder effect is a change in gene pool that occurs when a few new individuals start a new isolated population The bottleneck effect is changes in gene distribution that results from a rapid decrease in population size Selective pressure- is environmental conditions that select for certain characteristics of individuals and select against others E.g. forest, taller trees = more sun will reproduce and pass of the alleles to survive conditions. The abundance of alleles for these conditions will increase in the population Artificial selection- selective pressure exerted by humans on populations in order to improve or modify particular traits Monoculture- extensive planting of the same varieties of a species over large expanses of land Natural selection- the process by which characteristics of a population change over many generations as organisms with heritable traits survive and reproduce, passing their traits to offspring Fossil record- the remains and traces of past life that are found in sedimentary rock; it reveals the history of life on Earth, the kinds of organisms that were alive in the past

Darwins Theory (summarized) o Organisms produce more offspring than can survive ergo organisms compete for limited resources o Individuals of a population vary extensively and much of this variation is heritable o Individuals that are better suited to local conditions survive to produce more offspring o Processes are slow and gradual How we classify organisms: o Where and how they live o Morphology o DNA similarities Vestigial structure- a structure that is a reduced version of a structure that was functional in the organisms ancestors Biogeography- the study of the past and present geographical distribution of species populations, supports Darwin and Wallaces theories Q: Why is it more important if a mutation occurs in a gamete cell? o A: If a mutation occurs in a somatic cell the trait is lost when the individual dies, it does not greatly affect the population of the species. However when mutations occur in the gamete cells, through meiosis and sexual reproduction the trait can be passed on to the offspring Q: Explain how the value of variation can change over time and give an example o A: Something that proves advantageous now may be a disadvantage as environmental conditions change. Example: light levels in a forest. If trees are adapted to survive shady conditions and the amount of light increases the trees may not survive. Q: How will a development that confers a survival advantage contribute to an increase in diversity and an increase in complexity? o A: survival advantage = increase in reproductive fitness = increase in population size = increase in diversity = competition = complexity 3 people who contributed to Darwins theory of evolution: o Charles Lyell, Jean Lamarck and Thomas Malthus contributed very important ideas to Darwins theory of evolution. Lyell proposed that the geological processes operated today at the same rates as in the past. He called this uniformitarianism. He theorized that small subtle changes could occur over a long period of time resulting in substantial change. This idea inspired Darwin to thinking, if the Earth is slowly changing could slow subtle changes occur in species and populations? Lamarck compared species of animals with fossil forms and interpreted a line of descent which led to modern species. He noted that an organisms adaptations to the environment resulted in characteristics that could be inherited by offspring, Darwin accepted these theories and acknowledged Lamarck. Finally Thomas Malthus provided insight on how populations changed. He declared that populations produced more offsping than their environments could support. From this Darwin surmised that individuals with traits that helped them survive in their local environment were more likely to survive and pass these traits to offspring.

Diversity of Life DNA, Origins of Life, Single Celled Organisms Considering organisms- factors that are important to consider o Matter How the organic compounds are obtained o Energy The energy stored in somewhat macromolecules that are food (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids) is parcelled (mostly in cellular respiration) into smaller packets of energy stored as ATP (adenine triphosphate) o ATP/ADP reaction ADP+Pi-> ATP Adnenine diphosphate plus phosphate = adenine triphosphate o How an organism obtains energy to regenerate ATP is an important classification tool Autotrophs Obtain energy from inorganic (abiotic) sources; heat, sulphuric acid, light Heterotrophs Require organic (biotic) sources Q: Explain the functions of the DNA molecule o A: DNA has 2 functions It contains information for the order of amino acids in proteins a gene is a sequence of DNA that contains the info to make one protein Reproduction, replicating itself What forms a nucleotide? o A: Each nitrogen base is attached to a sugar, each sugar to a phosphate group to form a single nucleotide. Each nucleotide is named after the base it contains RNA 3 differences from DNA: o Single stranded and unstable o Contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose o Does not contain thymine instead contains uracil DNA replication o Enzyme breaks down hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases o Double helix unzips o Another enzyme moves along each strand attaching nucleotides to each base o Continues until formation of new molecules Enzymes- control virtually all chemical reactions going on in your body. Enzymes are a specific protein produced by cells. It is these chemical reactions that provide your body with energy

Polypeptides- linked amino acids forming long chains, two or more polypeptides are joined to make a particular protein How can organisms be so different if their DNA is composed of the same nucleotides? o A: Unique genetic information is determined by the sequence of nucleotides. The closer the relationship between two organisms the greater their similarities in their DNA sequence How many amino acids are attached to a single transfer RNA? o A: One! Transcription- The process of making RNA from DNA occurs in the nucleus Explain why DNA is compared to a zipper o A: nucleotides are joined together to form long chains. The phosphate group of one nucleotide is joined to the deoxyribose sugar of the adjacent nucleotide. The nitrogen bases stick out like teeth on a zipper while the phosphate group and sugar make the backbone Purines- nucleotides with a double ring structure (adenine and guanine) Pyrimidines- single ring nucleotides (cytosine and thymine) Translation- the process of assembling a protein from RNA occurs in the cytoplasm Complementary base pairs- nitrogen bases are always paired in the same manner A-T, C-G they are called complementary base pairs Q: List several observations about biomolecules that are compatible with the ideas of evolution. o A: The code is universal, there are only 20 amino acids, there are 4 different nucleotides for DNA and 4 for RNA all of this is evidence of a common ancestor Errors in DNA Replication: o Errors do occur despite an enzyme proofreading, and remember mutations arent always bad Base pair substitutions occur when one base pair is replaced by another e.g. A-T pair replaced by C-G pair this may alter the outcome of the amino acid or code for STOP causing problems A frameshift mutation occurs when one or more base pairs are added or deleted, all subsequent codons will be different Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic Cell Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell- endosymbiosis hypothesis where heterotrophic bacteria became the mitochondria and cyanobacteria became chloroplasts after being taken up by host cells o Evidence The membranes of chloroplasts and mitochondria are similar to those of living prokaryotes The ribosomes in chloroplasts and mitochondria are similar to the ribosomes in prokaryotic cells

Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain a circular chromosome with many gene sequences similar to those in prokaryotic chromosomes Chloroplasts and mitochondria reproduce by binary fission within a cell The genes in chloroplasts most closely match the genes of modern prokaryotic cyanobacteria Abiotic Evolution o Nucleotides, amino acids and other building block macromolecules can form spontaneously when scientists imitate conditions of primordial Earth (hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, no oxygen) o Formation of the polymers DNA proteins and lipids came with the discovery of a catalyst which was primordial clay. When this mineral clay (which would have been abundant 4500 million year ago) is mixed with nucleotides, they form chains similar to DNA and RNA o Some chains of nucleotides began to replicate due to complementary base pairing o Q: How can proteins be made (primordially) from DNA if protein enzymes are required? A: discovery of importance = RNA RNA can contain info, replicate and act as a catalyst o At the same time that this self replicating RNA appeared another phenomena happened, the appearance of phospholipic vesicles reminiscent of cells Cyanobacteria appeared about 2000 million years ago they do photosynthesis but there are two important factors in this reaction o Carbon fixation o Production of oxygen (before cyanobacteria oxygen wasnt produced when carbon fixation happened) Q: What was the great success of cyanobacteria? o A: Cyanobacteria is the only thing that is able to absorb N which is the most common gas in our atmosphere making up about 70%. It flourished also in part because it used water which was abundant. Archea are all anaerobic (they are killed by oxygen) they are most commonly classified by habitat: o Thermophiles (love heat) o Halophiles (love salt) o Methanogens (produce methane) Archea and Bacteria (prokaryotic cells) o Both archea and bacteria are prokaryotic cells however the two domains are not the same o Their morphology is similar, they are the smallest, simplest and most abundant organisms on Earth they are classified as bacillus, coccus or spirillum based on shape o All species of both domains reproduce asexually by binary fission (conjugation does happen to promote diversity)

Key difference: archea do not use photosynthesis as a source of metabolic energy while some bacteria can use photosynthesis o Other differences: there are not known disease causing archea, some archea fix atmospheric carbon dioxide while some bacteria fix nitrogen o The ribosomes and the RNA polymerase of archea are more similar to the ones in Eukarya than those in bacteria. RNA polymerase is the enzyme required to make RNA from the nucleotides. Bacteria and Eukarya have cell membranes made of the same phospholipids but archeas phospholipids are different The Virus o A virus is not considered to be a living thing. It is not a cell and therefore is lacking many of the cell parts. All viruses contain a protective capsid and a core of DNA or RNA o Since viruses cannot live outside a cell they are considered to be parasitic o Viruses can only reproduce in a living cell. The lytic cycle is the reproductive cycle of most viruses o The virus injects its nucleic acid into a cell and it becomes part of the cells DNA. o After a short time the viral DNA takes control and produces more viral DNA and viruses o The viral DNA will produce an enzyme that allows water to rush in causing the cell to rupture and newly formed phages can escape o The lysogenic cycle is the alternate reproductive form, during this the viral DNA basically just hides out in the cell, however if something happens (immune system stress) it can activate the phage DNA and the virus will enter the lytic cycle Protista o Protozoans One celled, heterotrophic protests Contain special vacuoles for digesting food and getting rid of excess water. Classified by how they move o Fungus like protists Like fungus they produce spores, like protozoa they glide from place to place and ingest food, like plants they have cellulose cell walls Plasmodial slime moulds Share characteristics with protozoa, moves by means of psuedopods behave like amoeba Cellular slime moulds Spend part of their life cycle as independent amoeboids that feed grow and divide, when food is scarce they band together Water moulds Live in water, appear fuzzy, grow as mass threads and then envelop an animal or plants absorbing its nutrients (theyre gross) o Plant like protists Unicellular, aquatic, chlorophyll containing Most important one to know about is Euglenoids

Have both plant and animal characteristics, have chloroplasts but lack a cell wall and swim using a flagella. An eyespot allows them to find light to conduct photosynthesis, they can also absorb nutrients across theyre cell membrane

Fungi Heterotrophs Hyphae- network of fin filaments, densely packed together Mycelium- loose branching network of hyphae under the soil making the bulk of a fungus Septa- cross walls that divide hyphae into cells, septa are porous allowing cytoplasm to flow through hyphae from cell to cell Multinucleated structure o Lack septa o Each hyphae appear to be on multinucleated cell o Within the hyphae the nuclei can move through the undivided cytoplasm o Boundary of a fungal cell is the cell wall, cell wall made of chitin o Chitin is the hard material found in the external skeleton of invertebrates How fungi feed o Saphrotrophs- organisms that break down and live off dead organic matter o Extracellular digestion- release digestive enzymes that break down large organic molecules in the substrate into smaller molecules that diffuse into fungus Parasetic Fungi o Have hyphae call haustoria which can penetrate host cells without immediately killing them Symbiotic Fungi o Benefiting both organisms o Mycorrhiza- trees having fungi living close to their roots, relationship o Hyphae grow around roots, increases absorbtive surface of the plant roots, plant can take more nutrients fungus maintains air and water flow in the soil around the roots Reproduction o Fragmentation- simplest asexual way in which pieces of hyphae break off and grow into new mycelium Classification o Like plants they have cell walls and grow in the ground o Unlike plants they store food energy as glycogen Bread Moulds- during asexual reproduction they produce zygospores which are diploid structures that develop after 2 haploid hyphae of opposite types combine and fuse nuclei Mycelium is made up of 2 types o Horizontal called stolons o Downward called rhizoids, they secrete the enzymes

To reproduce asexually, bread mould has another form of hyphae that project up from the mycelium called sporangiophores carry sporangia at their ends, asexual spores develop and are released when capsules break open Basidiocarps- short lived structures called fruiting bodies (look like toadstools) Basidia- club shaped hyphae You can see evidence of hidden mycelium in circles of mushrooms called fairy rings the center of the circle is where the mycelium started growing, expanding outward like the spokes of a wheel to produce basidiocarps at their ends Lichen- do not form a taxonomic group but are a symbiotic association of alga or cyanobacteria and fungus

Plants All species of plants are multicellular eukaryotes that live on land and obtain food by photosynthesis Advantages of Land o Greater availability of light o More rapid diffusion of CO and O into and out of the organism Disadvantages of Land o Risk of dehydration Adaptations to life on land o Protection from drying out o System to transport water and dissolved substances from the outside environment to cells within o System to support the body of the plant Vascular vs. Non-Vascular Plants o Vascular tissue- made of cells able to conduct solutions throughout the plant similar to the circulatory system of animals o Non vascular plants include mosses liverworts and hornworts o Sporophytes- diploid generation of a plant o Gametophyte- plant body that produces male and female gametes Mosses o Absorb most of their water directly through their surface when air is dry mosses become dry when wet conditions return mosses absorb water quickly o Very successful and widespread o Most diverse group of plants after angiospores o Seta- spore bearing capsule grows on the end of a stalk o Sporophytes do not contain chlorophyll receive all nourishment from gametophyte Seedless Vascular Plants (include mosses, liverworts and algae) o Different because they developed vascular systems o Sporophyte generation was dominant o Gametophyte still depended on moisture to carry out sexual reproduction

Xylem- specialized tissue that carries out transportation of water, hollow tubes of non-living cell walls Phoelum- vascular tissue that transports organic matter made up of living cells Movement of nutrients o Starch from the roots is broken down chemically to sucrose so it can travel through stem to the leaves, sucrose is further broken down to glucose to provide energy to grow leaves. Leaves produce their own glucose through photosynthesis and once they are producing more glucose than they need that excess glucose is converted to starch grains in the chloroplasts then to sucrose for travel and lastly starch again for storage in the roots. Gymnosperms- have seeds that are exposed on the surface of cone scales Angiosperms- flowering plants (most plants are angiosperms) The sperm endings^ indicate that they reproduce with seeds Lichen is a fungus and a photosynthetic organism that form a composite The benefit of seeds is that they remain dormant for long periods of time so they can withstand environmental changes such as cold. They also contain their own food source so germination is easier in a variety of places. They are also not dependant on water to survive. Stomata- the openings on the bottom of leaves that take in gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen when the stomata is open the plant looses water vapour and dehydrates so a plant would want to have less stomata in a dry area so it does not loose too much moisture

Animals Vertebrate Chordata (all vertebrates are chrodates) o Sub divided into 2 groups Agnathans (jawless fish) Gnathostomata (jawed animals) Evolution of Jaws o Jaws enabled animals to grasp and crush food o Jaws allowed animals to eat a wider range of food o Ingesting food is a key characteristic of animals and jaws gave an advantage o Jaws distinguish anthropods from annelids Annelids- segmented worms Anthropods- joint legged animals Enchinodermata (starfish)- all marine, radial symmetry, larvae are bilaterally symmetrical later undergo metamorphosis like chordates the coelum develops in the embryo from an out pocketing of the gut Embryology is what deduced the phylogenic relationship between echinoderms and chordates Coelum- fluid filled body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm, allows for development of complex internal organs Ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are body layers (starting from the outside moving in) Cnidarians- jellyfish and sea anemones

Anthropods differences from annelids: o Fewer body segments, tendency for segments in the head and thorax regions to fuse and become specialized o Hard external cuticle acts as an exoskeleton for muscles o Legs, divided into movable segments connected by joints o Separate muscles organized into groups related to specific body movements (unlike simple sheets of muscle) o Strongly developed jaws o Better developed nervous system and sense organs Most Choradata are vertebrates however there are invertebrate chordates that are still chordates because at some time they have. o A dorsal nerve cord, which nerves branch from o A notochord or rod of cartiledge which runs along the dorsal length of the body o Gill slits in the pharynx or throat Classification of Living Things o Taxons form a hierarchy of groups Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species o Binomial nomenclature is a system of using a two word name for each species, the first word is the genus and is capitalized, the second word identifies a particular species Two reasons its useful: Gives info about the general characteristics of the animal (the genus) More precise identifier than the common name Determining Relatedness o Anatomy Physical characteristics from fossils and bones Biological features that have a common evolutionary origin are said to be homologous o Evidence from development Comparisons of early stages of embryonic development can reveal similarities not obvious from adult organisms o Biochemistry Comparison of protein molecules indicate genetic similarities o DNA Evidence DNA from 2 organisms is separated into single strands and mixed, the more complementary base pairs the more related

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Can also help determine how long ago a species diverged from one another Phylogeny- hypothesis about evolutionary history Cladogram- a branching diagram like a phylogenic tree but can be used to test hypotheses

Internal Systems and Regulation Circulation Vascular system- system of fluid tissue that plays a role in transporting nutrients and other materials to the cells of the organism o Almost all multicellular organisms have a vascular system Most animals also have a circulatory system which is a vascular system in which the progress of fluid is controlled by muscle movements Most multicellular organisms cannot rely on simple diffusion or active transport to bring materials to the cells quickly enough to meet their metabolic needs, they require a specialized transport system These come in two types o Open transport system In an open system fluid can slosh back and forth, so its typically slower small animals like insects may have an open system o Closed transport system Pumped around the body using a network of vessels The fish has a two chambered heart and complete single circulation The amphibian has a three chambered heart and incomplete double circulation The mammal has a four chambered heart and complete double circulation o All birds and mammals have 2 atria and 2 ventricles in their heart The route taken by the blood within the heart is called cardiac circulation Heart to lungs and back is pulmonary circulation Heart to everywhere else is systemic circulation The transport vessels are three fold o Arteries-carry blood out of the heart to the rest of the body, they are more elastic o Capillaries- super tiny one cell thick o Veins- carry blood to the heart from the rest of the body, they have valves and use muscle movements to assist in blood flow Blood is the transport medium o Red blood cells (44%) o White blood cells (1%) o Plasma (55%) Iron in hemoglobin in red blood cells allows for pick up of oxygen White blood cells come in many different types two most important fight disease o Macrophages

Phagocytic cells that digest pathogens, part of the bodies innate immune response o Lymphocytes Part of the bodies acquired immune response, there are 2 types B cells o Arises from bone marrow T cells o Arise from thymus gland Platelets are another component of blood but are not cells. They play an important role in blood clotting See page 303 for heart diagrams to be memorized (fun stuff!) SA node also known as pacemaker controls heartbeat Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate Highest pressure is systolic pressure occurs when left ventricle contracts Lowest pressure is diastolic pressure happens immediately before another contraction Blood pressure= systolic over diastolic

Digestion Breaking down food chemically is referred to as digestion See page 338 for digestive system diagram to be memorized The large intestine is actually smaller but it got that name because of its large diameter Peristalsis involves circular and longitudinal muscles contracting to physically break up food in digestive tract Substrate- a molecule on which an enzyme acts Chemical digestion starts in the mouth where the enzyme amylase breaks down starch Gastrin- hormone that stimulates the digestive enzymes in the stomach Liver- is responsible for producing bile salts from cholesterol, they break up fat globules, also does detoxification Saliva- has two functions o Assist in chemical digestion o Lubricate food Villi- villi are minute, finger-like projections in the small intestine that serve to increase the absorptive surface area Lacteal vessels- in the villi job is to carry fat particles that are absorbed into the lymphatic system Ileum- part of the small intestine about 3cm long its function is to absorb nutrients, contains fewer and smaller villi

Respiration Gas exchange is the taking in of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide

Respiratory surface- surface area available for gas exchange, needs three things o Big enough so it meets the organisms metabolic needs o Moist, so gases can dissolve o Thin Skin respiration- exchange of gases across the skin (worms) Gills- feathery tissue structure that ventilate oxygen containing water over the respiratory surface where it is diffused for circulation The act of ventilating a respiratory surface with air is called breathing, breathing is controlled by a part of our brain called the medulla oblongata Spiracles- external pores on an insect, spiracles lead to trachea, spiracles controlled by valves We use 2 muscular structures to control air pressure in our lungs o Intercostal muscles (associated with the ventral surface of the rib cage) o Diaphragm (muscle layer that separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity) Epiglottis- flap that prevents food from going down the trachea instead of the esophagus Tidal volume- air inhaled/ exhaled with normal breathing Inspiratory reserve volume- additional air that can be taken in Expiratory reserve volume- additional volume that can be forced out Vital capacity- total volume of gas that can be moved in/out of the lungs tidal+ inspiratory+ expiratory = vital capacity Residual volume- amount that always stays in the lungs Counter current flow- arrangement in which two fluids exchange substances as they flow in opposite directions, maximizes concentration between vessels Bronchi are smaller passageways branching from the trachea Bronchioles are even finer tubes Alveoli are grape like sacs that are always moist and are located at the end on bronchioles this is where actual exchange of gases takes place Oxygen Pick up and Release factors: o 2 major factors Oxygen concentration, measured in partial pressure Acidity of the surrounding fluid Explanation: when partial pressure is low the bond that links oxygen to the heme group weakens. The hemoglobin molecule will tend to release its oxygen. Similarly an increase in acidity influenced by dissolved carbon dioxide, weakens the bond in the same way. Another factor is temperature, cooler temperatures release oxygen slower See dissociation curve on page 294

Study on your own too! Theres stuff I didnt go into too much detail and its always better when you make your own notes in addition, hope this helped though!