KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS Frequency response means the steady state response of the system to a sinusoidal input. In the frequency response methods, the input frequency is varied over the certain range and the resulting response is noted.

x(t) X(s)

G(s)

y(t) Y(s)

For the system shown in figure

Y (s) = G(s) X (s)

The input x(t ) is sinusoidal and is given by

x ( t ) = X sin t

The steady state response of a stable, linear, time invariant system to a sinusoidal input does not depend on the initial conditions.

Y (s) = G (s) X (s) = G (s) =

X s +2
2

b b b a a + + 1 + 2 + + n s + j s j s + s1 s + s 2 s + sn

Inverse Laplace gives

y (t ) = ae jt + a e jt + b1e s1t + + bn e bnt

the steady state response becomes y (t ) = ae jt + a e jt where constant a = G(s)

X (s + j ) s = j = XG ( j ) and 2 2j s +
2

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a = G ( s)

X (s j ) s = j = XG ( j ) 2 2j s +
2

Since G ( j ) is a complex quantity,

G ( j ) = G ( j ) e j
where = G ( j ) = tan 1

Im G ( j ) Re G ( j )

but G ( j ) = G ( j ) e j = G ( j ) e j therefore a= X G ( j ) e j X G ( j ) e j and a = 2j 2j

Then
yss (t ) = X G ( j ) e j ( t + ) e j ( t + ) 2j

= X G ( j ) sin(t + ) = Y sin(t + )

If the system is stable, then the output y (t ) can be given by

y( t ) = Y sin( t + )

where

Im G ( j) Y = X G( j) and = G ( j) = tan 1 Re G ( j)
Note that for sinusoidal input

G ( j) =

Y ( j) = Amplitude ratio of the output sinusoid to the input sinusoid X ( j)

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

G ( j) = phase

Y( j) = Phase shift of the output sinusoid with respect to the input X( j)

-Input

output

Figure 2: Input and output sinusoidal signals.

There are three commonly used representations of sinusoidal transfer function: 1. Bode diagram or Logarithmic plot 2. Nyquist plot or polar plot 3. Log-magnitude versus phase plot

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

Bode diagrams or logarithmic plot. A sinusoidal transfer function may be represented by two separate plots, magnitude versus frequency plots and phase angle (in degrees) versus frequency. Therefore, Bode diagram consists of two graphs: Magnitude and phase angles are plotted against frequency in logarithmic scale. Standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of G ( j) is 20 log G ( j) where the base of the logarithm is 10 and the unit is decibel (dB). The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition. A simple method of sketching is available based on asymptotic approximation. Basic factors G ( j) H ( j) The basic factors that very frequently occur in the arbitrary transfer function G ( j) H ( j) are: 1. Gain K 2. Integral and derivative factors ( j) m1 3. First order factors (1 + jT) m1 4. Quadratic factors 1 + 2 ( j / n ) + ( j / n ) 2 The gain K A number greater than unity has positive value in decibels, while a number smaller than unity has a negative value. The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of 20 log K decibels. The phase angle of the K gain is zero. Integral and derivative factors ( j) m1 . The logarithmic magnitude of 1 / j in decibels is

m1

20 log

1 = 20 log dB j

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

The phase angle of 1 / j is constant and equal to 900. If the log-magnitude m 20 log dB is plotted against on logarithmic scale, it is a straight line with the slope of the line is m 20 dB/decade (or m 6 dB/octave).
( m log 10)dB = ( m20 log m 20)dB

If the transfer function contains the factor (1 / j) n or ( j) n , the log magnitude becomes,

20 log( j)

mn

= m20n log dB

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

The slopes of the log-magnitude curves are thus m 20 n dB/decade and the phase angles are equal m 90 0 n over the entire range. The magnitude curves will pass through the point ( 0dB, = 1) First-order factors (1 + jT) m1 The log magnitude of the first-order factor (1 + jT) m1 is

20 log(1 + jT) m1 = m 20 log 1 + 2 T 2 dB

For low frequencies, << 1 / T , the log magnitude may be approximated by m log 1 + 2 T 2 m20 log 1 = 0dB For high frequencies, >> 1 / T , m log 1 + 2 T 2 m20 log TdB Thus, m log T dB decreases/increases by 20 dB for every decade of . The curve is straight line with a slope of m 20 dB/decade. At = 1 / T , the log magnitude equals 0 dB. The exact phase angles of the factor (1 + j) m1 are m tan 1 T

At zero frequency the phase angles are 00. At corner frequency, the phase angles are = m45 0 . At infinity, the phase angles become m 90 0 .

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

Figure Normalized and scaled Bode plots for a. G(s) = s; b. G(s) = 1/s; c. G(s) = (s + a); d. G(s) = 1/(s + a) Quadratic factors 1 + 2 ( j / n ) + ( j / ) 2 Asymptotic frequency response curve

m1

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

2 20 log = 20 log 1 2 2 n 1 + 2 j + j n n 1
for low frequencies << n ,

+ 2 n

20 log 1 = 0dB , thus a horizontal line at 0 dB.

for >> n , the log magnitude becomes

2 dB 20 log 2 = 40 log n n
The equation for high-frequency is a straight line having slope 40 dB/decade The phase angle is
2 n = tan 1 2 1 2 n

1 1 + 2 j + n j n
2

KJM/MEC 522: ControlEngineering

Figure Bode asymptotes for normalized 2 and scaled G(s) = s 2 + 2 n s + n a. magnitude; b. phase

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Figure Bode magnitude plot for G(s) =(s + 3)/[(s + 2)(s2 + 2s + 25)]: a. components; b. composite

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Example: Draw the Bode diagram for the following transfer function

G (s) =

10(s + 3) s(s + 2)(s 2 + s + 2)

solution

G ( j) =

10( j + 3) j( j + 2)(( j) 2 + j + 2)

normalised

j + 1 7.5 3 G ( j) = 2 ( j) j + 1 ( j) + j + 1 2 2 2
This function are composed of the following factors
7.5, ( j) 1 ,1 + j ( j) 2 j , (1 + j ) 1 , 1 + j + 3 2 2 2

and the corner frequencies

= 3, 2, and

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Phase Margin and Gain Margin

The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which G ( j) , the magnitude of the open loop transfer function is unity. The phase margin is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability. The phase margin is 180o plus the phase angle of the open loop transfer function at the gain crossover frequency

= 180 o +
The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude G ( j) at the frequency at which the phase angle is 180o. Defining the phase crossover frequency , to be the frequency at which the phase angle of the open loop transfer function equals 180o gives the gain margin Kg.
Kg = 1 G ( j)

The gain margin is positive if Kg is greater than unity and negative if Kg is smaller than unity.

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Figure 3: Gain margin and phase margin.

Figure 4: Stability using Bode plots

1. The phase margin m is the distance of the phase angle curve above 180o at the crossover frequency c , where the magnitude plot crosses the 0dB axis. 2. The gain margin, GM dB in decibels, is the distance of the magnitude plot below 0 dB axis at the frequency where the phase angle curve shows an angle of 180o.

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Example Consider a system with loop gain function

G (s) =

0.325 s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)

Determine: The asymptotic magnitude plot The crossover frequency The phase margin The frequency where the phase is 180o. The gain margin
Solution

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Tutorial 1. Construct asymptotic Bode plots for the following transfer functions. 4 (a) (0.4s + 1)(s + 1) 8 (b) s(1.25s + 1)(s + 2) 3.125 (c) 2 s(s + 0.625s + 1.5625) 1.6 (d) (s + 0.4)(s + 0.8)(s + 1) 2. For a system with loop gain function 20 G (s) = (s + 5)(0.1s + 1)(0.025s + 1) (a) Plot the asymptotic Bode plot (b) At two convenient frequencies, 10 and 20, find the deviation of the true magnitude curve from the asymptotes, and sketch a section of this curve for use in part (c) (c) Determine the phase and gain margin 3. In figure 1, Gc = K and G = 2000 /[ s ( s + 20)(0.01s + 1)] (a) Construct the asymptote Bode plot and find the approximate deviation with the true curve for the frequency near the cross over to get a better approximation of the crossover frequency for K=1 (b) determine the phase margin for K =1 (c) How does a change of gain K affect Bode magnitude and the phase angle plots? What is the effect of reducing K by a factor m.

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POLAR PLOTS or NYQUIST PLOTS The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G ( j) is a plot of the magnitude of G ( j) versus the phase angle of G ( j) on polar co-ordinates as is varied from zero to infinity. Thus, the polar plot is the locus of vectors G ( j) G ( j) . The polar plot is often called the Nyquist plot. In polar plots the positive (negative) phase is measured counterclockwise (clockwise) from the real axis. An advantage in using a polar plot is that it depicts the frequency-response characteristics of a system over the entire frequency range in a single plot. The disadvantage is that the plot does not clearly indicate the contributions of each individual factor of the open-loop transfer function.

Figure 1

Integral and derivative factors ( j) m1 .

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The polar plot of G ( j) = 1 j is the negative imaginary axis since

G ( j) =

1 1 1 = j = 90 0 j

the polar plot of G ( j) = j is the positive imaginary axis. First-order factors (1 + j) m1 For the sinusoidal transfer function

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0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5

Nyquist Diagram

Imaginary Axis

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 Real Axis

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

G ( j) =

1 1 = tan 1 T 2 2 1 + T 1+ T

If

approaches infinity, the magnitude of G ( j) approaches zero and the phase

angle approaches -900. The polar plot of this transfer function is a semicircle at the frequency is varied from zero to infinity. The centre is located at 0.5 on the real axis and the radius is equal to 0.5. To prove that the polar plot is a semicircle, define

G ( j) = X + jY where X =

1 and 1 + 2 T 2
2

Y=
2

T then we obtain 1 + 2 T 2
2

1 1 2 T 2 1 2 X + Y = 2 1 + 2 T 2 2
2

T 1 + = 2 2 2 1+ T

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Quadratic factors 1 + 2 ( j / n ) + ( j / n ) n

The low and high frequency portions of the polar plot of the following transfer function are given as:

G ( j) =

1 , for > 0 1 + 2 ( / n ) + ( j / n ) 2

lim G ( j) = 10 0 and lim G ( j) = 0180 0

o

Figure : Polar plot of Figure 4: Polar plot showing the resonant peak and resonant frequency r

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The polar plot of this sinusoidal transfer function starts at 10 0 and ends as 0180 0 as increases from zero to infinity. Thus, the high frequency portion of G ( j) is tangent to the negative real axis. The value of G ( j) in the frequency range of interest can be calculated directly or using Bode diagram of Matlab.

The exact shape of a polar plot depends on the value of the damping ratio , but the general shape of the plot is the same for both the underdamped case and overdamped case. For the underdamped case at = n , we have G ( j n ) = 1 /( j2 ) , and the phase

angle is -900. Therefore, it can be seen that the frequency at which the G ( j) locus intersects the imaginary axis is the undamped natural frequency n . The frequency point whose distance from the origin is maximum corresponds to the resonant frequency r . The peak value of G ( j) is obtained as the ration of the magnitude of the vector at the resonant frequency r to the magnitude of the vector at = 0 .

Transport lag The transport lag

G ( j) = e jT
can be written as

G ( j) = cos T j sin T = 1 T
Since the magnitude of G ( j) is always unity and the phase varies linearly with
, the polar plot of the transport lag is a unit circle.

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Nyquist Stability Criterion If the open-loop transfer function G(s) has a P poles in the right-half of s plane, then for stability the G(s) locus, as a representative point s traces out the Nyquist path in the clockwise direction must encircle the 1+j0 point P times in counterclockwise.

Figure 2: Stability using Bode plots Phase margin. The phase margin is the amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability. The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which G ( j) , the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function, is unity. The phase margin is 180o plus the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function at the gain crossover frequency, or = 180o + . On the Nyquist plot, a line may be drawn from the origin to the point at which the unit circle cross the G(jw) locus. The angle from the negative real axis to this line is the phase margin. ths phase margin is positive for > 0 and negative

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for < 0 . For a minimum phase system to be stable, the phase margin must be positive. Gain Margin. The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude G ( j at the frequency at which the phase angle is 180o. Defining the phase crossover frequency 1 to be the frequency at the frequency at which the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function equals 180o gives the gain margin K g .
Kg = 1 G ( j1 )

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Tutorial 1. Use the Nyquist criterion to determine the range of values of K for the stability of the system 8K a) G ( s ) = ( s + 1)( s 2 + 2s + 2) 4 K ( s + 1) b) G ( s) = 2 s (1 + 0.1s ) 4 K (1 + 0.1s ) c) G ( s ) = s 2 (1 + s ) d) G ( s ) =

Ke 0.8 s s +1

2. Consider a unity feedback control system with the open-loop transfer K function G ( s ) = 2 s( s + s + 4) Determine the value of the gain K such that the phase margin is 50o. What is the gain margin with this gain K. 3. Consider the unity-feedback control system whose open loop transfer function is
G( s) = as + 1 s2

Determine the value of a so that the phase margin is 45o. 4. Consider the control system shown in fig. Using Nyquist criteria determine the range of gain K for the stability of the system.
R(s) + C(s)

+ -

K ( s + 0.5)

+ -

1 s (s + 1)
2