A Review of Creep Analysis and Design Under Multi-Axial Stress States

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Nuclear Engineering and Design 237 (2007) 1969-1986
Nuclear Engineering
and Design
ww.elsevier.com/locate/nucengdes
A review of creep analysis and design under multi-axial stress states

Hua- Tang Yao, Fu-Zhen Xuan *, Zhengdong Wang, Shan-Tung Tu
School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130. Meilong Street,
PO Box 402. Shanghai 200237, PR China
Received 18 August 2006; received in revised form lO Februar 2007; accepted 12 February 2007
Abstract
The existence of multi-axial states of stress cannot be avoided in elevated temperature components. It is essential to understand the associated failure mechanisms and to predict the lifetime in practice. Although meta creep has been studied for about 100 years, many problems are stil unsolved, in particular for those involving multi-axial stresses. In this work, a state-of-the-ar review of creep analysis and engineering design is carried out, with paricular emphasis on the effect of multi-axial stresses. The existing theories and creep design approaches are grouped into three categories, i.e., the classical plastic theory (CPT) based approach, the cavity growth mechanism (CGM) based approach and the continuum damage mechanics (CDM) based approach. Following above arangements, the constitutive equations and design criteria are addressed. In the end, challenges on the precise description of the multi-axial creep behavior and then improving the strength criteria in engineering design are presented. (i 2007 Elsevier B.Y. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
With the increasing demand for reduced C02 emissions and improvement of efficiency in energy conversion, higher operating temperature and design stresses have been adopted in chemical and petrochemical plants, power generation systems, etc. The main concern for the strength design of components
has thus moved to the viscoplastic performance of materials in
tic deformation under a fixed stress at temperatures of roughly

0.3-O.5T ro, where Trois the melting temperature of metals. The
main cause of creep failure is the nucleation, growth and coalescence of cavities on the grain boundaries (Leckie and Hayhurst, 1984; Huddleston, 1985; Kassner and Hayes, 2003; Goodall and Skelton, 2004). The multi-axial creep design method based on the classical plastic theory is limited in practical application because it is derived from the criteria of yielding failure and does
not account for the physical daage process.
Staing from the innovative work of Hull and Rimmer
order to prevent creep failure. On the other hand, the existence of multi-axial states of stress due to complexity of loadings and materials cannot be avoided. It is therefore essential to understand the multi-axial creep failure mechanisms and establish the multi-axial creep design criteria for the strength design and life prediction of high temperature components. Over the past several decades, considerable efforts have been
made to gain a fundamental understanding of creep mechanisms and to develop an efficient engineering design criterion for high temperature components under multi-axial stress states. Because the multi-axial creep behavior is very similar to that of
(1959), multi-axial creep design criteria using the models

based on cavity growth mechanisms (CGM) were established.
Then, the CGM-based models were improved by a lot of

researchers (Rice and Tracey, 1969; Hayhurst, 1972; Gurson, 1977; Manjoine, 1975, 1982; Raj and Ashby, 1975; Ashby and Edward, 1978; Cocks and Ashby, 1980, 1982a,b; Edward and Ashby, 1979; Cane, 1981a,b, 1982; Tvergaard and Needleman, i 984; Huddleston, 1985) from 1970s to 1980s. In recent years, further development has been made by Hales (1994), Margolin
et a1. (1998), Spindler et al. (2001), Spindler (1994, 2004a,b) and Ragab (2002). Some of these models have been applied in high
classical plasticity, the classical plastic theory (CPT) has been directly used in the multi-axial creep analysis during the first half of the 20th century. However, creep is a time-dependent plas-
* Corresponding author. Tel. +86 2164253513; fax: +8621 64253425.

E-mail address:fzxuaiiecusLedu.cn (F.-Z. Xuan).
0029-5493/$ - see front matter iD 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi: i O. I 0 16/j.iiucengdes.2007 .02.003
temperature strength design criteria or assessment procedures, e.g. R5 (Nuclear Electric pic, 1997), ASME BPYC-1I (1998), RCC-MR (1986) and Siemens AG Power Generation Design Codes (Siemens PG) (Andreas, 2000), to include the effect of multi-axial states of stress on creep failure.
1970
H.-T. Yao et at. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 237 (2007) 1969-1986
Nomenclature
y surface tension (N/m)
a, b, material parameters in Eq. (38)
A, B, C, D, m, n material parameters
A', B', C', nl, ml, bl material parameters In classical
YI, Yi, Y3 shear strain rates (s -I)

creep damage tolerance parameter
v Poisson ratio
Kachanov-Robotnov equations
A", B",p", q", l! material parameters in multi-axial creep
P radius of void (m)

Po initial radius of
void (m)
equations with single state varable AI!, BII, C'11, Dill, h'li, H*, Kc material parameters in multi-
p", a" material parameters in multi-axial creep equa-
tions with single state variable

a uniaxial stress (MPa)
c, l, k
axial creep equations with multi state variables material parameters in Eq. (37)
grain diameter (m)
ae efficient stress (MFa)

a ij stress tensor
d
Dg
Vf fc
fl1
grain boundary diffusion coefficient (m2/s) chemical potential of vacancy (1) cavity area fraction at tc, taken as 0.25
cavity area fraction
am hydrostatic stress (MPa)

ar creep rupture stress (MFa)
ai, a2, a3 principal stresses (MPa)
fn g
cavity area fraction at tn

material parameter defined by Eg. (24)
u von Mises equivalent stress (MPa) 7:, 7:2, 7:3 shear stresses (MPa) v stress index in Eq. (36)
vl/ stress index in multi-axial creep equations with
gl, r
H
gO
the value of g corresponding to simple tension

material parameter in Eq. (45) primary creep state variable (0 -c H -c H*) activation energy (1)
multi state variables
-t:H
W damage state varable (0 -c w -c i) Wcr critical damage state varable

W cavitation damage state varable (0 -c Wi -c 1/3) W2 precipitate coarsening state variable (0 -c W2 -c 1)
H* l
saturation values of H at the end of primar creep first stress invarant (MPa) loading state parameter (N = 1 for a tensile and N=O for a compressive)
material parameters in Eq. (31) material parameter in Eqs. (32) and (33) Boltzmann's constant (11K)
p,q
r
R
Rv
W3 mobile dislocation multiplication state varable (O-cw3d) Q atomic volume (m3)

i/ energy dissipation rate potential defined by Eq.
(53)
5ij
51
t
tc
tn
tr
triaxial factor defined by Eg. (46) deviatoric stress tensor maximum deviatoric stress (MPa) time (s) time to coalesce void (s) time to nucleate void (s) time to rupture (s)
temperature COC)
subscripts
c creep
cr critical e effcient
r rupture
c coalescence
n nucleation
ss steady state
T
Tm
melting temperature of metals (0C)
Greek letters
a, material parameters in Eq. (39)
al material parameters in Eq. (45)
The third important method for multi-axial creep design,

continuum damage mechanics (CDM) based method, was developed from the initial work of Kachanov (1958). Contrasted with
8ij Kronecker Delta 8z grain boundar width (m)
c creep strain
e effective strain f uniaxial failure strain
ij creep strain tensor r creep rupture strain
i, 2, 3 principal strains
f multi-axial failure strain
c creep strain rate (I)

e effective creep strain rate (s- I)
initial creep strain rate (s-I)

ss steady state creep strain rate ( I)
1, 2, h principal strain rates (s-)
the CGM-based multi-axial creep design method, the CDMbased method is developed on the phenomenological way and presented from the viewpoints of mechanics. With the rapid development of modern computer technology and finite element analysis method, CDM-based method has been focused again during recent years (Othman et aI., 1993; Hayhurst et aI., 1994; Kowalewski et aI., 1994a,b; Perrn and Hayhurst, 1996, 1999; Hyde et aI., 1996, 2004, 2006; Hsiao and Gibbons, i 999; ling ei aI., 2001a,b, 2003; Xu, 200a,b, 2001, 2004; Wang and Guo, 2005; Hayhurst et aI., 2005a,b; Lin et aI., 2oo5a; Mustata and
Hayhurst, 2005).
The purpose of this paper is to present a state-of-the-art review of creep design methods or criteria under multi-axial
1971
states of stress. Since the subject is quite old and there are many
For isothermal conditions, the creep strain is:
published papers, it is impossible to conduct this review in a

comprehensive manner. Also, many historical review papers are available on CPT-based method in books or monographs (Har,
1980: Boyle and Spence, 1983; Penny and Marott, 1995).
c = Btm~,
creep analysis (Harry, 1980).
(7)
which is known as Norton-Bailey law and commonly used in

Eq. (7) is developed for the constant stress and can describe
the primar, secondar or tertar creep stages. For varying
Therefore, this review places parcular emphasis on the developments of CGM-based and CDM-based methods. In the end, potential problems to be resolved in the near future are pointed
out.
stresses, differentiating the Eq. (7), we have
c = mBtm-all.
2. CPT-based multi-axial creep design method

In the strength design and remaining-life assessment of high
(8)
Removing the time variable t from Eq. (7) to Eg. (8), it can
be obtained:
temperature components, the information and data obtained

from a tensile specimen under constant load are extensively used due to be obtained easily in laboratory. For the case of multi-axial stress states, the effective stress criteria governing creep strain was proposed on the basis of the results of uniaxial creep test. To do this, some hypotheses and concepts developed in the theory of instantaneous plastic deformation were introduced again in
CPT-based method.
2.1. Uniaxial creep constitutive relationship
c = mB1lmaii/m ~m-l)/m.
(9)
Eqs. (8) and (9) are the rate forms which can be used to model the primar creep of decreasing creep strain rate. This process is usually called hardening (Josef, 2003). For example, the Eq. (8) is called time hardening because it models hardening phase using time parameter. Eq. (9) is called strain hardening because it contains stress and strain as variables. Eqs. (7), (8) and (9) are the accustomed creep constitutive relationships under uniaxial stress conditions.
2.2. Multi-axial creep constitutive relationship
The deformation of a tensile specimen under constant load depends on stress a, time t and temperature T. Consequently, the
creep strain of materials can be written as (Harry, i 980; Boyle
and Spence, 1983: Penny and Mariott, 1995):
c = f(() t, T),
rated into:
c = f(a)h(i)f3(T).
Experimental results of multi-axial creep test indicate that creep is a shear-dominated process for isotropic and homogeneous materials. Thus the following assumptions were made
(Boyle and Spence, 1983; Viswanathan, 1989):
(1)
where c is creep strain. Eq. (1) is usually assumed to be sepa-
(1) Constant volume is maintaned during creep, so the rate of volume creep strain is zero:
(2)
1 + 2 + 3 = 0,
The stress and time dependence of creep under constat stress

has received considerable attention. As a result, there are a
(10)
number of altemative expressions (Kennedy, 1962: Penny and Marriott, i 995). The most commonly used function of stress is
the power law attributed to Norton (1929):
fi(a) = Aan,
where , 2 and 3 are principal strain rates. (2) The principal shear strain rates are proportional to the principal shear stresses:
(3)
YI = Yi = h = 2 if, Ti T2 T3
(11)
where A and n are material constants. The function is popular for its simplicity in application to stress analysis. An importnt time function is the so-called Bailey law (1935):
where if is a constat; Yi, Yi and h are principal shear strain rates; Tl, T2 and T3 are principal shear stresses and:
T = --'
Yi = 2 - 3,
a2-a3
h(t) = Dtm(13:: m:: i2usually),

law, the temperature dependence is given as (Dorn, 1955):
T2=-,
0'3 -a
2
T3 al-a2 =--'
Y2 = t - 2,
(4)
where D and m are material constats. According to Arrhenius's
Y2=3-I,
(3) The effective strain rate e is related to the effective stress in the same way as the uniaxial relation, e.g.:
(5)
e = g(t)f(),
h(T) = C exp -- '
(-.6H)
(12)
where -.6H is activation energy and R is Boltzman's constat. Then the creep strain may be written as:
where is von Mises equivalent stress defined in the same way as in plasticity theory:
c = B exp -- tm all .
(-.6H)
(6)
= ~ V(ai - a2)2 + (a3 - a2)2 + (ai - a3)2.
(13)
1972
In terms of Eqs. (i 0)-( 12), the multi-axial creep constitutive relationship is given by:
81 = '2 g(t)--(a - am),
. 3 f()
2 = '2 g(t)--(a2 - am),
3 f()
3 = '2 g(t)--(a3 - am),
3 f()
(14)
(a)
(b)
where am is the hydrostatic stress and defined by:

0'1 + a2 + 0'3
Fig. 1. Scheme of voids nucleation (Lin, 2oo5b). (a) Voids nucleation in cold meta formng process. (b) Voids nucleation in creep deformation process.
O'm =
(15)
Under steady stress conditions, i.e., g(t) = i, the constitutive relation (14) reduces to:
and Rimmer, i 959; Edward and Ashby, i 979; Nicolaou et aI.,

2000; Kassner and Hayes, 2003). Impurity paricles which lack
. 3 f()
81 = '2--(a - am),
. 3 f()
82 = '2--(a2 - am),
. 3 83f() '2--(a3 - am). (16) =

A lot of examples for Eq. (16) in analyzing the steady state creep of high temperature components can be found in the books by Boyle and Spence (1983), Harry (1980), and Penny and Marriott (i 995), etc.
cohesion with the matrix may act as voids. A dislocation pileup breaking through the boundar might also be a suitable nucleus. Additionally, it has been shown by Edward and Ashby
(1979) that grain boundar sliding is an important cause for

voids nucleation at grain boundaies. Grain boundar sliding can be accommodated in varous ways: elastic accommodation, as shown in grain 1 in Fig. 2; diffusion flow, as shown in grain 2; or plastic flow, as shown in grain 3. Ifche incompatibility caused by grain bounda sliding cannot be accommodate in any of
these ways, voids wil appear and grow at grain boundar, as
3. CGM-based multi-axial creep design method

The studies on microstructural evolution of materials under external forces, e.g. stress and temperature, are a central subject of materials science (Honeycombe, i 985; Loretto, 1985; Humpreys, i 996; Fabrizio et aI., 2002). From observations at
shown in grain 4.
The nucleation and growth of voids reduce the load bearing section and accelerate the creep daage and this, in tur,
increases the void grow rate. When the voids grow from an initial size to half the mean cavity spacing, the coalescence of voids occurs, as shown in Fig. 3c.
3.1.2. Creep cavity growth and creep failure
a microscopic level, materials always contan some defects, e.g. dislocations (line-defect), grain boundaries and phase
boundaries (two-dimensional defects), inclusions and voids
(three-dimensional defects). These microscopic discontinuities
A stadard creep cure is shown in Fig. 4. According to Fig. 4, after the instantaneous elastic strain, there are thee creep stages:
will develop and finally cause damage and failure of components. It is realized that failure of most components operated at high temperature is caused by the nucleation, growth and coalescence of cavities (Hales, 1994; K won et aI., 2000; Kassner and Hayes, 2003; Michel, 2004). It is therefore necessar to under-
a decelerating strain rate stage I (primar creep), a steady minimum strain rate stage II (secondar creep) and an accelerating strain rate stage II (tertiar creep). Studies have shown that the nucleation of cavities usually occurs during the creep stage I and II (Kassner and Hayes, 2003), and their growth and coalescence
stand the cavity growth mechanisms so as to establish a proper multi-axial creep design criterion.
3.1. Introduction to cavity growth theory
..
i !
+
i
tt
Cavity growth mechanisms have been used to model the dam-
age resulting from the deformation of high temperature creep, cold metal forming, superplastic formng and hot metal forming (Lin ct aI., 2005b). Nucleation and growth process of cavities
vares under different loadings and temperatures. In cold forming processes of metals, for example, the voids normally nucleate around second-phase parcles and within the grains, as shown in
Fig. la. In creeping deformation processes, however, the voids usually nucleate along the grain boundar, as shown in Fig. 1 b.
3.1.1. Process of creep cavity growth
Small voids are often observed at grain boundar, paricularly transverse to the applied stress during creep tests. There
are several methods whereby voids might be nucleated (Hull
.,
,
I
.,
..
Fig. 2. Voids nucleation caused by grain bounda sliding (Edward and Ashby,
1979).
1973
(a)
(b)
(el
Fig. 3. The process of creep cavity growth: (a) nucleation, (b) growth, (c) coalescence.
C\
~ -;------------------------- -II
1 1
1 1 1 Fig.
-----0----
ruptue
II :
Fig. 6. The square aray of cavities in the Hull-Rimmer analysis (Hull and Rimmer, 1959).
--I.-1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-----------------
.g .5:---:--v: ro i I
CGM-based models have been used by many researchers to predict the influence of multi-axial stress on the creep failure strain or creep rupture time (Hull and Rimmcr, i 959; McClintock, 1968; Rice and Tracey, 1969; Hayhurst, 1972; Cocks and Ashby,
1980; Cane, 1981a;Manjoine, 1975, 1982;
. . 1 1
Margolinetal., 1998;
tr
4. Scheme of the standard creep curve.
Ragab, 2002; Spindler, 1994; Spindler et aI., 2001).
lead to the creep stage II when creep ruptue occurs because

of a significant increase of net section stress resulting from the
decrease of the load bearing section. The ruptue strain, Br, at
rupture time, tr, represents the rupture ductility of materiaL.
3.2.1. Difusion-controlled cavity growth mechanism and model

Hull and Rimmer (1959) was one of the first, later followed by
Raj and Ashby (1975) and Speight and
Beere (1975), to propose
Nucleation and growth of cavities usually occur during most

of the creep life, as shown in Fig. 5. This has been verified
a mechanism by which diffusion leads to cavity growth. According to this mechanism, the growth rate of cavities is influenced by the shape of voids and the diffusion process; the growth rate
by Cane (1981 a) on 2.25CrlMo and 0.5CrMo V steels, and
of a void is determined by the gradient of chemical potential

of vacancies, 'Vi, in the plane of the grain boundares. Vacancies
Sklenieka et al. (2003) on 9-12% Cr steels. Furtermore, the time taken up by cavity growth is often much longer than that
by cavity nucleation (Cane, 1981 a; Sklenieka et aI., 2003). So the creep failure of components operated at elevated temperature is usually controlled by creep cavity growth and studies on cavity growth mechanisms have received more attentions.
migrate under the influence of the gradient and lead to the growth of voids. The first cavity growth model based on diffusion-controlled
cavity growth mechanism was proposed by Hull and Rimmer (1959). It was used to predict the effect of combined hydrostatic
pressure, am, and uniaxial tension, a, on the rupture time of a
3.2. Cavity growth mechanisms and models
copper wire in the temperature range 400500C. The model

is shown in Fig. 6. It is a square aray of spherical voids with a radius p, lying on a grain boundar normal to the direction of applied stress a. In order to calculate the chemical potential
There have been, in the past, a lot of publications in which

cavity growth mechanisms were discussed (Evans, 1984; Riedel, 1987; Delph, 2002; Kassncr and Hayes, 2003; Michel, 2004). It is believed that cavity growth rates is a complex coupling function of plastic strain of surrounding grains and vacancy diffusion along grain boundaries (Michel, 2004). Cavity growth mechanisms are usually grouped into thee categories: plasticitycontrolled cavity growth, diffsion-controlled cavity growth and constrained cavity growth (Hales, 1994; Michcl, 2004). The
roughly 0 -+ 0.8 tr
roughly 0.8 -+ 1.0 tr
.A
of vacancies 'Vf at the void surface, assumptions were made by Hull and Rimmer (1959): the ring of void surface lies in
the grain boundar; the atoms are deposited uniformly over the
grain boundar and the voids retain spherical shape during the
growth. Using the model and assumptions, the rate of change of void radius is given by (Hull and Rimmer, 1959):
dp _ 2rrQ(Dgoz)(a am - 2yj p)S
.A
dt - RTap
(17)
Cavity nucleation -+ Cavity coalescence
and growth and creep rupture
where Q is atomic volume, Dg the grain boundar diffusion coeffcient, p the void radius, Oz the grain boundary width, y the
Fig. 5. Scheme of the intergranular damage development (Sklenieka et ai., 2003).
surace tension of metals, R the Boltzann's constant and S is

the function of pIa. Assuming the initial radius of voids po ~~ a
1974
t
Xi
failure strain f and uniaxial failure strain I'f is obtained:
1'; = 0.521
I'f sinh(3am/25)
(20)
A model similar to Fig. 8 but with a long cylindrical void in a remote simple strain rate field leads to another equation similar
to Eq. (20):
Xl
f = exp (~ _ 3~n) .
I'f 2 2a
(21)
3.2.3. Constrained cavity growth mechanism and model
Constrained cavity growth model was first proposed by

x.
Fig. 7. The model of spherical voids in a remote simple tension strain rate field
proposed by Rice and Tracey (1969).
and integrating Eq. (17), the rupture time is therefore obtained:
tr =
kTa
2:nQ(Dgoz)(a - am)
Dyson (1976), then developed by Cocks and Ashby (1980, 1982a,b), Edward and Ashby (1979), Tvergaard (1984), Yousefiani et al. (2000), and Delph (2002). The cavity growth mechanism occurs when the local deformation rate exceeds the deformation rate of surrounding materials due to cavity growth. Thus the cavity growth rate is constrained to produce the local strain at the same rate as the deformation caused by the remote
x ya 4y2 (a(a - O'm)/2 - 2Y)1 -+ + In . ta2

8 (a - am) (a - am)2 PO(a - am) - 2y
stress. Three conditions under which cavities grow by constrained mechanism have been analyzed by Edward and Ashby (1979) versus a decreasing size. They are: one par of the structure when its deformation is non-uniform, as shown in Fig. 8a;
cavities on the boundares when less than half
(18)
the boundares are
3.2.2. Plasticity-controlled cavity growth mechanism and model Generally speaking, diffusion-controlled growth dominates
cavitated, as shown in Fig. 8b; and material ligament between cavities when the diffsion field of a growing cavity does not extends half way to the next cavity, as shown in Fig. 8c. Cocks and Ashby (1980) proposed a model based on the
constrained cavity growth mechanism. This model is an isolated
when the cavity size is very small. As the cavity size increases, diffusion-controlled growth mechanism decreases
quickly, and the plasticity-controlled growth becomes predominant (Nicolaou et aI., 2000). According to plasticity-controlled growth model, cavity growth is resulting from the plastic deformation of the surrounding materials (Rice and Tracey, 1969;
cylinder with a hole and an outer diameter of 2l, as shown in

Fig. 9. The following hypotheses were introduced by Cocks and
Ashby: grain boundary cavities nucleate at inclusions at time t=tn, and then grow following the power law rule until they
Hancock, 1976). The mechanism becomes more importnt under high strain-rate conditions where significant strain is observed. The mechanism was first proposed by McClintock (1968) and Rice and Tracey (1969), and has been recently improved by
Khaleel et al. (2001) and Taylor et al. (2002) to model the

superplasticity. McClintock (1968) has proposed a model based on plasticitycontrolled growth mechanism to investigate the relation between the cavity growth and imposed stress and strain. The model is a cylinder cavity in a non-hardening materiaL. Then a more realistic model of an isolated spherical void in a remote-uniformed stress and strain rate field, as shown in Fig. 7, was presented by
Rice and Tracey (1969) to determine the relation between void
(b)
growth and stress triaxiality.
According to Rice-Tracey model, the ratio of the average strain rate of sphere radii to the remote-imposed strain rate, D,
is given by (Rice and Tracey, 1969):
(c)
D = 0.558 sinh 25 + 0.008 cosh 25' (19)
(3am) (3am)
Neglecting the second term on the right hand side of Eq. (19),
an equation describing the relationship between the multi-axial
Fig. 8. Three examples of constrained voids growth proposed by Edward and Ashby (1979).
t7,
t7"
1975
3.3.1. Applications of cavity growth theory in McDc According to Eq. (26) (through assuming tn =0), the relationship between the failure strain of multi-axial stress states and that of uniaxial stress is given by:
*. I (l-(1-fe)Il+I)
f = tcss = g(n + I) In (1 (1 - fn)Il+ll
(27)
Under uniaxial stress condition, replacing am I ' in Eq. (24) by
1/3, we have
gO = sinh r2n -1/2 (~)J .
0:,
Fig.
t7"
l n + 1/2 3
(28)
Replacing g by go in Eg. (27), failure strain under uniaxial load

9. A model of voids growing on grain boundar proposed by Cocks and Ashby (1980).
can be obtained:
coalescence at time t= tc; cavities keep spherical during their

growth. Based on the above model and hypotheses, a set of differential equations describing the void growth and creep strain rate were obtained:
d~, = g l(1 _lfh)n - (1 - fh)J ss,
~= ~ .
1 (l-(1-fc)Il+J
go(n + 1) (i - (1 - fn)n+J
(29)
By Eqs. (27) and (29), we have:
* .. = gO =
sinh((2/3)((n - 0.5)/(n + 0.5)))

sinh(((2(n - 0.5))/(n + 0.5))(amlt7e))'
f g
(30)
(22)
d:tc t 1 + g 2: l(1_1fh)'1 - 1 D ss.
The Eg. (30) can be used to describe the relationship between

the multi-axial failure strain a and uniaxial failure strain f The right hand side of the Eq. (30) is defined as a creep damage factor
F CK and applied for depicting the influence of multi-axial states
(23)
where ss denotes the steady creep rate without cavities; d the grain diameter;fh the cavity area fraction; n is material constants and g is defined as:
. SIn - . g =ht2n-1/2 (am)j n + 112 '

Integrating Eq. (22) at constant stress in terms of limits
(24)
fh = fn, t = tn,
fh = fc, t = te,
(25)
where fn is the cavity area fraction when cavities nucleate, and fc the value offh when cavities coalescence occurs and closes to 0.25. The time to fracture is then given by (Cocks and Ashby,
1980):
of stress on creep ductility of materials (Andreas, 200). It has been showed by Kwon et al. (2000) that the model can predct well the creep ductility of Durehete 1055 steel under multi-axial stress states. The study by Yao et al. (2006) has also found that the model can predict well the multi-axial creep ductility of G X12CrMoWVNb 10-1-1 steel. In British R5 procedure, a ductility exhaustion approach is used to assess creep damage. A model for the effect of multiaxial stress states on creep ductility, which is intended to be used when the ductility is a function of the creep strain rate, is included. The model was proposed and developed by Spindler (1994), Spindler et al. (2001) and Spindler (2004a,b) on Type 316 and Type 304 stainless steels from biaxial creep data and
taes the following form:
- = exp p 1 - - + q - - - ,
tc = tn++ In (1 - (1 (n l)gss
(1 - (1 fc1l+1)
; L ( a ) ( 1 3am ) J
(26)
f ae 2 2ae
(31)
where p and q are material parameters. Spindler et al. (200 1)
3.3. Applications of cavity growth theory in design criteria
and Spindler (2004a) suggests that p = 2.38 and q = 1.04 when failure strain is a function of creep strain rate and p = 0.15 and
q = 1.25 when failure strain is independent of creep strain rate.
Presently, there are a number of assessment procedures and design codes for high temperature components, e.g. British R5, American ASME II, French RCC-MR, German TRD (Technical Rules for Steam Boilers) and SIEMENS PG (Siemens AG Power Generation Design Rules). Cavity growth theory and models are adopted in these procedures and codes and multiaxial creep deformation criteria (MCDC) and multi-axial creep rupture criteria (MCRC) are therefore established to analyze the creep behavior of high temperature materials under multi-axial stress states.
The first term and second term on the right side of Eq. (31) reflect the influences of cavity nucleation and growth on the
creep failure behavior of materials, respectively. It is clear that Eg. (31) reduces to Eg. (21) whenp=O and q= 1. It is wort noting that Egs. (20) and (21) are also applicable for the prediction of multi-axial creep ductility. Similar work was done by Hales (1994):
a = ( ' ) r+l,
f ai
(32)
1976
Sf = 2a ( ) r+
Sf 3S a ,
(33)
b
.2
OJ"
.2
Plasticity
where r is the material parameter. Eq. (32) is developed for diffusion-controlled cavity growth and Eq. (33) is for constrained cavity growth.
3.3.2. Applications of cavity growth theory in MeRe
The creep rupture time of a high temperature component
(a)
Constrained
logi!
(b)
loge
depends on stress and temperature (Webster et aI., 2004). Under
uniaxial stress condition, rupture time tr can be expressed as a function of temperature T and uniaxial stress a:
Fig. 10. The relationship between cavity growth mechanisms and rupture time and rupture strain proposed by Hales (1994). (a) The effect of stress on time to rupture. (b) The effect of strain rate on ductilty.
tr = f(T, a).
Under multi-axial stress states, tr is given by:
(34)
Eq. (39) was adopted by Chellapandi et al. (2006) in the design of a prototype fast breeder reactor of 500 MW under 550C. For the steam generator spigot of modified 9Cr-1Mo, efficient stress is given by:
ae = O.4am + 0.867.
tr = f(T, ae).
(35)
(41 )
The effcient stress a e in this function depends on , a and am' A common explicit form for the function (35) is the power-law relation:
It is clearthat a = 0 and = 0.133 in Eg. (41).
tr = C(T)a;V,
3.4. Summary
(36)
where v is a stress index and CCD is a temperature dependent constant.

The study of Cane (1981a) on 2.25CrlMo and 0.5CrMoV shown that cavity nucleation was determined by the maximum principal stress ai, while cavity growth depended on the combination of a and von Mises stress . Accordingly the effcient stress is expressed as a function of ai and :
ae = (a a) ,
c-l Ilk
(37)
where c, land k are material parameters.

Huddleston (1985, 1993) further presented an improved effi-
cient stress model, which was adopted in ASME II:
ae=~S(::ir eXP(b(~: -1)),
(38)
where J is the maximum deviatoric stress defined by
J =ai +a2 +a3; Si is the first invariant of the stress tensor defined as Si = a - J/3 and Ss is defined as Ss =
fitting. Pressurized tube tests showed that the model is more
accurate than the classic criteria ofvon Mises, Tresca or Rankine in predicting the creep ruptue of 304 stanless under multi-axial
stress states (Huddleston, 1985).
J a? + ai + a~; a and b are coefficients determned from cure
Cavity growth mechanisms and models and their applications in engineering have been discussed in this section. For the three commonly accepted cavity growth mechanisms: plasticity-controlled growth, diffusion-controlled growth and constrained cavity growth, the first and second are mainly due to viscoplastic strain and diffusion respectively. However, constrained cavity growth is the result of combination of viscoplastic strain and diffusion. Most multi-axial creep models were developed on one cavity growth mechanism (Hull and Rimmer, 1959; Rice and Tracey, 1969; Hayhurst, 1972; Cocks and Ashby, 1980; Cane, 1981a). According to Beere (1981), the cavity growth rate in the whole creep failure process was not always controlled by the fastest growth mechanism. A complete description of the effects of cavity growth mechanisms on rupture time and strain was developed by Hales (1994), as shown in Fig. 10. When the stress is low, the constrained cavity growth is predominant, and there is a low strain rate and a long time to failure. When the stress is high, the plasticity-controlled cavity growth mechanism is predominant, and there is a high strain rate and a short time to failure. When the diffusion-controlled cavity mechanism is predominant, there is an increasing rupture strain with the increasing creep strain rate.
Pessimisms in creep damage evaluation can be reduced

soundly when transitions between different mechanisms were taken into account in modeling. Further improved models have been proposed by Margolin et al. (i 998), Spindler et al. (2001), Spindler (1994, 2004a,b), and Ragab (2002), etc., in which the combined influence of cavity growth and cavity nucleation or cavity coalescence on multi-axial creep ductility is considered. Cavity growth based models and their applications were generalized in Fig. 11. In RCC-MR and ASME, models based on plasticity-controlled growth mechanism were used to calculate the effcient stress. For the components in power plants, primar stresses are usually low and the failure is thus controlled by
In RCC-MR, the efficient stress is calculated by:

ae = aai + 3am + (1 - a - ) (0:: a + :: 1). (39)
where a and are material parameters. This model was pro-
posed by Hayhurst (i 972) according to the plasticity-controlled cavity mechanism. Clearly, it is reduced to the maximum principal stress when a = 1 and = 0 and to von Mises stress when a = = O. When = 0, it is reduced to the model proposed by Sdobyrev (1958):
ae = aa + (1 - a) (0:: a :: 1).
(40)
H.-T. Yao et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 237 (2007) 1969-1986
1977
damage. By introducing the damage variables based on equivalence principle and the concept of representative volume element
(RVE), the micro defects can be 'smeared out' and the stress and strain state can be considered as homogeneous. This approach is known as the continuum damage mechanics (CDM).
The CDM was initiated by Kachanov (1958) for the case of creep damage. A damage variable J varing from 0 for the
undamaged matenal and i for the full broken material was

presented to depict the micro damage of materials. The innovative idea is a challenge to the traditional material mechanics concept 'perfect' and 'failure', and points out an intermediate stage existing between perfect and failure. Odqvist and Hult (1962) pointed out that Kachanov's concept implied the life fraction rule of Robinson (1952). After that, a concept of effective stress written as a e = al(1 - J) was proposed by Robotnov (1969), which makes it possible for the coupling of strains and damages. Then, the strain equivalence principle was presented by Lemaitre (1971), through the concept of effective
Fig. I. Models based on voids growth mechanism and their applications in engineering.
constrained cavity growth mechanism (Hales, 1994).
Cocks-Ashby model has been constrcted for SIEMENS PG. A less conservative model by Spindler including the
combined influence of cavity nucleation and growth was

adopted in R5 procedure. The above assessment procedures or design rules generally lead to a conservative result. Nevertheless, the conservatism is usually acceptable in consideration of the safety requirements of nuclear power stations, coal-fired power plants, and petroleum and chemical industries.
stress. It suggests that any constitutive equation for a damaged material may be derived in the same way as for a virgin material except that the usual stress is replaced by the effective
stress. The further development was made by Hult (i 979), Chaboche (1981) and Lemaitre (1985), who presented a method to derive constitutive laws based on the framework of irreversible thermodynamics and the principle of strain equivalence. In addition, to tae damage-induced material anisotropy into account, vector
4. CDM-based multi-axial creep design method

CDM-based approach was used in the prediction of failure
time and rupture strain of
and tensor representations of daage variables were introduced

(Murakami and Ohno, 1980; Krajcinovic and Fonseka, 1981 a,b; Betten, 1982; Krajcinovic, 1983; Murakami, 1983; Chaboche,
i 982, 1984). The explosive development in this field can be seen from a large number of textbooks, monographs and reviews, for instance, by Kachanov (1986), Chaboche (i 988a,b), Krajcinovic
(1989), Lemaitre (1996), Voyiadjis and Katta (1999), Skrzypek
high temperatue components by intro-
ducing proper constitutive equations and damage variables. The advantage of the approach is that it is easily implemented with numerical methods to simulate the process of damage evolution and thus provide the information of the local stress and strain field. The method has been highlighted again since 1990s with
the rapid development of computer technology and finite ele-
and Ganczarski (1999), Zhang and Vallappan (1998a,b), Kattan

(2002), Allx et al. (2002), Lemaitre (2002), Lin et a1. (2005b)
ment method. A lot of multi-axial creep damage constitutive equations have been presented to analyze the creep damage and
failure of different materials. In this section, a brief introduction is given to continuum damage mechanics. After this, a detaled
discussion is carred out on the development of multi-axial creep
and Hayhurst (2005), etc.
constitutive equations and their applications in engineering.
4.1. Creep damage theory and constitutive equations

4.1.1. 1ntroduction to continuum damage mechanics
As discussed in Section 3, materials always contain some micro defects from observation at a microscopic level, e.g. line-defects, two-dimensional defects, and three-dimensional these micro defects is termed as damage defects. The existence of
(Lemaitre, 1996). The process of these micro defects nucleation, growth and coalescence, which initiates the macrocracks and causes the progressive degradation of material propertes, is called damage evolution (Skrzypek and Ganczarski, 1999). On the microscale, material structure is piecewise discontinuous and heterogeneous because of the existence of micro-defects or
CDM interlinks the experiences in micromechanics, continuum solid mechanics, physics, material science, numerical analysis, etc. In many applications, CDM has become an essential complement to fracture mechanics. The two branches of solid mechanics are complementar by the scale of the analysis: micro to meso for damage mechanics and meso to macro for fracture mechanics (Lemaitre, 2002). During the past decades, CDM has been used to descnbe different damage processes, e.g. creep (Murakami et aI., 2000; Becker et aI., 2002; Hayhurst et aI., 2005a,b; Mustata and Hayhurst, 2005), fatigue (Cheng and Plumtree, 1998; ling et aI., 2001a,b; Xiong and Shenoi, 2004; Dattoma et aI., 2006), creep-fatigue (ling et aI., 2003; Stolk et aI., 2004), ductile (Brunig, 2003; Gupta et aI., 2003; Pirondi et aI., 2006; Wu et al. 2006), and brittle (Vroonhoven and Borst, 1999; Kaji et aI., 2001; Ciska and Skrzypek, 2004). The materials include metals, concrete, rock, polymers, components, and ceramics. Here special focus is put on the creep damage analysis of metals and alloys under multi-axial stress conditions. More attentions are paid on the multi-axial creep damage constitutive
1978
H.-I: Yao et al. / Nuclear Engineering an Design 237 (2007) 1969-1986
equations using a scalar variable for damage measurement. In the cavity growth models discussed in Sections 3.2.1, 3.2.2
and 3.2.3, the cavities are assumed as sphericaL. From the
Reference stress was introduced to take into account the effect of stress redistrbution and multi-axial stress states. However,
this treatment is limited to kinematically determinate strctures.
geometrical viewpoint, the choice of a scalar variable for spherical cavities is a rational one (Krajcinovic, 1983). On the other hand, the assumption of isotropic damage is suffcient
to give a good prediction of the carring capacity, or the time
Also, it is applicable to other structures through the assumption

of stationar state pattem for deformation during creep rupture
process (Leckie and Hayhurst, 1974).
to local failure in structure components. The calculations are easily performed because of the scalar nature of the damage variable (Lemaitre, i 984). Additionally, tensors offourth-order or even eighth-order, eliminate any hope for the preservation of the physical clarity of the model (Krajcinovic, 1983). So the original measurement on Kachanov damage is stil appealing,
in paricular from a viewpoint of engineering application.
Then, a lot of multi-axial creep constitutive equations, with single or multi damage varables, were presented, for instance,
by Hayhurst et al. (1975, 1984a, 1984b), Hayhurst (1975,
1983, 1984a, 1984b), Lemaitre (1979,1984,1985), Othman and Hayhurst (1990), Kowalewski et al. (1994a,b), Hayhurst et al. (1994), Kowalewski et al. (i 994a,b), Perrin and Hayhurst (1996,
1999), Hyde et al. (1996, 2004, 2006), Xu (20ooa,b, 2001,2004),
4.1.2. Creep damage constitutive equations In the design of high temperature components, consideration
must be given to the possibilities of failure due to excessive creep
etc. These constitutive equations were used to predict the creep failure of different high temperature materials, e.g. nickel-based superalloy, aluminum alloy, titanium alloy, austenitic stainless steel and ferritic steel, etc.
4.2. Multi-axial creep equations with single variable
deformation or creep rupture. Norton creep law can be used to describe the stresses and deformation occurng in primary and second creep stages. However, for the life of components controlled by rupture, it is necessar to analyze their creep behavior
in the tertiar region of the creep curve.
In creep equations with single variable, a dominant damage parameter is defined to depict the state change of materials and the performance degeneration of strctures. However, no attempt is made to identify the physical nature of the damage parameter and to distinguish between different damage mechanisms. The constitutive equations with single damage varable
To reflect the deterioration of materials and describe
the tertiar creep stage, Kachanov (1958) proposed a phe-
nomenological method. For uniaxial tension he suggested the constitutive equations:

&c = f(rr T, w),
w = g(a, T, w),
(42)
where f is the strain rate function and g denotes the function of damage rate. By the selection of functionsfand g, it is possible to describe the tertiary region of creep curve and predict creep
rupture life.
An explicit formulation for Eq. (42) is often given by:
are applied where one damage mechanism dominates in the creep rupture process. In general, there are two kinds of multiaxial creep damage constitutive equations with single varable: Kachanov-Robotnov constitutive equation and Lemaitre constitutive equation. The former can be regarded as the generalization of classical Kachanov-Robotnov equation from uniaxial stress to multi-axial condition. The latter is based on the framework of irreversible thermodynamics.
4.2.1. Lemaitre constitutive equation
& -AI _ w)m" c - (1
all
w=B' a .
p'
(1 - w)a'
(43)
This is the so-called classical Kachanov-Robotnov Equations, in

which A', B', nl, ml, p' and ql are time and temperature dependent
Lemaitre constitutive equation under multi-axial stress states usually takes the following form (Lemaitre, 1979, 1984, 1985):
material constants and can be determined from uniaxial creep

tension tests. Integrating the equation set under the conditions of w = 0 when t = 0 and w = 1 when t = tr, the rupture time and strain are obtained by:
w=l- 1-Rv(1+a/)(f,) t ,
(45)
( - r' J i/(l+a)
where a', g' and r' are material constants; Rv is the triaxial factor which reflects the effect of stress states and defined as:
Rv = 3(1 + v) + i-(1 - 2v) ' '
t-
r - (1 + q')A'aP"
t:r = t:R i - -i ,
(44)
3 (am)2
( (i t)I/J
where
(46)
where v is Poisson ratio. Assuming that w equals to unity when

p' + 1
= &0- = ' B'all, t:* = &ofr, t:R = t:*. p' + 1 ql

For the components subjected to complicated stress states, it is essential to generalize the creep damage constitutive equations from uniaxial stress conditions to multi-axial stress. The original work was done by Leckie and Hayhurst (1974). Simple formulae were developed to determine the time of crack initiation and a lower boundar on the rupture time of strctures.
creep failure occurs (t = tr), we have:
tr = .
('j)-r
Rv(a + 1)
(47)
Then Eg. (45) can be rewritten as:
W=l-(l
tr ~) 1/(l+it).
(48)
1979
The constitutive equation has been used by ling et aL.
(200 I a,b) in the multi-axial creep prediction of an aero-engine
turbine disc. Based on the uniaxial creep test data of ZbNCT25 alloy at 650C, Jing ct aL. (200la,b) obtained:
V)
w=l- 1-- , tr
( t)0.1423
x o M
-q
-q
e.
and
tr =
( /787.2)-8.569
7.03Rv
Fig. 12. Dimensions of the T-joint.
Furthermore, the analysis of Rv with the help of finite element software ADINA indicates that complicated stress states wil accelerate the damage process and thus significantly reduce the creep life of disc. In the study of Wang and Guo (2005), the Lemaitre constitutive equation was used to analyze the creep performance of an aero-engine material (lMI834). The stress triaxial factor Rv in an axisymmetrc semicircular notched specimen was computed by using the FE software. It is found that the dangerous location is
the throat of the notched specimen where Rv is 1.16. Moreover,
of first category, including copper, is governed by the maximum principal stress criterion. However, the rupture criterion of second category, including aluminium alloys, is directly related to shear stress. Value of a" is very close to zero for the first category and to unity for the second. The value of
a" can be determned by the tests of uniaxial tension, pure shear and equal biaxial tension (Hayhurst, 1972), which are time consuming and costly. Hyde et al. (1996) proposed a less expen-
the creep rupture life of alloy steel can be predicted accurately

by Lemaitre constitutive equation with the modification of the
triaxial factor Rv.
sive procedure to determine the value of a" by comparson of FE results with experimental results obtained from Bridgman notch specimen. Consequently, Hyde et al. (1996) suggested that a" = 0.15 for nickel-based alloy and a" = 0 for titanium
alloy.
4.2.2. Kachanov-Robatnov constitutive equation
Typically, the multi-axial creep Kachanov-Robotnov constitutive equations can be expressed as (Leckie and Hayhurst, 1974; Hariy, i 980; Hayhurst, 1983; Hayhurst and Felce, 1986; Hyde
et aI., 1996):
The benchmarks of numerical modeling for creep continuum damage mechanics was studied by Becker et al. (2002) based on Eq. (50) and the finite element frame. The matcrials used for creep damage calculation are titanium alloy at 650C and
0.5CrO.5MoO.25V steel at 640C. Four different types of test
dij 3AiiS (-)"-i(l --- - 2 'j )-Il dt ..a -w ,

d) II (ar)P" di = B (1 + q")(1 - w)a'''
wcr = 1
(49)
representing uniaxial, biaxial, traxial and multi-materials creep and damage situations were caried out. Good agreement was achieved between the test results and those from two independent damage codes, an in-house code (FE-DAMAGES) and a commercial code (ABAQUS- UMAT).
In use of Eg. (50), Chen et al. (2003) analyzed the strain

allowances of pipes of 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V steel at 530 C, with
where ij is the creep strain tensor; A" , B", p" and q" are material constants; Wcr denotes the critical value of damage; and ar is the creep rupture stress. Considering that: (1) damage of materials
the help of commercial code ABAQUS. For the creep design of T-joint, as shown in Fig. 12, it was suggested that the allow-
is usually heterogeneous; (2) rupture stress is the function of

effective stress and maximum principal stress; and (3) critical
able strain in knuckle region should be less than 4.6% when

1 % allowable strain is used in the straight pipe. The value is
damage value is often less than unity, the Eq. (49) should be rewritten in the following form:
d;;j = ~AII()ll-i Sij((1 _ pI!) + (1 _ w)-n),
lower than the local strain prescribed in ASME Code N-47

(5%).
4.3. Multi-axial creep equations with multi variables
" (1 - p" dw II II (a ai +" - a )a)

di = g B (1 + q")(1 - w)a" ,
- i (1 1i)1/(J+q") Wcr - - _ g
In Egs. (45) and (50), there is only one damage varable and no
(50)
where pl/, gll and a/I are material constats. It is obvious that Eg.
(50) reduces to Eg. (49) when pI! = g" = 1.
consideration is given to the physical nature of damage parameter. However, studies on metal physics and void growth theory high temperature material results shown that the deterioration of from different mechanisms, e.g. grain boundar slide, ductile void growth, diffusion of vacancies along the boundary and car-
The parameter a" is introduced to reflect the influence of multi-axial stress states on creep rupture of materials. Tests by
bide precipitate coarsening, etc. To tae into consideration of

the effects of these different damage mechanisms on creep failure, multi-varable constitutive equations were thus developed, which can be described by the following general form (Hayhurst,
Johnson et al. (1956, 1960) shown that the rupture of materials can be classified into two categories. The rupture time
1980
2005):
ij = f(aij, Wi, wi"", Wn, T)
stress and von Mises equivalent stress. The function for cavitation damage can be derived from the study of Cane (Dyson,
1988):
vff
Wi =gl(aij,WI,wi,"',wn,T)
l = g2(aij, Wi, wi, ..., Wn, T)
Wi_ C"IN' (ai) , - Se (51 )

'
(56)
Wn = gn(aij, Wi, W2, ..., Wn, T)

where ij is the creep strain tensor, aij the stress tensor; wi(i = 1,
where e is the effective creep strain rate defined as e = (2ijij/3)1/2; Wi is the cavitation damagc variable and varies from 0 to 0.3; C'" is a material parameter; N is a parameter to
indicate the state of loading (for ai being tensile, N = 1; and
2, . . ., n) is the ith damage variable; and gi(i = 1, 2, .. ., n) is

the ith damage rate function. By selecting the appropriate strain rate functionfand damage rate function gi, the creep behavior
of materials can be accurately described.
for ai being compressive, N = 0); d" is the so-called sensitivity index of multi-axial stress and takes a value in the range of 0.5-3.
Engineering alloys are often strengthened by a dispersion of precipitated particles which are unstable with respect to time
and temperature. The precipitates on grain boundares provide a site for nucleation of cavities and the precipitate coarsening may
4.3.1. Strain rate and damage rate functions In the multi-variables damage equation, a Sinh-function is adopted to model the creep strain rate over a wide stress range.
Dyson and Osgerby (1993) proposed that dislocation climb and
restrict the deformation within the grain interior. So precipitate
coarsening is also an importt cause of creep damage and a

damage varable is needed to reflect the effect of this process. The evolution of the proposed damage varable may be derived from the coarsening theory (Dyson, 1988; Perrin and Hayhurst,
1996):
glide in creeping materials occur as a parallel process, instead

of the sequential one. This parallel process requires the creep
strain having a hyperbolic sine dependence on the applied stress (Perrin and Hayhurst, i 996). The strain rate equation without consideration of damage variable can be written in the follow uniaxial form:
= AI/I sinh(B"I a), (52)
. wi(1 - W2)4' = Kc 3
(57)
where W2 is the precipitate coarsening state variable and varies
where Alii and B'll are material parameters. The equation can be
from 0 to 1; Kc is a constant related to the initial paricle spacing
extended to multi-axial conditions through assuming an energy dissipation rate:

A'II tj = - coth(BII/').
B'll
(53)
Based on the assumption of normality and the associated flow rule, the multi-axial governing equation is proposed by Othman et al. (I 993) and Kowalewski et al. (1994a):
" = 3...tj = ~A'I/ (Sij) sinh(B!!a-)
and temperatue. For most nickel-based superalloys undergoing creep, the majority ofIifetime consumed in the tertiar stage. It is believed that the mobile dislocation accumulation should be responsible for the tertiar creep stage (Dyson and McLean, 1983). A rate function for dislocation accumulation damage was proposed by Dyson (1988) and Othman et al. (1993):
W3 = D'II(1 (3)2e,
I) 3Sij 2 a- '
a'j - o,)aKK
(58)
(54)
where W3 is the mobile dislocation accumulation state variable
where Sij is the so-called deviatoric stress tensor and defined by:
S,) =
(55)
and vares from 0 to 1; DJ/ is a material parameter. In addition, to describe the primary creep due to the initial strain hardening and the formation of dislocation microstrcture, a function for damage variable evolution is introduced by Kowalewski et al. (1994a) and Perrin and Hayhurst (1996):
where aij is the stress tensor; oij the Kronecker delta and aKK obeys the rule of summation convection.
Il = he (1 _ ~)
For the construction of damage rate function, particular

consideration should be given to the following mechanisms: cav-
a- H*'
(59)
where h is the material parameter; H is the primar creep state
itation damage from cavity nucleation and growth, precipitate coarsening, dislocation accumulation and strain hardening during the primar creep (Othman et aI., 1993; Kowalcwski et al., 1994a; Perrin ancl Hayhurst, 1996; Hayhurst, 2005). The nucleation and growth of cavities reduce the load bearing section and accelerate the creep damage. So the effect of cavitation damage should be explicitly represented in the constitutive equations. Canc (i 98 i a,b) presented that the nucleation and growth of cavity are dependent on the maximum principal
varable and vares from zero at the beginning of creep process
to H*, where H* is the saturation values of H at the end of

primar creep and subsequently maintans such a value until the occurrence of creep failure. A length discussion on the above physical mechanisms can
also be found in the publications of
Dyson (1988), Kowalewski
et al. (1994a) and Perrin and Hayhurst (1996). By introducing different damage state variables in the governing equation and in conjunction with the corresponding damage rate function, a
1981
lot of explicit forms for multi-axial creep deformation with the similar style of equation set (51) can be obtained.
4.3.2. Constitutive equations with double variables
Table i Comparson of estimated failure time for notched tube with actual time by Hsiao and Gibbons (1999) (565 "C, 100 MPa)
Internally notched
tube (h)
AS
Externally notched
tube (h)
33
Following the above scheme, Othman et al. (1993) obtained a constitutive equation by introducing a cavitation damage state
variables wi and a dislocation multiplication state variable W3:
ME Code N 47
Lason miler
CDM Expenmental results
33 128
2535 2907
325 3520 3844
t.. = 2 a- (Sii) sinh(BI!a-) 1) ~AI! (1-WI)(1-W3)n'
(60)
where n = B"!a- coth(BI!a-). Therefore
1/2 = AI! sinh(BI!a-) .

te = (2tI3Jtii)
(61)
(1 - WI)(1 - W3)"
4.3.3. Tri-variable constitutive equations To interpret the creep behavior of aluminium alloy under multi-axial stress states, a constitutive equation including variables WI, W2 and H was developed by Kowalewski et al.
(1994a,b ):
Replacing the te in Eqs. (56) and (58) by Eg. (61), an explicit
form for constitutive equation set (5 i ) is thus obtaned:

t.. = ~AI! (1 - W3)(1 - Wi)n' 1) 2 a- (Sii) sinh(BI!a-)
t.- - 1) 2(1-wi)"
. Ci A
3 AI!
Wi(1= Wi)nNa- sinh , - 1 - W2

. wi)4 W2(1= - Kc , 3
(62)
( Si). L BIIa-(1 - H)J ill (ai)ul! . iB1IIa-(1- H)J
-l sinh , a- 1-wi
WI = C A - , I! - sin a W3 = (1n W3) . h(B"1-),

. Iii I!(ai )U'" N sinh(BI!a-) a- (1 - W3)(1 - wi)"
. Dil A
(1 - Wi)
. h H=AI! -( wi)" iBIIa-(l-H)J' 1--H). H* 1 - W2 sinh a- (1
(64)
Eg. (62) has been used by Othman et al. (1993) to improve the
prediction of multi-axial creep behavior of nickel-based super-
where n is given by:
alloy. Hayhurst et al. (1994) made use of Eq. (62), together

with a continuum damage mechanics finite element based solver,
DAMAGE XX, to study the creep behavior of axisymmetric ally
n BIIIa-(1 - H)coth H)J =-W2iBIIa-(1 - . 1 I-wi
(65)
notched tension bars of a nickel-based superalloy. Numerical
results indicate that creep behavior can be represented in terms of a 'skeletal stress' located at a point within the notch throat, and the stress states of this point. However, Eq. (62) could not be used when the uniaxial ductility of the material was less than 1 % (Hayhurst et aI., 1994).
Hsiao and Gibbons (1999) developed a constitutive equation
For the aluminum alloy at 150C, the material constants in Eq. (64) have been determined by Kowalewski et al. (l994a,b) from the experimental results and an automated numerical optimization technique. The constitutive equations were adopted again by Lin et al. (2005a) to depict the creep rupture of pure copper at 250 C and aluminum alloy at 150 C under combined
loading. Creep tests were cared out for both materials at thee
including the precipitate coarsening state variable W2 and the primar creep state variable H:
dt 2 a- 1 - wi ' w?=Kc - 3
-- = -A - sinh
. (1 - wi)4
dij 3 iii (Sii)' iBIIa-(1 - H)J
II = ~AI!! (1 - li) sinh r BI!a-(1 - H)J
effective stress levels and for three stress states of tension, pure torsion, and combined tension and torsion. The comparison of experimental data and computed effective creep strain was performed and indicated that Eg. (64) can predict the isochronous
surface of materials precisely.
To predict the multi-axial creep behavior of ferritic steel, a trivarables type of constitutive equation was developed by Pcrrin
a- H* L 1 - wi '
(63)
Eq. (63) has been used in the prediction of
the creep rupture life
of internally and externally notched tubes of 2.25CrlMo steel

under the support of a finite element program, ABB-MARC. The estimated results were compared with the experimental data of notched tubes, the life predicted by ASME N-47 and that from Larson-Miller approach. The comparison showed that
and Hayhurst (1996). Based on the physical mechanism analysis of deformation and rupture of ferritic steel, the material parameters were determined following the approach of Kowalewski et al. (1994a). Subsequently, the tr-varab1es tye of governing equation was widely appled in the study of multi-axial creep analysis of 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V and 2.25CrlMo ferrtic steels and their weldments over a wide range of stress and temperature (Perrin and Hayhurst, 1999; Mustata and Hayhurst, 2005;
the CDM-based approach provided a very close result to the

experimental data, as shown in Table 1.
Hayhurst et aI., 2005a,b). In addition, Hayhurst (2005) verified the existing CDM-based tri-variables models in use of the welded ferritic steel components, e.g. butt-welded pipes, crosswelded tension plates and T-branched welded pressure vesseL.
1982
4.3.4. New development oftri-variable constitutive equations From the nature of cavity nucleation and growth, a lot of material damage models have been developed to predict the creep failure. In the constitutive Egs. (62) and (64), the model originally proposed by Cane (198 i b), namely Eq. (56), was used to reflect the elTect of stress states on cavitation evolution.
However, it was found that Eq. (5 i) could not lead to a sound prediction for the creep strain at failure and significant discrepancy was reported between the estimated results and experimental data (Xu, 2000a,b, 2001). To eliminate such a discrepancy, two functions of stress statesfi andh were introduced into the gov-
. K c wi)4 wi=(1 - 3
. H h=iii (AH). (Bill &(1 - w)J - (1 --wi)(1 - H) , & H* I - sinh
w=wifi,
where
(66)
fi = (3Si ) a ((b s: -)1 , exp 3am J 2&

and
(67)
erning equation by Xu (2oo0a,b, 2001, 2004), which can be

written as:
. "3=iiiA - (1-W2)(1-W) J, - (Sij). (BII &(1 - H) I) 2 & sinh
r exp p 1 - I + q h = 1. (( ai ) ( & 3tTm2')- J 1. r-I 2&
(68)
Thefunctionfi derived from Huddleston's work (1985, 1993)
is used to couple the effects of tertiary deformation, creep dam-
Wi = sin 1, (1-W2)(1-w) . CIIAIIN' h ( BII&(1 - H) J f

Table 2
age and creep rupture. The function h proposed by Spindler

(1994) and Spindler et al. (2001) is employed to describe
the effect of multi-stress states on the damage evolution. The
Summar of the multi-axial creep damage constitutive equations and applications in engineering
Constitutive equations and damage variables
Constitutive equations with single varable
Contrbutors and applications
Kachanov-Nobotnov constitutive equations A dominant damage variable W is used to describe the state changes occurred in materials
Hyde et al. (1996) on Waspaloy alloy (700 DC) and IM1834 alloy (650 "c)
Hyde et al. (1999) on 2.25Cr1Mo (640 'OC and I CrO.5Mo steel (550 'C)
Hyde et al. (2002) on CrMo V steel (640C)

Chen et al. (2003) on O.5CrO.5Mo 0.25 V steel (530 DC)
Becker et al. (2002) on 0.5CrO.5Mo 0.25 V steel (640 GC) and titanium alloy (650 'C) Hyde et al. (2004) on CrMoV steel weldment (640C) Orlando and Goncalves (2005) on Ti-6AI-2Cr-2Mo alloy (400 "C) Hyde and Sun (2006a) on CrMoV steel weldment (640 "C) Hyde et al. (2006) on P91 steel (650 'C and 625 'C)
Lemaitre constitutive equations A dominant damage variable w is used to describe the state changes occurred in materials
ling et al. (2oola,b) on ZbNCT25 alloy (650C) ling et al. (2003) on 30CrlMo i V steel (525 "C) Wang and Guo (2005) on IMI 834 alloy (650C)
Constitutive equations with double varable
Othman constitutive equations Variable wi for cavitation damage and (3 for mobile dislocation multiplication
Othman et al. (1993) on nickel-based superalloy Hayhurst el al. (1994) on nickel-based superalloy Hsiao and Gibbons (1999) on 2.25Cr1Mo steel (565 "C)
Hsiao constitutive equations

Varable W2 for precipitate coarsening and H for strain
hardening from primary creep Xu constitutive equations

Vanable W for cavitation damage and Hfor strain
Xu and Hayhurst (2003) on 316 stainless steel (550 'C)
hardening during the primar creep stage

Constitutive equations with tr-varable
Varable ( for cavitation damage; W2 for precipitate coarsening and H for strain hardening during the
primar creep stage
on aluminium alloy (150 'C) on aluminium alloy (l50"C) Li et al. (2002) on aluminium alloy (150 DC) Un et al. (2005) on copper (250C) and aluminium alloy (150C) PelTin and Hayhurst (1996) on 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V steel (600-75 C) PelTin and Hayhurst (1999) on 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V steel (600-75 "C)
Kowalewski et al. (I 994b)
Kowalewski et al. (I 994a)
Hayhurst et al. (2005a) for CrMoV (565-640 DC) Mustata et al. (2005) for 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V (565-675 GC) Hayhurst et al. (2005b) for Cr-Mo- V steel (575-640 "C)
Hyde et al. (2006) for P91 steel (650C and 625C)
1983
improved equation (66) was applied to the prediction of creep

behavior of 0.5CrO.5MoO.25V ferritic steel at 590C. As was expected, good agreement between the experimental observa-
5. Conclusions
Since the primar, secondar and tertar uniaxial creep

processes were identified by Andrade (1910, i 914), many experimental investigations have been cared out and focused on the
tions and estimation from the developed Eq. (66) was achieved
(Xu, 2001. 2004).
4.4. Summary
The CDM-based method and constitutive equations for creep design under multi-axial stress states were reviewed in this Section. The existing multi-axial creep constitutive equations and their applications are summarized in Table 2. It can be seen that
the single varable Kachanov-Robotnov constitutive equations, namely equation Set (46), and tri-variable equations, namely
data collection. These data can be used for the creep design of different engineering components operated at high temperature through extrapolating in four ways, i.e., to multi-axial state of stresses, to life extrapolation, to various loadings and
to aggressively external environment. In this work, the first way was discussed, with paricular emphasis on the CGM-based and CDM-based multi-axial creep design methods. The CGM-based method is developed on the basis of
equation Set (64), are used frequently, in paricular in the prediction of multi-axial creep behavior of low-alloy ferritic steel.
Generally speaking, such a kind of steel is widely used in components in fossil and nuclear power stations operated under
the physical modeling for microstrcture evolution of materials under external loading. The main failure causes of high temperature components, namely, the nucleation, growth and coalescence of cavities under stress and temperatue were accommodated in the CGM-based models. Therefore it has
been adopted in many design codes or assessment procedures to predict the creep deformation and rupture of high temperature components under multi-axial stress conditions. The CDM-based method is derived from the innovative work of Kachanov. The great advantage of CDM-based approach is
creep regime. Compared with the single variable equation, two
advantages are revealed in multi-variable equations:
(i) Multi-variables are introduced to distinguish different mechanisms and effects on the damage evolution. (ii) A Sinh-function is adopted to replace the traditional power law and to describe the stress sensitivity of creep rates over a wide stress range.
Hyde et a1. (2006) compared the single variable Eq. (49) and tr - variable Eq. (64) in the prediction of creep fail ure of P91 steel. The results shown that for the single variable model, the creep evolution is dominated by the damage variable w. While for the tri-variable model, the value of cavitation damage variable wi is much larger than that of the precipitate coarsening variable
W2. Therefore creep failure is mainly controlled by the accumu-
that it can be used in conjunction with finite element method to provide information on the local stress and strain fields. It
reflects the effects of damage evolution on stress redistribution
and strain accumulation in components so as to reduce conservatism in creep design. For multi-varable equations being non-linear and strongly coupled, an automated numerical optimization technique proposed by Kowalewski et al. (1994) is
usually needed to determine the material parameters required in
creep analysis.
lation of varable wi. However, the predicted results of failure time by Egs. (49) and (64) very close to each other at the higher stress levels (e.g. 70-100MPa). On the other hand, the single variable Eg. (49) will overestimate the lifetime of components at the lower stress level (Hyde et aI., 2006). Nevertheless, when the creep failure is controlled by one dominant damage mechanism, and the creep tests to determine material parameters are
carred out at a stress close to the operating level, both single
For both CGM-based and CDM-based methods, the existing multi-axial creep analysis models or constitutive equations are generally sensitive to material and temperature. Since creep damage mechanisms are dependent on materials and temperature, a general model or constitutive equation is yet unavailable.
For a given material under the given temperature and stress range, it is importnt to know the nature of creep damage and
thus to develop a proper analysis modeL. In addition, it is beneficial to propose a CGM-based method for initial design whilst to develop a CDM-based method for life extension or integrity
assessment of the serviced strctures.
variable equation and tr-variab1e equation are appropriate for

the description of multi-axial creep behavior.
It has been shown (Goodall et aI., 1975; Dyson, 1988) that creep damage tolerance parameter ( = er!Str, where s is ini-
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the supports provided by China Natural Science Foundation (50225517, 50505012). FZ would
also wish to thank the supports provided by Shanghai Rising-
tial strain rate) should to be greater than 5-10 to extend local lifetimes sufficiently and to justify the safe usage of upper bound estimates of component lifetimes. A 'nodal release technique' is usually needed in implementing CDM-based method
in creep analysis (Hsiao and Gibbons, 1999; Yatomi et aI., 2003).
Sta Program (05QMXI416) and Fok Ying Tung Education

Foundation (101054).
According to the technique, once damage occurred in the material, the corresponding elements are considered to be 'death' and will be removed in the FE modeL. In addition, finer finite element
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A review of creep analysis and design under multi-axial stress states

tic deformation under a fixed stress at temperatures of roughly

(1959), multi-axial creep design criteria using the models

Then, the CGM-based models were improved by a lot of

* Corresponding author. Tel. +86 2164253513; fax: +8621 64253425.

YI, Yi, Y3 shear strain rates (s -I)

P radius of void (m)

p", a" material parameters in multi-axial creep equa-

tions with single state variable

ae efficient stress (MFa)

am hydrostatic stress (MPa)

cavity area fraction at tn

the value of g corresponding to simple tension

multi state variables

W damage state varable (0 -c w -c i) Wcr critical damage state varable

W3 mobile dislocation multiplication state varable (O-cw3d) Q atomic volume (m3)

melting temperature of metals (0C)

al material parameters in Eq. (45)

The third important method for multi-axial creep design,

8ij Kronecker Delta 8z grain boundar width (m)

f multi-axial failure strain

c creep strain rate (I)

initial creep strain rate (s-I)

For isothermal conditions, the creep strain is:

published papers, it is impossible to conduct this review in a

which is known as Norton-Bailey law and commonly used in

stresses, differentiating the Eq. (7), we have

2. CPT-based multi-axial creep design method

temperature components, the information and data obtained

where c is creep strain. Eq. (1) is usually assumed to be sepa-

The stress and time dependence of creep under constat stress

h(t) = Dtm(13:: m:: i2usually),

where D and m are material constats. According to Arrhenius's

h(T) = C exp -- '

= ~ V(ai - a2)2 + (a3 - a2)2 + (ai - a3)2.

2 = '2 g(t)--(a2 - am),

3 = '2 g(t)--(a3 - am),

where am is the hydrostatic stress and defined by:

and Rimmer, i 959; Edward and Ashby, i 979; Nicolaou et aI.,

. 3 83f() '2--(a3 - am). (16) =

(1979) that grain boundar sliding is an important cause for

these ways, voids wil appear and grow at grain boundar, as

3. CGM-based multi-axial creep design method

Cavity growth mechanisms have been used to model the dam-

Ragab, 2002; Spindler, 1994; Spindler et aI., 2001).

lead to the creep stage II when creep ruptue occurs because

3.2.1. Difusion-controlled cavity growth mechanism and model

Beere (1975), to propose

Nucleation and growth of cavities usually occur during most

by Cane (1981 a) on 2.25CrlMo and 0.5CrMo V steels, and

of a void is determined by the gradient of chemical potential

3.2. Cavity growth mechanisms and models

copper wire in the temperature range 400500C. The model

There have been, in the past, a lot of publications in which

dp _ 2rrQ(Dgoz)(a am - 2yj p)S

Cavity nucleation -+ Cavity coalescence

and growth and creep rupture

Fig. 5. Scheme of the intergranular damage development (Sklenieka et ai., 2003).

surace tension of metals, R the Boltzann's constant and S is

failure strain f and uniaxial failure strain I'f is obtained:

3.2.3. Constrained cavity growth mechanism and model

Constrained cavity growth model was first proposed by