March 2012

Published by ACC Limited March 2012, Vol. 86, No. 3, Rs.
65
Bridge Management System Tall Buildings NDT
BASF India Limited Construction Chemicals Division Plot No. 37, Chandivali Farm Road, Chandivali Andheri - East, Mumbai 400072 E-mail: construction-india@basf.com Website: www.basf-cc.co.in Tel: +9122 28580200 Fax: +9122 28478381
maRch 2012
VOLUmE 86
NUmBER 3
Founded in 1927
Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604. The contents of this journal are contributions of individual authors, and reflect their independent opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations and do not necessarily imply that they reflect the views of the Publisher, ACC Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any damage or inconvenience, caused to anyone who may have acted on the information contained in the publication. The indian Concrete Journal, issn 0019-4565 Copyright 2012 ACC Limited. ACC Limited - Registered Office Cement House, 121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020. The copyright, database rights and similar rights in all materials published in The Indian Concrete Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of this material may be used for any commercial or public use, other than for the purpose of fair dealing, research or private study, or review of the contents of the journal, in part or in whole, and may not be reproduced or stored in any media for mass circulation without the prior written consent of the publisher.
Technical Papers
07 13 33 43
Some studies on the effect of carbonation on the engineering properties of concrete B.B. Das, S.K. Rout, D.N. Singh and S.P. Pandey Review of inspection practices, health indices, and condition states for concrete bridges Sanjay S. Wakchaure and Kumar N. Jha
Non destructive evaluation of concrete interlocking paving blocks M.C. Nataraja and Lelin Das
Superposition principle invalid in IS 13920 design of slender Rc walls with boundary elements D.H.H. Rohit, P. Narahari, Arvind Kumar Jaiswal and C.V.R. Murty
publishing / EdiTorial / advErTisEmEnT & CirCulaTion offiCE
The Indian Concrete Journal ACC Limited L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka Next to Eternity Mall Thane (West) 400 604, Maharashtra, INDIA. Tel: 00-91-22-33027646 Website: www.icjonline.com E-mail: info@icjonline.com icj@acclimited.com
Features
03 05 27 39 52 53
EdITORIaL NEwS & EVENTS dIScUSSION FORUm TaLL BUILdINGS: a year in review : Trends of 2011 Skyscraper completion reaches new high for fifth year running Nathaniel Hollister and Antony Wood LETTER TO ThE EdITOR POINT OF VIEw: are heritage structures in Tamilnadu seismically vulnerable? A. Veerappan
Editor: A.N. Singh Editorial Team: Ulhas F. Fernandes Sushma V. Mathur
for subsCripTion Tariff, please see page 2
MARCH 2012 ThE INdIaN cONcRETE JOURNaL
S U B S C R I B E T O D A Y!
Tariff for the Year 2012
IndIan tariff, (Rupees) Online E-Journal Paper edition Online E-Journal & paper edition 1 year 400 750 1100 2 years 800 1500 2200 3 years 1200 2250 3300 OVERSEaS tariff, (US dollars) Online E-Journal Paper edition Online E-Journal & paper edition 1 year 85 100 120 2 years 160 190 220 3 years 240 275 320
Subscription Form
This is a New subscription Renewal My preference is for Online E-Journal, Paper edition, Online E-Journal & paper edition. (see tariff above) The subscription may be started from the month of ____________________ I enclose the payment of Rs. ____________________by cheque/demand draft no._____________________________________ dated__________________ drawn in favour of 'ACC Limited' Name: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
(BLOCK LETTERS ONLY)
Delivery address:_____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ City/Town:_______________________________ District:______________________________ State_________________________ Pin Code: ____________________________ Tel: _________________________________ Fax: ______________________________
(PIN CODE IS MANDATORY)
E-mail id:_____________________________________________ Website: ______________________________________________ Signature: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________________________________________

Kindly note that payment by cheques will be accepted for Mumbai (including Navi Mumbai and Thane areas). For those outside Mumbai, kindly send a Demand Draft of any bank payable at Mumbai. Alternatively, you could either send a cheque adding Rs. 100 (bank charges for outstation cheques) to the cheque amount. Alternatively you could send a cheque that is authorised as 'Payable at par' in Mumbai without adding bank charges of Rs. 100. Kindly send this form to The Circulation Manager, The Indian Concrete Journal, ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Next to Eternity Mall, Thane (West) 400 604, Maharashtra, INDIA. Tel: 00-91-22-33027646.
For online payment and other details, please visit www.icjonline.com
Editorial
Rice husk ash
tilisation of agricultural residue in housing and construction has been investigated for many years with limited commercial success. Rice husk are a residue produced in significant quantities in India. In broad terms, one tonne of rice gives 200 kg of husk. For every 1000 kg of rice husk burnt, 200 kg of ash are produced. This means rice husk ash (RHA) production rate is about 40 kg per ton of rice.1 In 2009, it was estimated that the world production of rice was 480 million tonnes.2 With India currently producing about 95 million tonnes of rice, the potential for rice husk ash in our country is about 3.5 million tonnes.3 It was estimated that about 1/3 of the available husk in India can be collected and converted to ash for use as a Portland cement replacement. So, about one million tonne of rice husk ash is potentially available as a mineral admixture.
1. Cement Replacement Materials, Rice Husk Ash, Chapter 6, by D. J. Cook, Surrey Press (1986) 2. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am491e/am491e00.pdf 3. http://www.livemint.com/2011/08/09184142/Rice-production-likely-tosurp.html
In the conversion process of rice husk to ash, the combustion process removes the organic matter and leaves a silica-rich reside. When rice husks are heated, weight loss occurs at 100oC due to evaporation of absorbed water. At 350oC, the volatiles ignite, causing, further weight loss and husks commence to burn. From 400oC to 500oC, the residue carbon oxidises with the majority of the weight loss occurring in this period. The silica in the ash is still in an amorphous form with high reactivity. Above 600oC, in some cases the formation of quartz may be detected. Prolonged heating at temperatures beyond 800oC produces essentially, crystalline silica.1 The relative proportion of the forms of silica in the ash depends not only on the temperature of combustion but also the duration. Combusting husk at below 500oC and up to 680oC under oxidising atmosphere can produce amorphous silica provided the hold time is controlled. Apart from influencing the degree of crystallinity, the time-temperature relationship also influences the specific surface area of the ash, a parameter which is
MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal
closely related to the pozzolanic activity of the ash. The pozzolanic behavior of rice husk ash is the ability to react with calcium hydroxide at ambient temperature in the presence of moisture to form cementitious hydration products. Several researches have offered furnace designs for the production of this kind of ash. After Mehta described the effect of pyro-processing parameters on the pozzoloanic reactivity of RHA, Pitt designed a fluidised bed furnace for controlled combustion of RHA.4 Until recently, the RHA generated by the processes that are on the market had 3% or more graphitic carbon which gave the dark color to the material, restricting its use in architectural applications where color is the driver and leads to excessive demand from water and chemical admixtures in order to maintain appropriate slump and other properties in concrete. Recently, researchers in the USA have developed a new continuous production process of manufacturing RHA in which the rotary tube furnace was maintained in aerobic conditions at 700oC with a residence time of 40 min to obtain off-white RHA with a carbon content of less than 0.3%.5 Another associated group has achieved this feat under a different set of conditions; using a rotary kiln furnace in which incineration of rice husk was done under oxidizing conditions at 400oC for 4 h.6 Generally, the findings reported in the literature highlight the role of RHA as an effective pozolana that increases
quartz sand, 42%
Weight composition
strength and durability of Portland cement mixtures and that the performance of RHA is very comparable to that of silica fume. However, the compressive strength in such reports rarely cross 50 MPa.6 A paper published in 'Performance-based specifications for concrete' suggests that RHA can be a good supplementary material to produce ultra high performance concrete with compressive strength of 120 MPa or more.7 The typical weight composition is given in the Figure. (Water/binder ratio range : 0.21 -0.23. The mix includes 1 % fibres by volume of mixture. Volume of water to volume of fine material ratio was 0.50 to 0.55.) The combination of RHA and ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) improved not only the workability but also compressive strength. The use of RHA in cement production is essentially undertaken in small village units. However, the potential for this material is quite clear from the above example. Cost reduction, performance , durability and environmental concerns are the primary characteristics that can make RHA a valid alternative to partially substitute Portland cement.
4. Mehta P.K., Siliceous ashes and hydraulic cements prepared therefrom, Belgium Patent 802, 909 (1973). 5. Ferraro R.M., Nanni A, Vempati R.K. and Matta F., Carbon neutral off-white rice husk ash as a potential white cement replacement , Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, October 2010, pp. 1078 -1083. 6. Harish K.V, Rangaraju P.R and Vempati R.K., Fundamental Investigations into Performance of Carbon Neutral Rice Husk Ash as Supplementary Cementitious Material, Transport Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board, No 2164, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2010, pp 26-35. 7. An V. and Ludwig H.-M, Using rice husk ash and ground granulated blastfurnace slag to replace silica fume in UHPC, Performance based Specification for Concrete Proceedings , Editors Frank Dehn and Hans Beushausen,, MFPA Leipzig GmbH, Institute for Material Research and Testing, Leipzig, June 2011, pp 80-89
The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012
News & Events

Global Demand for Construction Aggregates to Exceed 48 Billion Metric Tons in 2015
The global market for construction aggregates is expected to increase 5.2 percent per year through 2015 to 48.3 billion metric tons. This represents a slower rate of growth than during the 2005-2010 period, reflecting a moderation in aggregates-intensive nonbuilding construction activity. Nevertheless, demand for construction aggregates will still post solid gains from 2010 to 2015. The Asia/Pacific region will register the largest increases in product sales, as construction activity will rise rapidly, particularly in China and India. China alone will account for half of all new aggregates demand worldwide during the 2010-2015 period. These and other trends are presented in World Construction Aggregates, a new study from The Freedonia Group, Inc., a Cleveland-based industry market research firm. Eastern Europe and the Africa/Mideast region are also expected to undergo significant growth in consumption of construction aggregates, stimulated by infrastructure development projects and strong growth in general economic activity. While the Central and South America market will climb at a somewhat slower pace, aggregates suppliers will benefit from gains in regional construction spending. Expansions in demand in developed parts of the world -- the US, Canada, Japan, Western Europe, South Korea and Australia -- will not be as strong as in most industrializing areas. This is primarily due to the already welldeveloped infrastructures found in these countries and the construction methods utilized, which tend to feature less concrete. Demand for crushed stone, sand and gravel products will post similar growth rates of just over five percent per year through 2015. As in 2010, sand will continue to make up the largest portion of global sales, followed closely by crushed stone and then gravel. Due to more restrictive land use and environmental regulations, as well as the depletion of natural aggregates reserves, sales of recycled, secondary and other aggregates will climb at an above-average pace during the 20102015 period. However, despite projected growth of 7.1 percent per year over this span, these products will continue to play a small role in world markets due to quality concerns and limitations in the availability of feed material. Wo r l d C o n s t r u c t i o n A g g r e g a t e s (published 01/2012, 334 pages) is available for $5900. For more details, please contact: Corinne Gangloff The Freedonia Group, Inc., 767 Beta Drive, Cleveland, OH 44143-2326, USA Tel: 440.684.9600, Fax 440.646.0484 e-mail: pr@freedoniagroup.com. Web: www.freedoniagroup.com.
AARCV 2012
The School of Architecture and the Department of Civil Engineering, M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, is organising an international conference on Advances In Architecture and Civil Engineering (AARCV 2012) during June 21 to 23, 2012. Advances in Civil Engineering and Architecture are the order of the day with the rapid industrialization and urbanization seen in developed and developing nations. Innovative design and construction practices are challenging tasks to the architects and engineers to meet the ever growing demands of the society. Keeping these in mind the present international conference is being organized. The themes of the conference cover architectural, structural, geotechnical, transportation, environmental and urban planning disciplines. The event is targeted at architects, engineers, infrastructure and project managers, academicians, consultants, designers, builders, equipment and materials manufacturers, govt., semi govt., private and autonomous
World construction aggregates demand (million dollars) % Annual Growth

Item Construction aggregates demand North America Western Europe Asia/Pacific Other 2012 by The Freedonia Group, Inc. 200 27300 3280 2920 16000 5100 2010 37400 3010 2630 24750 7010 201 48300 3710 3050 32600 8940 200-2010 2010-201 6. -1.7 -2.1 9.1 6.6 .2 4.3 3.0 5.7 5.0
organisations, research scholars and students. For more details, please contact: The Convenor Dept. of Civil Engineering / Architecture M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology MSR Nagar, MSRIT Post, Bangalore 560 054 Tel: 080-23600822, 23606934 Fax: 23603124, 23606616
Pre-Engineered Buildings
The Indian Buildings Concrete is holding its mid term seminar on the theme PreEngineered Buildings and Innovative Techniques in Construction Industry during May 25-26, 2012 at Kolkata. The sub-themes of the event are as follows:1. Scope for use of PreEngineered Buildings; 2. Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings; 3. Pre-Engineered RCC Buildings; 4. Innovative Techniques in Construction Industry Design Related; 5. Innovative Techniques in Construction Industry Construction Related; 6. Innovative Techniques in Construction Industry Maintenance Related and 7. Case Studies An abstract of the paper not exceeding 200 words may please be sent to us, so as to reach us by March 15, 2012. We expect full paper to be received within three weeks of communication of acceptance of the abstract. For more details, please contact: P.S. Chadha Indian Buildings Congress Sector VI, R.K. Puram, New Delhi 110022 Tel: 011-26169531, 26170197 Fax: 011-026196391 Website: www.ibc.org.in E-mail: info@ibc.org.in
Powder & Bulk Solids India 2012

Powder & Bulk Solids India 2012, formerly known as Bulk Solids India, is a conference and exhibition, that will be held from 13th to 15th March, 2012 at Ahmedabad. Powder and Bulk Solids India 2012 is a member of the international Powder & Bulk Network. The event will present basic processing technologies for powder and bulk materials, plant engineering and processing components, as well as a wide range of specialised products related to the chemical, food, pharmaceutical, cement, mining and ports industry At the powder section of the exhibition, manufacturers and suppliers of mechanical processing and material handling technologies will be showcasing solutions for conveying, transporting, storing and size reduction as well as screening and mixing and the granulation for powder and bulk solids in the various industries. There conference and workshop that will focus on two main topics: From Port to Plant. Challenges in Power Generation, which addresses the bulk sector, and Powder & Granules in Chemicals and Plastics Production Innovative Approaches for Optimum Results addressing the powder sector. For more details, please contact: Ms. Priya Sharma Indo-German Chamber of Commerce New Delhi, India Tel: +91-11-47168830 E-mail : priya@indo-german.com Web: www.powderbulksolidsindia.com
emissions from automotive and industrial plants to produce carbon nanotubes and nanofibres. One needs to have courage to initiate things. Due to the cost, I had to face adminstrative hurdles to make carbon nanotubes in the university laboratory. So, I converted flue gas from Maruti Modern rice mill, and Neyveli Lignite Corporations thermal power station to carbon nanotubes and nanofibres. It was a miracle. I was born in Kerala, and completed bioengineering in T amil Nadu. Now a doctoral research student at Singapores Nanyang Technological University. I am, along with 15 people, working on developing the technology and finding new applications such as strong body parts of buildings, automobiles, ships and aircraft. Our aim is to install the technology in almost all flue gas-emitting industrial plants in India, Middle East, Africa, Asia Pacific, Europe and US. This will help reduce global warming on a large scale and monetise the carbon nanotubes." The Economic Times 03.02.2012
Global Cement Expo 2012

Global Cement is pleased to announce the launch of the Global Cement Expo 2012 (www.GlobalCementExpo.com), which will take place at the Targi w Krakowie exhibition centre in Krakow, Poland, on 14-15 June 2012. The Global Cement Expo will include a free seminar programme with parallel sessions that will cover wear and maintenance, alternative fuels including RDF and MSW, waste heat recovery options (ORC and Kalina cycle), electrical energy efficiency, refractories, quality control, environmental impact abatement, mortars and alternatives to OPC. For more details, please contact: Dr. Robert McCaffrey PRo Publications International Ltd First Floor, Adelphi Court 1 East Street, Epsom, Surrey KT17 1BB, UK e: rob@propubs.com t: +44-1372840951
Indian carbon nanotubes in Forbes 30 listing

Vivek Nair, 23, founder, Damascus Fortune, a Mumbai-based start-up says "I got listed in Forbes 30 Under 30 under the energy category. Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest material known, with a strength-toweight ratio 117 times greater than steel. Our company has developed a technology that converts carbon
Some studies on the effect of carbonation on the engineering properties of concrete

B.B. Das, S.K. Rout, D.N. Singh and S.P. Pandey
This paper reports the effect of carbonation on three different grades of concrete each cured for 28, 56, 90 and 120 days. Carbonation was carried out by placing the specimens in a chamber of 10% carbon dioxide for 150 days. The tests included compressive strength and porosity measurement using a compression testing machine and mercury intrusion porosimeter respectively. In addition, electrical conductivity was measured following ASTM C 1202. The results indicate that carbonation increases the compressive strength and decreases the porosity and electrical conductivity of the specimen. The results give factors for estimating concrete performance between carbonated and non-carbonated specimens.
Keywords: Concrete, carbonation, electrical conductivity, porosity, and laboratory studies.
the formation of calcium carbonate.1-3 The following equation describes the reaction.4
......(1)
Researchers have found that the reaction consumes Ca(OH)2 from the hydrated paste as calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) liberating CaO to maintain the equilibrium. In addition, concretes residual unhydrated cement compounds such as C3S and C2S react with CO2 in the presence of H2O further carbonating the concrete.5 In this manner, the reaction destroys the passivity of concrete making it prone to corrosion. The literature has several reports on changes in concretes physicomechanical and durability properties resulting from carbonation.6-13 Concretes conductivity is used to determine its service life in corrosive environments. Both American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM 2008) have standardised tests for electrical conduction (Q). Rapid chloride ion
Introduction
It is well known that carbonation affects the durability of concrete, involves CO2 reaction with the hydration products of cement to reduce the pH of the concrete pore solution from about 12 to less than 9 and causes
permeability test (RCPT) is one such well known test that measures the cumulative electrical charge passing through a specimen subjected to a 60 V potential for 6 hours. This paper attempts to understand the influence of carbonation on the compressive strength, electrical conductivity and microstructure of concrete.
presented in Table 2. The mineralogical composition of the OPC was determined with the help of an X-Ray diffraction spectrometer (make D8 Advance-Bruker, AXS Germany), which employed a graphite monochromator and Cu-K source. The sample was scanned from 5 to 60. The various compounds present in the cement composition were identified with the help of TOPAS software (Table 3).17
Materials
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) conforming to ASTM Type-I cement was used in this study. The fine-aggregates conformed to Zone-III of BS 882 and had a fineness modulus of 1.99.14 The maximum size of coarse-aggregates was 20 mm. Table 1 presents the specific gravity of these materials determined using an ultra-pycnometer (make Quantachrome, USA). The particle-size distribution of the cement was determined using a Granulometer (Model No. 920, CILAS), which works on the principle of laser diffraction. Figure 1 shows the particle-size distribution of cement and that of fine and coarse aggregates determined according to ASTM C 136-01.15 The fineness of the cement was determined using Blaines air-permeability apparatus following ASTM C 204-00 (Table 1).16 The chemical composition of OPC was determined using an X-Ray Fluorescence setup and the results are
Table 1. Physical properties of the materials used in the study

Material Ordinary Portland Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate NA - Not applicable 10 mm 20 mm Specific gravity 3.16 2.71 2.79 2.77 Fineness, m2/kg 294 NA NA NA
Table 2. Chemical composition of the ordinary Portland cement

Oxide Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 K2O MgO Na2O SiO2 (SiO2 +Al2O3 +Fe2O3) (SiO2 +Al2O3) LOI % by weight 5.55 60.46 4.98 0.487 1.27 0.232 20.89 31.42 26.44 2.26
Table 3. Phases present in the ordinary Portland cement

Compound C3S C2S C3A C4AF % by weight 59.38 24.58 5.11 10.37
Table 4. Mix proportions for different grades of concrete

Mix Designation C1 C2 C3 Cement content, kg/m3 300 320 360 w/c 0.55 0.45 0.40 Mix proportion Compacting (OPC: W: FA: CA) factor 1:0.55:2.06:4.37 1:0.48:1.98:4.60 1:0.40:1.88:4.59 0.90 0.84 0.82
Testing methodology
The details of the mix and their designation are presented in Table 4. The mixing was done in a rotary mixer for about 2 minutes. The desired compaction of concrete was achieved with the help of a table vibrator. The samples were first cured at 955% relative humidity and 272 C. After 24 h, the cubes were de-molded and cured under water at 272C. Four curing periods (t = 28, 56, 90 and 120 days) were chosen for this study. The compressive strength of the cubes at the end of each curing period was determined by employing an automatic compression testing machine. Table 5 presents the results. Cubes of 150 mm and 100 mm were used for determining the compressive strength (fc) and the carbonation depth (d), respectively. In addition, 150 mm150 mm700 mm beams ( one beam or more than one ?) were cast for extracting several cylindrical cores for conducting the rapid chloride ion penetration test; before and after carbonation. The porosity () of concrete was determined with the help of an auto scan mercury intrusion porosimeter which operated up to 60,000 psi (414 MPa). The technique involves the intrusion of mercury (Hg) at high pressure into a specimen through the use of a penetrometer. Hg does not penetrate into the pores until such a pressure is applied that forces the liquid into the pores. The ratio between the applied pressure and the size of the pores is defined by Washburns equation, where the pore diameter is inversely proportional to the applied pressure: the higher the pressure, the smaller are the pores into which it is possible to intrude the liquid. The mercury intrusion porosimetry procedure for concrete samples was published earlier.18
and 65% relative humidity for accelerated carbonation. (The CO2 concentration in the air is about 0.03%). To provide an uninterrupted ingress of CO2, the specimens were placed on a wire mesh. After 150 days of exposure (T=150), cubes were taken out of the chamber and cut into two equal parts in the direction perpendicular to the plane of casting. Next, the depth of carbonation was determined by spraying 1% phenolphthalein in 70% ethyl alcohol that changes from colourless to purple when pH is >9. 20 So the colour of the carbonated portion of the specimen remained unchanged, while that of the uncarbonated portion became purple. Based on this, the average depth of the carbonation in the cubes (corresponding to the four cut faces of the cube) was measured. The average of three results gave the carbonation depth d for a particular grade of concrete. The carbonated cores were subjected to rapid chloride ion permeability test as described below.
rapid chloride ion penetration test
accelerated carbonation studies
Cured cubes and cores extracted from the beams were taken out of the curing tank and stored at 60% relative humidity and 27 C for 15 days to stabilise their internal humidity.19 These specimens were next transferred to an a chamber containing 10% concentration of CO2 at 27 C
The test apparatus used was from Control, Italy and conformed to ASTM C-1202.21 The test method involved obtaining a 100 mm diameter core or cylinder sample from the concrete being tested. A 50 mm specimen was cut from the sample. The side of the cylindrical specimen was coated with epoxy, and after the epoxy dried out, it was put in a vacuum chamber for 3 hours. The specimen was vacuum saturated for 1 hour and allowed to soak for 18 hours. It was then placed in the test device. The left-hand side () of the test cell was filled with a 3% NaCl solution. The right-hand side (+) of the test cell was filled with 0.3N NaOH solution. The system was then connected and a 60-volt potential was applied for 6 hours. Readings were taken every 30 minutes. At the end of 6 hours the sample was removed from the cell and the amount of coulombs passed through the specimen was calculated. Table 6 shows the chloride ion permeability following ASTM C 1202.
Table 5. Compressive strength of different grades of the concrete

Curing period days 28 56 90 120 C1 31.76 38.06 39.44 40.12 Compressive Strength, MPa C2 C3 42.81 51.20 46.14 53.82 46.25 54.13 47.82 56.48
Table 6. Chloride Ion permeability based on charge passed (ASTM C 1202)

Charge passed, Coulomb >4000 2000-4000 1000-2000 100-1000 <100 Chloride permeability High Moderate Low Very Low Low Typical concrete High w/c (>0.60) Moderate w/c (0.40-0.50) Low w/c (<0.40) Latex modified concrete Polymer impregnated concrete
The average charge Q (in Coulomb) from three identical cores of a specific grade of concrete was taken as the electrical conductivity of that grade of concrete.
results and discussions

Carbonation depth
Table 7 presents the carbonation depth results. The carbonation resistance of the concrete can be expressed using Ficks first law of diffusion as under11 d = K (t) 0.5 ......(2)
Figure 2 is a plot of carbonation coefficient and curing period at three levels of water to cement ratios. This figure suggests that w/c ratio has a strong influence on the carbonation resistance of concrete. With w/c decreasing from 0.55 to 0.40 carbonation coefficient K reduced by a factor of 3. The data on carbonation depth and curing in Table 7 suggests that curing period plays an important role in developing the carbonation resistance of concrete. The reduction in carbonation ranged from about 8% to about 47%. Considering the 28 day specimen as control, the carbonation depth in the specimen of w/c ratio 0.55 reduced by 11.35%, 21.28% and 34% at 56, 90 and 120 day respectively.
where, d is the carbonation depth in mm and t is the curing period in weeks and K is the carbonation coefficient expressed in mm/weeks0.5.
Compressive strength
Table 8 presents the compressive strength of both carbonated and non carbonated specimens. From this table, it is evident that carbonation leads to an increase in compressive strength. The formation of CaCO 3 which is known to occupy more volume than Ca(OH)2, reduces the porosity in concrete resulting in a higher compressive strength. The results show the strength improvement is more in the case of low strength concrete. The compressive strength of the carbonated concretes increased as compared to the non carbonated concretes. Table 9 shows that the compressive strength ratio of non carbonated concrete to carbonated concrete at 28 days is lower by 0.76, 0.79, and 0.80 for w/c ratio of 0.55. 0.45 and 0.40 respectively. These ratio reduction can be considered as the factors to be used to determine the actual compressive strength of carbonated concretes in structures. However, Table 9 data is not a clear function of curing period t. It means the carbonation has less influence on the compressive strength if the
Table 7. Carbonation depth for different grades of concrete specimens

T=150 Carbonation depth, d (mm) C1 C2 C3 28 28.2 24.2 19 56 25 22.1 16.5 90 22.2 19 13 120 18.6 15.2 10 NA - Not applicable t (days) % reduction C2 C3 NA NA 8.68 13.16 21.49 31.58 37.19 47.37
C1 NA 11.35 21.28 34.04
Table 8. Compressive strength of different grades of non-carbonated and carbonated concrete

t (days) 28 56 90 120 fc (MPa) T = 0 (Non- carbonated T = 150 (Carbonated concrete) concrete) C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 31.76 42.81 51.20 41.79 54.19 64.00 38.06 46.14 53.82 49.43 56.96 65.63 39.44 46.25 54.13 51.22 56.40 66.01 40.12 47.82 56.48 50.15 57.61 68.88
Table 9. Ratio of the properties of non-carbonated concrete to carbonated concrete

t (Days) C1 28 0.76 56 0.77 90 0.77 120 0.80 fc C2 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.83 C3 0.80 0.82 0.82 0.82 C1 3.24 2.89 2.75 2.65 Q C2 3.06 2.86 2.71 2.62 C3 2.96 2.78 2.61 2.56 C1 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.10 C2 1.12 1.18 1.20 1.20 C3 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.23
10
concrete is cured for a longer time. A lower concrete porosity resulting from a longer curing time explains this observation.
electrical conductivity
Figures 3 and 4 show the electrical conductivity of non carbonated and carbonated specimens respectively. The specimens' curing period and water to cement ratios were varied. It can be observed from the figures that the electrical conductivity of the carbonated concrete decreased by a factor of 3 as compared to that of the non-carbonated concrete. Figure 4 suggests that the electrical conductivity deceased as the grade of concrete increased. It can also be noted from Table 9 that the electrical conductivity of carbonated concrete cured for
28 days decreased by a factor of 3.24, 3.06 and 2.96 for w/c ratio of 0.55, 0.45 and 0.40 respectively. The reducing chloride ion penetration indicates that carbonation of higher grades of concrete results in decreasing the specimens porosity. It can be observed from Figure 4 that the electrical conductivity is inversely proportional to curing period (t). At the w/c ratio of 0.40 the electrical conductivity of carbonated concrete decreased by a factor of 2.96, 2.78, 2.61 and 2.56 for curing period of 28, 56, 90 and 120 days respectively. So carbonated specimens with longer curing periods show reduced electrical conductivity.
Porosity
Figures 5 and 6 show the effect of carbonation on the porosity of non-carbonated and carbonated specimens respectively. It can be observed from the figures that the porosity is inversely related to w/c ratio for both carbonated and non-carbonated concretes. The porosity
11
reduction factors of 28 day specimens was 1.04, 1.12 and 1.16 times for w/c ratio of 0.55, 0.45 and 0.40 respectively. The factors for other specimens are given in Table 9. Based on the porosity of non-carbonated specimens cured for 28 days, the porosity of both carbonated and non carbonated concrete decreased with increasing curing period as tested. In comparison to the noncarbonated concrete, for the w/c ratio of 0.40 the porosity for carbonated concrete decreased by a factor of 1.16, 1.18, 1.20 and 1.23 at 28 days, 56 days, 90 days and 120 days respectively (Table 9).
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from this experimental work: 1. Both carbonation coefficient and depth decreased with the increase in the curing period. The compressive strength increased with the increase in the curing period and decrease in the water /cement ratios. 2. Under these conditions of w/c ratio and curing periods, the electrical conductivity of the carbonated concrete decreased by a factor of 3 compared to the non-carbonated specimen. 3. As the curing period increased, the porosity decreased in both carbonated and non carbonated concrete specimens. Also there was a reduction in the porosity with the lowering of water/cement ratios. The factor of reduction was different for carbonated and non-carbonated specimens. The difference could be due to the extent of carbonation and resulting CaCO3 formation. references
1. Haque, M. N., and Kawamura, M., Carbonation and Chloride-induced Corrosion of Reinforcement in Fly Ash Concretes, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 89 (1), 1993, pp. 41-48. 2. Ihekwaba, N. M., Hope, B. B., and Hansson, C. M., Carbonation and Electrochemical Chloride Extraction from Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 26 (7), 1996, pp. 10951107. 3. Basheer, P. A. M., Chidiac, S. E., and Long, A. E., Predictive Models for Deterioration of Concrete Structures, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 10, 1996, pp. 2737. 4. Johannesson, B., and Utgenannt, P., Microstructural Changes Caused by Carbonation of Cement Mortar, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.31, 2001, pp. 925-931 5. Claisse, P. A., El-Sayad, H., and Shaaban, I. G., Permeability and Pore Volume of Carbonated Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, Vol.96 (3), 1999, pp. 378-381. 6. Jerga, J., Physico-mechanical Properties of Carbonated Concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol.18, 2004, pp. 645-652.
8. Xiao, J., Li, J., Zhu, B., and Fan, Z., Experimental Study on Strength and Ductility of Carbonated Concrete Elements, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 16, 2002, pp. 187-192. 9. Chang, C. F., and Chen, J. W., Strength and Elastic Modulus of Carbonated Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 102 (5), 2005, pp. 315-321. 10. Song, H. W., and Kwon, S. J., Permeability Characteristics of Carbonated Concrete Considering Capillary Pore Structure, Cement and Concrete Research, Article in press. 11. Valcuende,M. and Parra,C., Natural Carbonation of Self Compacting Concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 24 (5), 2010, pp. 848853. 12. Vaysburd, A. M., Sabnis, G. M., and Emmons, P. H., Concrete Carbonation A Fresh Look, Indian Concrete Journal, V. 67, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 215-220. 13. Chi, J.M., Huang, R., and Yang, C. C., Effects Of Carbonation On Mechanical Properties And Durability Of Concrete Using Accelerated Testing Method, Journal of Marine Science and Technology, Vol. 10, No. 1,2002, pp. 14-20. 14. ______BS 882. Specification for Aggregates from Natural Source for Concrete, British Standards Institution, London, 1992. 15. ______ASTM C 136-01, Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates, Annual book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.02, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002. 16. ______ASTM C 204-00, Standard Test Method for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus, Annual book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.01, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002. 17. TOPAZ 2.1, Diffract Plus, Bruker AXS GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2003. 18. Das, B. B., Singh, D. N., and Pandey, S. P., Characterization of Concrete by three ASTM Specified Techniques for Determination of Pore Volume, Indian Concrete Journal, December 2010. 19. Sulapha, P., Wong, S. F., Wee, T. H., and Swaddiwudhipong, S., Carbonation of Concrete Containing Mineral Admixtures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 15 (2), 2003, pp. 134-143. 20. ______CPC-18. Measurement of Hardened Concrete Carbonation Depth, Materials and Structures, Vol. 17 (6), 1988, pp. 453-455. 21. ______ASTM C 1202, Standard test method for electrical indication of concretes ability to resist chloride ion penetration. Annual book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.02, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002.
Dr. B.B. Das is an Associate Professor at KIIT Deemed University, Bhubaneswar, He has been a Post-Doctoral Research Associate and Adjunct Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, Michigan, USA. His areas of research include microstructure characterization of materials, nondestructive testing of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement and durability studies on concrete. S.K. Rout is a Graduate Student at the Department of Civil Engineering, Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, Michigan, USA. His present area of research interest is in structural engineering and structural materials.
Dr. D.N. Singh holds a Civil Engineering from IIT Kanpur and PhD. in Geotechnical Engineering. He is a Professor in the Department of Civil engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai. His major research focus is in the field of Environmental Geotechnology. Dr. S.P. Pandey holds a PhD in solid-state chemistry from Gorakhpur University, U.P. He is Vice President of Central R&D, UltraTech Cement Ltd., Mumbai. His research interests are in Cement chemistry and material science.
7. Silva, C. A. R., Reis, R. J. P., Lameiras, F. S. And Vasconcelos, W. L., Carbonation-Related Microstructural Changes in Long-Term Durability Concrete, Materials Research, Vol. 5 (3), 2002, pp. 287-293.
12
Review of inspection practices, health indices, and condition states for concrete bridges
Sanjay S. Wakchaure and Kumar N. Jha
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, road or railway for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. A weak bridge can either reduce the load carrying capacity or compromise on safety, hindering the flow of traffic and affecting the economy. Hence, it is necessary to maintain the traffic-worthiness of bridges with requisite levels of safety and serviceability. However, those responsible for such works often feel that the funds made available to them are insufficient. One of the ways to address this challenge is to utilise the available resources in an optimal manner using scientific methods and tools. Instituting a bridge management system or BMS is a good way for managing design, construction, operation and maintenance of bridges. Many countries have developed such systems. A BMS guides the decision making processes regarding the maintenance, planning by ascertaining the present condition and pointing out the immediate maintenance requirements of a bridge. It does not wholly rely on the physical condition of bridges, which is often described by discrete condition states on the basis of visual inspection. Since the results of visual inspection are subjective and vary according to the knowledge and judgment of the bridge inspector, most BMS systems make use indices as one of the tools for decision making. Keywords: Bridge management system, bridge inspection, condition states, bridge health index
This paper compares the condition states and bridge indices used by various countries. Included in the paper are definition of a bridge, types of inspection, bridge health index, and condition states. The paper attempts to point out the limitation and constraints in BMS for adopting them universally and evolving a structure for comprehensive condition states and bridge index. The study reveals that there is no unanimity among bridge authorities across the globe regarding length of a bridge, the condition states and bridge indices. A comprehensive and universal categorisation of condition scales and bridge index would go a long way in improving the understanding about the performance of concrete bridges regardless of their location.
Introduction
The history of bridges is almost as old as that of human civilisation. Bridges have greatly contributed to the human endeavour by providing passage over obstacles such as a body of water, valley, road or railway and improving mobility. India has one of the largest road and rail networks in the world, with the total road length being 4.1 million kilometers (http://www.morth. nic.in), and rail length being 64,099 km (http://www. indianrailways.gov.in). Both roads and railways run across the length and breadth of the country, connected by many bridges, negotiating the varied terrains and environmental conditions in the country.
13
Table 1. Minimum length to be traversed to be classified as a bridge

Country Length in m Austria >2 Denmark 5 France >2m Norway 2.5 Slovenia 5 United Kingdom >3 United States > 6.10 India >6
There are more than 92, 000 bridges and over 1.1 million culverts (length 6 m) of different types along Indian roads.1 Out of the 92,000 bridges, about 14,500 bridges are on the National Highways. Out of these, 1713 bridges are in a distressed condition and require repair/rehabilitation, while 2018 bridges are old, weak and need reconstruction.2 Like roads, bridges are inseparable parts of the Indian Railways. There are about 1.27 million bridges of different types and varying spans on Indian railway tracks. About 40 percent of these bridges are over 100 years old and 16 percent are reported to be deficient, requiring rehabilitation and strengthening.3,4 Bridge owners all over the world face difficulties in maintaining bridges with the available funds. Before allocating resources for the maintenance of bridges, it is necessary to ascertain their present condition, their immediate and future maintenance requirements. This need has led to the development of bridge management system (BMS). BMS consists of various scientific methods and tools for efficient allocation of funds. Reliable data on the history of bridge condition and maintenance are of prime importance to the development of this system. The assessment of bridge condition is mostly based on visual inspection by inspectors and is expressed in terms of discrete condition states which often dependent on the judgment and experience of the inspector. Hence, the development of a method that does not solely depend on subjective data is essential.5 The application of condition states in the assessment of bridges in BMS and decision making has not been much attended to by researchers.6 Further, there is no established methodology or systematic approach in this regard though bridge engineers and decision makers routinely face the problem of prioritizing the maintenance needs. Ranking of bridges for the purpose of maintenance very often follows a personal judgment.6 Considering the importance of inspection, bridge health index and condition states in efficient allocation of funds, this paper embarks on reviewing the practices followed in different parts of world based on the available literature. As it will be seen in subsequent sections there is a wide disparity in the manner in which bridges are maintained and the funds are allocated. In fact there
is no unanimity in the bridge definition itself to start with. The review is aimed at comparing the current practices, pointing out the limitations and constraints in the existing practices and thereby proposing suitable recommendations.
Bridge definition
In order to be classified as a bridge, a structure should be of a minimum length.7 The Indian Roads Congress defines a bridge as a structure having a length of more than six metres and meant for carrying vehicular traffic across rivers, canals, viaducts, structures for interchanges including underpasses and flyovers across the highway/railways, aqueducts/siphon.8 National Bridge Inspection Standards published in the Code of Federal Regulations (23 CFR 650.3), USA, defines a bridge as a structure including supports erected over a depression or an obstruction, such as water, highway, or railway; having a track or passageway for carrying traffic or other moving loads, and having an opening measured along the centre of the roadway of more than 20 feet (6.1 m) between under copings of abutments or spring lines of arches, or extreme ends of openings for multiple boxes; it may also include multiple pipes, where the clear distance between openings is less than half of the smaller contiguous opening.9 In simple words, a bridge can be defined as a structure meant for carrying vehicular traffic across an artificial or natural obstruction. Although a structure has to be of a minimum length in order to be classified as a bridge, there is no unanimity on the exact length. The minimum length of bridge specified by bridge authorities varies from two to six metres7. Table 1 gives the minimum bridge lengths prescribed in select countries. According to IRC: 5-1998, bridges having length up to 60 m are classified as minor bridges while bridges having length more than 60 m are classified as major bridges.
Bridge management
Bridges can be regarded as a separate infrastructural facility owing to their distinct importance. Infrastructure management is the process by which agencies monitor, maintain and repair deteriorating facilities within stipulated budgets so as to improve their performance.10 Federal Highway Administration manual (USA) defines asset management in the following manner.11
14
Asset management is a systematic process of maintaining, upgrading, and operating physical assets cost-effectively. It combines engineering principles with sound business practices and economic theory and it provides tools to facilitate a more organized, logical approach to decision-making. A weak bridge in a network of roads leads to either reduction in load carrying capacity and safety, change of route(s) thereby increasing the length of transit or complete stoppage of traffic in the absence of alternate route(s). This, in turn, adversely affects the movement of men and goods which may result in an increase in transportation cost of road users, and thereby affecting the commerce and economy of the region, or even of the whole country. Hence, it is necessary to maintain trafficworthiness of bridges with requisite levels of safety and serviceability. Like any other structure, bridges are to be planned, constructed, maintained, operated and replaced at the end of their service lives. Usually, concrete bridges are designed for 50-60 years.12 Often, the funds available for maintaining bridges are scanty. Hence, the most important task of bridge engineers is to minimise the cost of maintenance. This can be accomplished by the application of rational and scientific methods in all the activities pertaining to management of bridges throughout their lifespan. A scientific Bridge Management System (BMS) thus helps in making right decisions regarding maintenance and using the available resources in the best possible manner.
Maintenance policy is reactive and not responsive. Very little funds are allocated for bridge maintenance and repair. No organization exists exclusively for inspection and maintenance of bridges. There are no avenues of formal institutional training. IRC:SP-35 also summarises the requirements for research and development in the maintenance of bridges as the need to: 14 Investigate the effectiveness of present methods of maintenance. Develop criteria for evaluating the performance/ efficacy of different maintenance strategies. Develop improved materials and techniques for bridge maintenance. Study of the economics of maintenance of bridges of various ages and types. Jain has highlighted the issues in the development and implementation of scientific BMS in India. Some important ones are: 4 The study of the desirability and practicality of application of BMS to highway and railway bridges in India. The development of procedures for compilation of data on bridges, particularly old and deficient ones. The development of procedures for bridge inspection and rating. The following characteristics of the current maintenance practices of the National Highways in India are mentioned in the Guidelines for Maintenance Management of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads.15 The maintenance work is based on subjective judgment and engineering experience. Analytical tools are generally not used in decision making. Life cycle cost analysis is not a criterion for the selection of the best strategies of maintenance. The causes of deterioration of bridges and of the effectiveness of different maintenance strategies are often unevaluated due to non-availability of requisite data.
Status of management of road bridges in India
Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is responsible for the development of guidelines for various aspects of roads and bridges in India. It has developed a manual to provide guidelines for Highway Bridge Maintenance Inspection (IRC:SP-18).13 In addition IRC:SP-35 is being used as a manual of guidelines on the inspection and maintenance of culverts, minor bridges, and major bridges including submersible bridges, but excluding cable-stayed and suspension bridges. 14 The latter document summarizes the status of bridge management in the following manner: Present practices of bridge management vary from state to state. Inspection and maintenance are mostly carried out by State Public Works Departments (PWDs). Databases are usually inadequate.
15
On the basis of the study of bridge inventory and inspection reports of 5237 bridges spread across various National Highways in 20 States of India managed by different State Public Works Departments, the following observations were made: 2 The inventory of bridges was not updated. The year of construction of about 30 per cent of the bridges studied was not known. In the majority of cases, the condition of bridge components was mentioned as good without any quantitative criteria for such assessment. The types of distresses of various bridge components were mentioned, but their extent and severity were not. The history of inspections and maintenance works was either missing or not properly recorded. The lack of data was found to be the main hurdle in developing a scientific BMS. The fund allocation for bridge maintenance was about 2% of the total allocation for the total highway budget.16
In the case of India, only 40 % of the amount required for maintenance of highways is generally available. As the funds allocated are meagre, it is imperative that they are spent judiciously.
objectives, activities and modules of bridge management system
A scientific Bridge Management System (BMS) helps in making right decisions regarding maintenance and optimal utilization of the available resources. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report on bridge management defines BMS as a tool for assisting highway and bridge agencies in making the right choice of optimum improvements to the bridge network that is consistent with their policies, long-term objectives, and budgetary constraints.7 Scherer and Glagola have defined BMS as a rational and systematic approach to organizing and carrying out all the activities relating to managing a network of bridges. 17 The literature on bridges mentions a number of functions of BMS. The various BMS objectives and associated activities with various BMS modules are summarised in Table 2.7, 14, 17 to 24 The BMS is purported to optimize the selection of maintenance and improvement activities
Table 2. Objectives, activities and modules of BMS

Objectives of BMS Activities associated with BMS BMS Modules Bridge inventory It contains all administrative and technical information pertaining to a bridge or a network of bridges e.g., location, type, age, etc. Inspection and reports Collection and maintenance of reports of all inspections and maintenance work carried out since opening to traffic. Many of the BMS modules are developed by using this information. Condition state Present physical state indicating soundness of a bridge determined on the basis of an inspectors judgment and/or testing Deterioration rate How the structure has deteriorated since opening to traffic due to increasing age and erosive effect of traffic and environment? Prediction of life Minimum expected life at the time of design/ maximum period up to which bridge can be subjected to traffic flow to serve as intended function Requirement of inspection, maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and replacement when, what and how much? Cost of inspection, maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and replacement of a bridge or a network of bridges Estimation of LCC of bridge/bridge stock considering both direct and indirect costs Rating - Method by which ability of a bridge to safely bear the present volume of traffic is ascertained Prioritization of maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and replacement By ranking of bridges based on rating and/or LCC Optimal utilization of funds for maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and replacement, reprioritization depending on the availability of funds
To maintain a bridge or a network of Maintaining an bridges in a satisfactory condition appropriate data base To guarantee the safety of the users with specified risk To ensure a targeted level of service Inspecting bridges
Defining bridge conditions To allocate and use limited resources Predicting bridge in a judicious manner requirement Prioritizing bridges for To determine present needs for maintenance, repair, maintenance, rehabilitation, and rehabilitation and replacement of bridges replacement To predict future needs among the Allocation of funds various alternatives To prioritize bridges for Identifying bridges for maintenance, rehabilitation and posting (monitoring and replacement rating of bridges) To predict the remaining service life Cost-effective alternative and minimize life cycle costs for each bridge To ensure collection of objective Scheduling maintenance information on all bridges To ensure techno-economical Accounting for actual feedback bridge expenditure, and To provide information to the road Tracking minor users maintenance activities
16
in order to maximize the benefits and minimize the costs. BMS assists decision making, but does not replace human judgment. Though the requirements and general principles of bridge management remain same, the art and practice vary from country to country and even from state to state within a country owing to factors, such as goals and objectives of the concerned organization, bridge stock and its characteristics, environmental factors, the type of personnel employed, availability of funds, construction and maintenance practices, availability of materials, minimum serviceability requirement and so on.
Visual inspection is the cheapest and easiest way of assessing the condition of bridges although a better appraisal can be done only with detailed testing and/or sophisticated health monitoring means, tools and equipments. Regular inspection ensures sound performance of a bridge, timely identification of distresses and remedial measures, creation, updating and maintenance of data base, and right feedback to the designer, owner, and road user.3, 13 Depending on the objective of inspections, the type of inspection and its frequency vary. The inspection may be daily patrol, preliminary inspection, and end of guarantee inspection, routine inspection, general inspection, major inspection, special inspection and exceptional inspection. Routine inspection is performed after extreme seasonal variations and consists of visual inspection of all parts of a bridge. Detailed inspection, on the other hand, is performed after every 5-10 years and consists of visual inspection with or without testing of all parts of a bridge. Special inspection is carried out first before opening to the traffic and in case of extraordinary events and justification of funds. It consists of detailed inspection with non destructive testing of all parts of a bridge. The types of inspection prevalent in different countries are summarized in Table 3.
Bridge inspection practices
For effective repair and rehabilitation of bridges, proper understanding of their existing conditions is required and this starts with inspection.25 Environmental factors perennially impact the condition of bridges and are beyond human control. A newly built bridge requires due attention right from the day it is opened to traffic. Due consideration may also be required in the upkeep of the constructed parts of bridges if the construction period spans more than a year as otherwise by the time construction is completed some components might have been deteriorated. Eventually, the condition at the time of opening a bridge to traffic may not be the same as anticipated and will impact the overall performance of the bridge.
Table 3. Types of inspection in different countries

No. Country Initial / Preliminary / Acceptance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Austria7 Denmark7 France
7
Superficial / Routine / Regular / Assessment
Type of inspection General / Major / Detailed Principal
Special
Exceptional
Germany7 Norway7 Slovenia7 United Kingdom United States26 Vietnam27 Taiwan28 Ireland29 Sweden30 India (a) Road bridges13,14 India (b) Railway bridges3
17
Bridge health index
where, ......(4)
The use of indices is one of the easiest means of determining the priority of bridge maintenance. Bridge indices may be broadly classified into: (1) Bridge health index, and (2) Maintenance priority index / Priority ranking functions. The general form of a bridge health index (BHI) may be given by equation (1). ......(1)
and ......(5)
FC = Failure cost of element; WFi = Condition state weighting factor In equation 3, HI is defined as the ratio of current element value (CEV) to the total element value (TEV) of all the elements of a bridge. The value of HI varies from 0 to 100. The CEV is the sum of the weighted product of quantities of elements in various conditions and the failure cost of elements. TEV is the product of the total element quantity and the failure cost of elements. In this equation, relative importance of bridge components is computed on the basis of their quantity and failure cost of elements. Cost may not be the criteria while assessing the condition of bridge components. The bridge attributes, such as strength, safety and serviceability are the basis of determining the relative importance of bridge components. In the USA, many states are implementing PONTISBMS in which the above mentioned Bridge Health Index (BHI) is used as a diagnostic tool to assess bridge health condition. POINTIS was developed in the early 1990s for the FHWA and became an AASHTO product in 1994. POINTIS is a Windows-based BMS that performs functions such as recording bridge inventory and inspection data, simulating conditions and suggesting actions, developing preservation policy etc. However, while implementing this BHI to the bridges in City and County of Denver (CCD), Jiang and Rens observed that it does not take into cognizance all the defects in a bridge and is subjective to imprecise cost data.34 Engineers at the CCD were of the opinion that the current BHI neglects the effect of element damage on bridge health, function, and safety. The study carried out by Jiang and Rens pointed out the following issues in the use of the above BHI:34 The accuracy of BHI value was not conservative. Most bridges rated in the highest BHI level (between 90 and 100 percent) even after they had served for many years and suffered element damage to various degrees.
where, BHI = bridge health index, Ki = weight of the ith component, Ci = condition of the ith component, n = number of bridge components Maintenance priority index has the general form as per equation (2).18 ......(2)
Where, MPI = Maintenance priority index, Ki = Weight of the ith deficiency, Fi = ith deficiency, a, b, c, . = Attributes of the deficiency The application of maintenance priority index is quite common in some countries. However, not many systematic studies have been carried out on the development of bridge health index. The development of these indices invariably involves evaluation of various bridge components in order to arrive at their relative importance.32 Also, from equations (1) and (2) it is evident that the determination of Kis is paramount in the development of both the indices. The description and characteristics of some specific bridge indices used in different countries are given.
united States of america
Roberts and Shepard have developed a health index (HI) for the state of California in the USA.33 The expressions used to calculate the HI are given in equations (3) to (5): ......(3)
18
The BHI variation was not sensitive to individual element distresses. Even when a bridge had suffered from heavy element damage between two inspections, the BHI was found to be decreasing by an extremely minimal amount. The uniformity of bridge distribution based on BHIs was suspect. PONTIS BHI gave the percentage of residual element value and had no relationship to bridge health condition. In order to remove these drawbacks, a new index called Denver Bridge Health Index (DBHI) was developed by Jiang and Rens with the following three modifications resulted in a more conservative BHI estimate: 34 The element quantity and cost were removed from the formula and a non-linear health index coefficient was introduced. ; and In addition, the weight coefficient adjustment method was incorporated. In DBHI, weights of the bridge components are still dependent on the condition state of the components. To make the index more conservative, weight coefficients are adjusted in consultation with the practicing engineers of CCD. However, adjustment factors may not be same for all the components. For example, adjustment factor for girders may not be same as that for railing. McClure and Hoffman have described the deficiency rating system used in the state of Pennsylvania, USA.23 The system consists of activity ranking, activity urgency, bridge criticality, and bridge adequacy. Depending on the condition of a bridge, points are assigned on the basis of the aforesaid four parameters and they add up to 100. In a network, each bridge has its deficiency score, which can be used to decide the urgency of maintenance. Priority of rehabilitation and replacement is decided on the basis of the degree of deficiency. Deficiencies are evaluated in following three categories: a) Level of service deficiencies: Four characteristics are included in level of service, viz., load capacity (LCD), clear deck width (WD), vertical clearance above the bridge (VCOD), and vertical clearance below the bridge (VCUD). b) Bridge condition deficiencies (BCD): Deficiency points for the primary elements, viz., superstructure (SPD), substructure (SBD) and bridge deck (BDD)
are given on the basis of condition ratings. These three are then added up to give the bridge condition deficiency. c) Other deficiencies: They are related to remaining life (RLD), approaches (AAD) and waterway adequacy (WAD). These, in turn, are directly related to the condition ratings in the database and calculated by prescribed equations. Total Deficiency Rating (TDR): It is the sum total of all deficiency points multiplied by functional classification factor and is given by equation (6) below: (LCD + WD + VOCD + VCUD + BCD + RLD + AAD + WAD) ......(6)
Functional classification factor () is used as per the importance of the road, for example, value of for interstate: 1.0, arterial: 0.95, collector: 0.85 and local: 0.75 TDR, combined with the cost information and other factors, will help in listing of the bridges that are in need of rehabilitation and replacement, in the order of priority. The sufficiency rating formula given by Federal Highway Administration , USA, is a method of evaluating Highway Bridge by calculating four separate factors to obtain a numeric value which is indicative of bridge sufficiency, i.e., serviceability.9 This method yields a percentage of sufficiency in a scale wherein 100 percent represents an entirely sufficient bridge and zero percent, an entirely insufficient or deficient bridge. The sufficiency rating is given by equation (7) below: ......(7)
Where, S1 stands for structural adequacy and safety; S2 for serviceability and functional obsolescence; S3 for essentiality for public use and S4 for special reductions (used only when (S1 + S2 + S3) > 50). However, sufficiency rating involves several equations and is rather a tedious system.
Taiwan
Tserng and Chung have reported the condition index used in Taiwan.35 In Taiwan, 20 main bridge components
19
and corresponding weights are considered to calculate the condition index. Condition of the main component is the average condition of sub-components. The expressions used therein are given by equations (8) to (10): ......(8)
Vietnam
Priority Maintenance Index (PMI) in Vietnam is the combination of Bridge Health Index (BH) and Bridge Importance (BI).27 The index BH represents physical and serviceable conditions of a bridge and comprises three components: safe degree of bridge structures (SF), bridge serviceability (SV) and bridge impact on third parties (TP). BI index represents the important characteristics of an individual bridge in terms of its location, serviceability, and traffic demand in the road network. The factors used in the computation of BH are based on the suggestions of key personnel of the bridge owners and their agencies, academic researchers and field specialists in Vietnam. PMI is given by equation (11): ......(11)
where, ......(9)
and ......(10)
1 and 2 are relative importance and health factors, respectively and (1 + 2 =1). BI has a maximum value of 100 in accordance with the equation (12) below: ......(12) IL , IW and IT are practical indexes of location, width and traffic volume respectively. The index BH represents physical and serviceable conditions of the bridge and has a maximum value of 100. The expression for BH is given in equation (13). The maximum value of the safe degree of bridge structures (SF) is 50 while those of bridge serviceability (SV) and bridge impact on third parties (TP) are 40 and 10 respectively. ......(13)
where, ICi is the condition of component i, Wi is the weights of importance of component i, ICij is the index of the j part of component i and n is the number of parts. The factor a is dependent on the importance of road. For example, a=1 stands for the highway bridge, and a=2 for the freeway bridge. The above model is based on a deduct point system ranging from a perfect score of 100 to zero. The condition of a sub-component is determined by rating it on a scale of 0-4 on the basis of degree (D), extent (E) and relevancy (R) of the defects. In case any element has more than one defect, the most severe defect is chosen for the rating. However, it would have been prudent to consider the effects of all types of distress affecting the condition of a bridge element. Moreover, D, E, and R are taken as same for all types of distress. This may not be true for all the defects and every possible defect would have a different degree, extent and severity corresponding to condition states of bridge components. It is also observed by Tserng and Chung that there is no relation between the index obtained by the above mentioned equations and the age of the bridge, Sothey proposed a new performance index called Net Performance Index (NPI).35 The index is based on a point deduction system that is subtracted from a perfect score of 100.
europe
The expression and the details for the computation of condition rating in Austria, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom are discussed briefly in the following sections.7 The condition rating is calculated by the equation (14) in Austria.
20
......(14)
......(16)
where, Gi - Type of damage: There are 32 types of damages. Gi varies from 1 to 5 representing the severity of damage. K1i - It is the extent of damage expressed by numerical values between 0 and 1 and described by words: few or some, frequent and very frequent or large and usually refers to components of the bridge or to the whole bridge structure. The extent K1i is not quantified by the measured sizes (length, area, etc.) of the damage. K2i - It is the intensity of damage expressed by numerical values between 0 and 1 and also described by words: little or insignificant, medium, heavy and very heavy. K3i It is the importance of the structural component or member: K3i varies between 0 and 1. The structural components are classified as primary, secondary and other parts. Depending on the value of condition rating S, severity of deterioration is prescribed. In equation (14), the type of damage, the extent and severity of damage and the relative importance of bridge components are taken into consideration. However, for each damage type, the extent, severity, and importance of component have been given values in the range of 0 to 1. It would have been more appropriate to consider the actual values of distress, as is the case in the method used in Taiwan. The condition of a bridge is dependent on its components which may be affected by a number of distress types. The effect of various damages on components should be considered during assessment. Moreover, severity of damage may not be represented by numbers 1-5 implicitly. The condition rating R for assessing the condition of a bridge structure is expressed by equation (15) in Slovenia. ......(15)
where, VD is damage type value, Bi is basic value (1-4) associated with the effect of damage type on the safety and/or durability of the observed structural element. K1i Factor which describes the extent of damage and is expressed by numerical values ranging from 0 to 1. The extent is not described by the measured sizes (length, area, etc.) of the damage on the affected component or structure. K2i Factor which describes the intensity of damage and is expressed by values ranging from 0 to 1. In the field, only the intensity grades I to IV (I light, II medium, III severe, IV very severe) are recorded. K3i Factor which describes the importance of the structural component or member for the safety of the entire structure. The values range between 0 and 1. K4i Factor which describes the urgency of intervention. The values range between 0 and 1. VDref is the sum of damage values obtained by taking into account every damage type from the same list of damages that could potentially occur on the same observed structure or its part, multiplied by unit values of factors of intensity and extent (K2i = K3i = K4i = constant = 1). On the basis of the calculated condition rating the inspected structure is classified into one of the deterioration classes I (R=0-5), II (R=3-10), III (R=7-15), IV (R=12-25), V (R=22-35) and VI (R30). In the United Kingdom, Total Assessment Rating (TA) is calculated by the equation (17).7 Thirty three structural items are considered in terms of estimated costs, extent, severity, work and priority. ......(17)
Where, VD is the effective sum of the damage values calculated for the observed structure or its part (e.g., bridge component), related to the detected damage types and given by equation (16) below.
where, Ra (1 - 5): Age of bridge rating depends on the year of bridge construction; Rf (1, 3, 4 or 5): Bridge form rating depends on the type of construction; Rd (1 - 5): Vulnerable detail rating depends on the number of vulnerable details (few-1, many-5); Rv: Traffic volume assessment rating (Rv is 1 up to 20,000 vehicles per day
21
and 5 for over 80,000 vehicles per day), depends on the daily traffic flow, i.e., the number of vehicles per day; Ru: Annual average daily flow below or adjacent to bridge (same as Rv), and Ri: Route importance rating (0 5), i.e., strategic importance of the route. The value of TA varies between 8 and 50. The priority rating (PR) is determined on basis of the TA rating value into five classes viz. 1(TA=43-50), 2(TA=36-42), 3(TA=2935), 4(TA=22-28), and 5(TA=8-21). Total assessment rating consists of six ratings relating to bridge age, bridge form, vulnerable detail, traffic volume, annual average daily flow and importance of route. The priority rating (PR) is determined on basis of the range of values for TA classified into five categories. It is primarily a priority ranking wherein age of the bridge, the type of construction, traffic volume and the importance of the route are taken into consideration for determining priority rather than the condition rating of a bridge.
From the above it may be concluded that different countries and researchers have used select components for development of bridge indices. Due to this, although the aim of all these indices remains the same which is to predict the present status of the bridge condition, the principles and approaches behind developing them are quite different. In all the health indices described above, condition states of bridge components are invariably used. Condition states are described by using qualitative terms. They are detailed in next section. In addition to the condition states, the models used in Taiwan, United Kingdom, and Slovania stress on the importance of the extent and severity of a distress on the condition of various bridge components. However, the models do not specify the various distress types and the extent and severity of each. BHI may exclusively consider bridge components and corresponding distress types. For each type of distress, its characteristics, extent, severity, urgency of maintenance, type of maintenance task should be considered for evaluating BHI. Priority indices include factors causing the distress of a bridge as well as those influencing the priority of maintenance.
Chile
Valenzuela et al presented an integrated bridge index (IBI) describing it as a function of the structure condition, the bridge importance and the natural risk factors that can affect bridge serviceability.36 The main factors in the IBI are strategic importance (SI), bridge condition (BCI), hydraulic vulnerability (HV), and Seismic risk (SR) and. The IBI, whose value varies between 1 and 10, is computed using equation (18): IBI = -1.411+1.299BCI+0.754HV+0.458SR - 0.387SI ......(18)
Bridge condition states
In the above equation BCI relates to the condition of a bridge and is given by equation (19): ......(19)
It is expected that a bridge made of certain materials (e.g. concrete, steel etc.) of specific structural configuration would behave in the same manner in spite of variations in site condition and severity of environment. Site conditions and severity of environment would affect the performance of a bridge. They may be factored in while ascertaining the condition of a bridge. Infrastructure condition is often represented by discrete condition states.37 Condition at a point is the function of past condition and other factors, such as age, traffic, weather, and maintenance. Condition rating reflects physical deterioration due to environmental effects and traffic while appraisal rating indicates changes in traffic volume, existing load capacities, and compliance with safety standards related to bridge geometry and clearances. There are two approaches to the evaluation of the condition of the whole structure.7 The first one is based on a cumulative condition rating, wherein the most severe damage to each element is summed up for each span of the superstructure, each part of the substructure, the carriageway and accessories. The second method uses the highest condition rating of the bridge components as the condition rating for the structure as a
Where, ECIi is element condition index of the element i; wi is weight of the element i with respect to the whole structure; and mi is material factor of each element. ECI is computed on the basis of visual inspection and the description for condition states and its value ranges from 1 to 5. The weights are strongly dependent on the type of structure and should be defined case by case.
22
whole. The highest (most unfavourable) condition rating assigned to one of the components is not necessarily the condition rating of the whole structure. In the final assessment of the structure, damaged components, type and extent of damages, expected growth of the damage and its influence on the traffic flow and safety should be identified. The condition rating for the whole bridge cannot be higher than the one assigned to the most deteriorated component and cannot be lower than the one assigned to either of the main components, such as abutments, piers, bearings, slabs and girders.7 Clearly, different countries and researchers have adopted different scales of rating condition states for assessing the state of bridge health. In spite of the single objective of representing the overall condition of a bridge based on the visual inspection, there is no unanimity on the number of scales and their description. From the analysis of the scales of rating condition state, it is observed that following three main objectives are to be included in the definition of condition state: Strength of various elements of a bridge- Strength refers to the ability of a bridge element to sustain all the forces that are likely to occur due to its own weight and environment, interdependencies and its usage. It can be achieved by using appropriate materials and providing requisite dimensions. The strength also indicates the soundness of a bridge. Safety to road users- Safety refers to the passage of users through a bridge without any harm or discomfort. Safety can be ensured by proper alignment, adopting appropriate geometric standards and providing auxiliary means of protection. Serviceability Serviceability indicates the ability of a bridge to serve the intended function, or in other words, to satisfy the present requirement of users. Serviceability can be enhanced by providing adequate width, number of lanes and clearances over and/or under the bridge. Condition states also include the type of distresses causing bridge failure and the urgency of maintenance. Some countries and researchers tried to accommodate one or two types of distresses while defining the scales of rating condition states. Condition states are the relative qualitative measures of the condition of a bridge on the basis of visual inspection. Condition states are described by terms, such as excellent, fair, critical etc. They are
designated by numeric/roman numbers ranging from 3 to 10, either in the ascending or descending order of degree of the fitness of a bridge. Majority of countries use five-point scale of rating for condition states. While higher number of condition states are difficult to judge, lesser numbers are inadequate to completely describe all the conditions. Condition ratings are important to automate decisions on maintenance, repair and replacement of bridges. The relation of condition states to decisions and planning activities has been increasingly recognized, prompting new definitions of condition states as a part of the development of bridge management systems.38 Each factor, damage, function, and vulnerability, can be expressed as condition, and can be reported as condition ratings.38 Table 4 shows the details of condition scales followed by different countries. The condition states adopted in all the countries except the USA are in the ascending order, i.e., a bigger number is ascribed to a more severe condition.7, 19, 27, 39, 40 It may be noted that many condition states prescribe the severity of damage while describing condition states.7, 19, 27, 35, 39, 40, 42 The type of distress, extent of distress, maintenance actions, urgency of maintenance, etc., are also considered by some countries while defining the scales of rating condition states.7, 35 Condition state also includes the types of distress causing bridge failure in combination with other factors including the urgency of maintenance. Although some countries and researchers have tried to accommodate one or two types of distresses while defining the condition state scales, these are still insufficient as they do not capture all the factors discussed above. Moreover, these condition states are unable to quantify the extent and severity of all possible distress types. Another limitation of condition states is that they are subjective and likely to vary according to the judgment and experience of a bridge inspector. Ambiguity and subjectivity is unavoidable in the results of visual inspection. Subjectivity can be reduced with the help of non-destructive evaluation but such evaluation reports are required to be interpreted cautiously. There is hardly any method which is capable of predicting the composite behaviour of all components of a bridge. A judicious combination of visual inspection and non-destructive testing is required to reduce the subjectivity. It is not possible to accurately evaluate serviceability and safety on the basis of visual inspection.43 Visual
23
inspections and the resulting condition states are not accurate measures of the safety and serviceability of a bridge, as they do not take into consideration the initial safety of the bridge component, the effect of the deterioration on the safety, and the relevance of component safety to the safety of the overall structure.3 Reliability and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) methods depend on quantitative rather than qualitative information. Development of method that does not rely solely on subjective data is essential. Many uncertainties and ambiguities exist in the interpretation of inspection data for reinforced concrete bridges.5 It is necessary to redefine the comprehensive condition states so as to minimize the draw backsin health assessment of bridges. Condition-ratings are subjective and do not always reflect the actual serviceability or vulnerability of a bridge.44 The quality of results obtained necessarily depends on the skill, experience and theoretical
knowledge of the inspector. It is possible to get consistent results from visual inspection if the bridge inspectors are well qualified and trained. Subjectivity can be reduced to a certain extent if visual inspection is aided by nondestructive evaluation. Variability of observations can be reduced by supplying standard forms of all distress types for the sake of uniformity in evaluation. Subjectivity and variability can also be reduced to a greater extent by considering the combination of distress types and condition states. In view of the above, it is necessary to develop the condition states combined with distress types and range of values predicting the extent and severity of each distress type.
Concluding remarks
A comparative study for bridge definitions, types of inspection, condition states and bridge indices has been presented. Results of visual inspection are prescribed by the condition states which are further used for development of bridge indices. Condition states as expressed now are unable to predict the combined effect of defects and hence need to be modified.
Table 4. Type of condition states

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Austria Denmark France Germany Norway Slovenia Slovenia (Modified) United Kingdom United States PONTIS The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Quebec, Canada Vietnam Taiwan KUBA-MS, Switzerland EIRSPAN, Ireland J-BMS, Japan DISK, Netherlands Swedish National Road Administration BMS/Country Number of condition state 7 6 4 5 5 5 6 4 10 4 6 6 4 5 5 6 5 7 4 Scale 1-6 0-5 0-3 1-4 1-4 1-5 I-VI 1-4 9-0 1-4 0-5 6-1 0-III 0-4 1-5 0-5 0-4 0-6 0-3 Damage/condition based on severity severity severity severity severity distress type, severity, extent distress type, severity, extent severity distress type, severity, extent distress type, severity, extent distress type, severity, extent severity severity distress type, severity, extent severity severity severity severity severity Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No Urgency of maintenance included? No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Maintenance actions included? No No No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No Yes
24
The model used in Taiwan stresses on the importance of the extent and severity of distress on the condition of various bridge components. However, the model does not specify the various distresses in terms of type, extent and severity. Bridge index is used for presenting the condition of a bridge and deciding the ranking of bridges for maintenance planning. There is not a single bridge index which takes into consideration different types of distresses causing ineffective performance of a bridge. It is thus appropriate to take into consideration the different components, their relative weights and the types of distresses affecting the bridge components for the development of BHI. From the review of literature presented in previous sections, the following conclusions can be derived: Present inspection data in India are not updated and hence not useful for the development of BMS modules especially deterioration and LCC modules. It is, therefore, necessary to develop an appropriate format for visual inspection of bridges. Funds provided for bridge maintenance in India are scarce and therefore should be used scientifically and rationally. A description of condition states is yet to be prescribed by the Indian Roads Congress. It is necessary to develop comprehensive definitions of various condition states. It is also necessary to correlate the condition states with different types of distresses/defects and work out their corresponding numerical values, i.e., quantify the distress types. There is a need to develop a BHI which takes into consideration bridge components and distress types. In India, bridges are ageing and there is a need for a ranking method for deciding the priority of maintenance tasks. references
1. Basic Road Statistics of India, 1999-2002, Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi, 2004. 2. Kushwaha, S. K. and Abhijeet Kumar, personal communication, Executive Engineers, Department of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi December, 2007. 3. Indian Railway Institute of Civil Engineering, Pune, Non Destructive Testing of Bridges, 2005. http://www.iricen.gov.in/books/NDT.pdf
4. Jain, S.S., Bridge engineering, some issues of research interest, Edited by Krishna, P., Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, 2002, pp. 181-214. 5. Enright, M.P. and Frangopol, D.M.,Condition prediction of deteriorating concrete bridges using Bayesian updating, Journal of Structural Engineering, 1999, Vol. 125, No. 10, pp. 111825. 6. Sasmal, S., and Ramanjaneyulu, K., Condition evaluation of existing reinforced concrete bridges using fuzzy based analytic hierarchy approach, Expert System Applications, 2008, Vol. 35, pp. 1430-43. 7. BRIMEBridge Management in Europe, Final report. European Commission. www.trl.co.uk/brime; 2001. 8. Project Preparation Manual for Bridges, Special Publication SP 54: 2000, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi. 9. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), U.S. Department of Transportation, Recording and coding guide for the structure inventory and appraisal of the nations bridges, 1995, Report No. (FHWA-PD-96-001), < www.fhwa.dot.gov/mtguide.pdf >. 10. Robelin, C.A., and Madanat, S.M., Dynamic programming based maintenance and replacement optimization for bridge decks using history-dependent deterioration models, AATT, Proceedings of the ninth international conference, 2006, ASCE, Reston, VA. 11. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), U.S. Department of Transportation, (1999). Assets management primer. www.fhwa.dot. gov/infrastructure/asstmgmt/amprimer.pdf > 12. De Brito, J. and Branko, F., Concrete bridge management: from design to maintenance, Practice periodical on structural design and construction, 1997, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 68-75. 13. Manual for Highway Bridge Maintenance Inspection, Special Publication SP 18: 1996, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi. 14. Guidelines for Inspection and Maintenance of Bridges, Special Publication SP 35: 1990, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi. 15. Guidelines for maintenance management of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, 2004. 16. Singh, D., personal communication, Executive Engineer, Department of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi, December, 2008. 17. Scherer, W.T., and Glagola, D.M., Markovian models for bridge maintenance management, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 1994, Vol. 120, No. 1, pp. 37-51. 18. Darbani, B.M. and Hammad, A., Critical review of new directions in bridge management systems, Proceedings of International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering, 2007, ASCE, Reston, VA. 19. El-Marasy, M., Data Information System for Structures, Bridge Management: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair, Edited by J.E. Harding, G.A.R. Parke and M.J. Ryall, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. London, 1990, pp. 89-99. 20. Fang, Z., Yong-jiu, Q., and Man-mei, L., The state bridge management system under the development of modern transportation, International Conference on Transportation Engineering, 2007, ASCE, 2007. 21. Frangopol, D.M., Kong, J.S., and Gharaibeh, E.S., Reliability-based life-cycle management of highway bridges, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 2001, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 27-34. 22. Hudson, R.W., Carmichael III, R.F., Hudson, S.W., Diaz, M.A., and Moser, L.O., Microcomputer bridge management system, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 1993, Vol. 119, No. 1, pp. 59-76. 23. McClure, R.M. and Hoffman, G.L., The Pennsylvania Bridge Management System. Bridge Management: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair, Edited by J.E. Harding, G.A.R. Parke and M.J. Ryall, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. London, 1990. pp. 75-87. 24. Sorensen, A.B., and Berthelsen, F., Implementation of Bridge Management and Maintenance Systems (BMMS) in Europe and the Far East, Bridge
25
Management: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair, Edited by J.E. Harding, G.A.R. Parke and M.J. Ryall, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. London, 1990, pp. 29-38. 25. Haque, M., Uniform bridge management interaction system for database management for roadway bridges, Journal of Bridge Engineering, 1997, Vol 2, No. 4, pp. 183-88. 26. Minchin Jr., R.E., Zayed, T., Boyd, A.J., and Mendoza, M., Best Practices of Bridge System ManagementA Synthesis, Journal of Management in Engineering, 2006, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 186195. 27. Hai, D.T., Computerized Database for Maintenance and Management of Highway Bridges in Vietnam, Journal of Bridge Engineering, 2008, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 245257. 28. Yau, N.-J and Liao, H.-K, 5th International conference on construction project management and 2nd International conference on construction engineering and management, 2007. 29. Hajdin, R., BMS development in Switzerland, Structures, 2000, ASCE, 2004. 30. Lindbladh, L., Bridge Management within the Swedish National Road Administration, Bridge Management: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair, Edited by J.E. Harding, G.A.R. Parke and M.J. Ryall, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. London, 1990. pp. 51-61. 31. Hearn, G., Bridge safety and reliability Edited by Frangopol, 1999, ASCE, pp. 189-209. 32. Hsu, H. C., Chang, W. P., Wang, R. D, Cho, C. H., Jiang, D. H. Small and medium size bridge maintenance sequence analysis by optimization technique in Cruz, Frangopol and Neves (ed.) Advances in Bridge Maintenance, Safety Management and Life-cycle Performance and cost (Balkema: Proceedings and Monographs in Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences), Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2006, pp. 99. 33. Roberts, J. E., and Shepard, R. (2001) Bridge Management for the 21st Century, in Proceedings Health Monitoring and Management of Civil Infrastructure Systems, Edited by Steven B. Chase; A. Emin Aktan, 4337, SPIE, pp. 48-59. 34. Jiang, X., Rens, K.L., Bridge health index for the city and county of Denver, Colorado. II: Denver bridge health index, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 2010, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 588-596. 35. Tserng, H.P., and Chung, C-L., Health assessment and maintenance strategy for bridge management systems: lessons learned in Taiwan, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 2007, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 235246. 36. Valenzuela, S., Solminihac, H. and Echaveguren, T., Proposal of an integrated index for prioritization of bridge maintenance, Journal of Bridge Engineering, 2010, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 337343. 37. Madanat, S., Mishalani, R. and Ibrahim, W.H.W, Estimation of infrastructure transition probabilities from condition rating data, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 1995, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 120-25. 38. Hearn, G., Condition States for Highway Bridges, Structures, 2000, ASCE, 2004. 39. Hajdin, R., KUBA-MS: The Swiss bridge management system. Proceedings of Structures Congress, 2001, ASCE, 2004, Reston, VA. 40. Morcous, G., and Lounis, Z., Probabilistic and mechanistic deterioration models for bridge management, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering, 2007, ASCE, Reston, VA. 41. Collins, T.J. and Breen, R.P., Irelands Bridge Management System, Proceedings of the Structures Congress, 2006, ASCE, Reston, VA. 42. Miyamoto, A., Kawamura, K., and Nakamura, H., Development of bridge management system for existing bridges, Advances in Engineering Software, 2001, Vol. 32, pp. 821-33. 43. Aktan, A.E., Farhey, D.N., Brown, D.L., Dalal, V., Helmicki, A.J., Hunt, V.J., and Shelley, S.J., Condition assessment for bridge management, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 1996, Vol.2, No.3, pp.108-17. 44. Dunker, K.F. and Rabbat, B.G., Assessment infrastructure deficiency: the case study of highway bridges, Journal of Infrastructure systems, 1995, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 100-19.
Dr. Sanjay S. Wakchaure received his civil engineering degree from Government College of Engineering, Shivajinagar, Pune, Masters in structural engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. He is an Executive Engineer in the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India and is responsible for planning and monitoring of World Bank/Asian Development Bank funded Highway and Bridge Projects being carried out in different states of the country. Dr. Kumar N. Jha is with the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. He started his career with Larsen and Toubro Ltd. He has been involved with a number of construction projects and specialises in project management and formwork. He has published in a number of international and national journals and conference proceedings. His book on construction project management has recently been published by Pearson Education. He teaches various courses in construction technology and management. He has conducted a number of training programs for industry and has also been involved with a number of consultancy projects.
COST EFFECTIVE SOFTWARES in ENGINEERING SINGLE POINT SOLUTION TO YOUR CIVIL ENGINEERING NEEDS. COST : Rs 2000 ANALYSIS, DESIGN, COSTING & DRAWING OF RC MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS. COST : Rs 3500 RATE ANALYSIS OF 1294 NOS. OF BUILDING ITEMS AS PER IS 7272: + CPWD SPECS. COST : Rs 2500 Direct scanning & Estimation of Quantities from AUTOCAD Drawings COST : Rs. 3000 QUANTITY, COST & PROJECT PLANNING OF ROADS, A/V Calc. + L & X SEC IN AUTOCAD. COST : Rs 2500
SUPER CIVIL CD R C F :
SUPER RATE ANALYSIS AUTOQTY
ROAD ESTIMATION FLAT SLAB
ANALYSIS, DESIGN, COSTING AND DRAWINGS OF RC BUILDINGS WITH FLAT SLABS COST : Rs. 5000
Other Softwares: Site Control, RA Bill, Steel 2007, 2D Frame QTY, Bid Analysis, Builders Bill, Valuation, Raft, Roads, SSF, Composite, Insta Cost, HVAC Cost, Electric Cost, Billingji, Des & Drg Control, Optimize Bar & Flat Raft Foundation
DD favouring Mr. Y. A. Agboatwala may be sent to : 1802, Jamuna Amrut, 219, Patel Estate, S.V. Road, Jogeshwari (W), Mumbai 400102. Tel: 26783525, Cell : 9820792254 URL: www.supercivilcd.com Email: yaa@supercivilcd.com
26
Discussion Forum
Discussion Forum
Effect of improper casting sequence on compressive strength
Dear Sir, Please refer to the paper titled Effect of improper casting sequence on compressive strength published in The Indian Concrete Journal, January 2012, Vol. 86, No. 1, pp. 30-41. I wish to congratulate the authors for choosing this topic. I find that the cube test results are exceeding the 28 days compressive strengths, prescribed in the IS 456:2000. I used to be very strict for not having any cold joints in the case of vertical cement mill bed concrete. This was many years ago. Now, after reading this paper, I am more reassured about the idea of cold joints. Under Table 1, in Sr. No. 6, the authors have given the fineness of cement as 4%. But as per BIS specification IS 12269:1987, the fineness of cement should be not less than 225 m2/kg. I request you to get the correct information from the authors. I also request you to get the information of the weight of the cement used per cubic meter of concrete for the various concrete mixes used in the experiment. Thanking you, S. Lakshmanan Ovium Apartment, Block 3, Flat I, Door No 3-3- F1, 2nd Street, Ponnuvelnagar, Narasothypatti, Salem 636004.
The author replies

Dear Sir, I would like to clarify that the cement fineness test was the sieve analysis fineness, conducted using a 90 microns sieve. According to IS 122269:2007, the fineness should not exceed 10% by weight. The Blaines Air permeability test that gives fineness in m2/kg was not carried out by us. For other queries I would like to have the reader's direct contact details. with best regards, Ms. Amitha. N.R Assistant Professor Acharya Institute of Technology Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Soldevanahalli, Hesarghatta Main Road, Bangalore 560 090
27
Mumbai, India 15. March 2012
The Second Indian Drymix Mortar Conference

Further informations available on www.drymix.info Early registration (incl. discounts) is possible in our shop from 01. November 2011
Indian dmmc two

The conference is endorsed by The Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association of India CCMAI and SEADMA, The South East Asia Drymix Mortar Association. Media Partner is ZKG International. Join us for this amazing conference.
TER EGIS R rym ww.d w
Building on the success of our previous conference in 2009 The Second Indian Drymix Mortar Conference and Industry Showcasewill bring together drymix mortar experts from the Indian Subcontinent The conference is being E organized by drymix.info, NLIN conference language is O .info English. ix l l l l l 12 excellent technical lectures additional technical papers in conference proceedings Drymix Mortar Yearbook and other handouts international drymix mortar professionals industry showcase
The Second Indian Drymix Mortar Conference and Industry Showcase Indian dmmc two Mumbai, India 15. March 2012 09:00 - 17:00 The Leela Kempinski Hotel near Mumbai International Airport
Organizers Office: drymix.info Ferdinand Leopolder Tegernsser Landstrae 26 81541 Mnchen, Germany Phone: +49-89-62000232 Fax: +49-89-62009911 e-mail: info@drymix.info
Non destructive evaluation of concrete interlocking paving blocks

M.C. Nataraja and Lelin Das
Concrete interlocking blocks (CIBs) are used in commercial, municipal, and industrial constructions. Good engineering properties, low maintenance cost, ease of placement, removal, and reuse, aesthetic appeal, and easy availability make them a preferred paving material. However, often their quality leaves much to be desired. This paper presents the results of a non destructive testing exercise undertaken using both ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer tests to assess the compressive strength of commercially available paver blocks.
Keywords: Interlocking paver blocks, NDT, rebound hammer, ultrasonic pulse velocity, compression test. With their increasing use in commercial, municipal and industrial projects, paving blocks are getting popular in the construction market. As a result, many manufacturers have mushroomed in the country. Although following IS 15658:2006 and paying attention to the quality are their prime concerns, sometimes the products being sold in the market show inconsistent strength development. Uncontrolled use of quarry waste and unconventional materials in the manufacturing process could cause the blocks compressive strengths to vary with some
cases becoming unacceptable for construction. This paper reports the results from non destructive tests such as ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer and a destructive test namely compressive strength test performed on concrete blocks. Based on the results, graphs correlating the compressive strength with ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound number were made for predicting the compressive strength of unknown samples. The correlation successfully predicted the compressive strengths quite close to the measured ones.
literature review
Although many factors affect the compressive strength of concrete paver blocks, some important ones are casting method, curing shape and size of the specimens. So, the calibration chart developed using standard cubes and cylinders [IS 13311 (Part-2):1992] and supplied with the rebound hammer are not suitable for determining their strength. As the blocks are relatively thin with a lower aspect ratio than the cubes, one needs to develop a separate calibration chart for paver blocks. In this regards, the influence of the shape and size of the specimens on the compressive strength of concrete is well documented.1-3 It is also well known that the crack pattern in paver blocks is different from that in the standard cubes and cylinders. The extent of cracking in paver blocks is denser compared that in cubes and
33
cylinders. In cylinders, a main inclined fracture surface is nucleated, whereas in cubes the lateral sides get spalled. In paver blocks, the failure is gradual with the central core getting fragmented due to crushing, in some cases exhibiting a dense columnar cracking in the bulk of the specimen. The compaction pressure also affects the strength of paver blocks. Wattanasiriwech et al.4 found that increasing the compaction pressure enhanced the densification and thus increased the compressive strength. The compaction pressure is therefore expected to significantly affect the rebound hammer number and the ultra sonic pulse velocity. As the blocks are thin and relatively strong, the conventional velocity ratings meant for structural concrete cannot be applied. A poorly compacted paver may give a higher rebound number, a relatively lower pulse velocity rating and strength than a 150 mm cube of the same concrete. Hence it is advisable to develop separate correlation curves for assessing the quality of paver blocks. The use of recycled aggregates (RA) also affects the quality and strength of paver blocks .Although such aggregates have been successfully introduced in both structural and non structural concrete products, Poon and Chan studied the properties of concrete paving blocks prepared with contaminated recycled concrete aggregates (tiles, clay bricks, glass, wood) commonly found in the construction and demolition wastes and reported that density, compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, water absorption value, abrasion resistance, skid resistance and some durability parameters were greatly affected.5-9 The use of RA as a replacement of conventional aggregates reduced the density and strength but increased the water absorption of the blocks.10 Therefore, the waste generated from building activities is generally considered unsuitable for this application. Some other wastes that may be used include brick powder and fine-grained solid gasification residues.11, 12 As ascertaining the quality of blocks made
with such materials is difficult, their use is restricted to non structural applications. Under such a quality matrix, having a set of non destructive tests (NDT) to control the blocks quality both at the manufacturing plants and at site seems desirable.13,14 When CIPBs manufactures lack technical experience, they tend to produce the blocks by trial and error, resulting in an uneconomical process and blocks of low engineering properties.15 Applying their expertise and experience, however, Aticin et al have developed a process prescription (optimum parameters of aggregate proportion, water/cement (w/c) ratio and dosage) for producing CIPB based on destruction specific energy (SEdes), strength, hardness and abrasion resistance of the blocks.15 The destructive specific energy (SEdes) is estimated from the area under the stress-strain envelope in compressive strength test. The authors claim that the application of destruction specific energy for production of CIPB results in a lower cost and better engineering properties. A classical example of this application is the SONREB method developed by RILEM Technical committee and widely adopted in Romania. 22 It is gives a relationship between UPV, rebound hammer number and compressive strength of concrete in the form of a nomogram. The accuracy of the estimated strength is in the range of 15 to 20 percent. In addition, several other linear and non linear multiple correlation equations are available in the literature.23,24 Arioglu et al. obtained best strength prediction by using the non linearity of rebound number R and UPV, V in the form of power products.24 Such regression models based on power products were used to correlate the compressive strength of concrete to its UVP (V) and rebound hammer number (N). In order to optimise the correlation, the mass density (MD) and class strength
Table 1. Properties of blocks

Proportions Shape and size L x B, mm Thickness, mm Plan area, mm2 Porosity, at 28 days, % Average Strength, at 28 days, MPa Compression Splitting Flexure
70 w/c= 0.4 1: 5.9 : 3.4 190 x 160
28240
7.98
48.92
2.94
4.83
34
(CS) were also used in the model. Equation 1 is a typical regression model using these variables. y = a + b x1c . x2d . x3e . x4f ......(1)
where y is the concrete strength (true or potential) and x1, x2, x3, x4, the quantitative variables UPV, RHN, MD and CS, when present, and a, b, c, d, e, f the model parameters. As many unconventional materials are used in the production of blocks which affect their quality significantly, research is continuing to assess engineering properties without destructively testing the blocks. This paper represents one such attempt
Present study
Two hundred paver blocks were procured from a single source and subjected to conventional curing and testing following the provisions of IS 13311 (Part 1 and 2):1992 for rebound hammer number and the ultrasonic pulse velocity and IS 15658:2006 for compressive strength.17-19 A total of 72 blocks were tested, 36 blocks pertaining to 7 and 28 day specimens each. Graphs were generated correlating the results of these measurements. The charts were later used for checking the quality of other blocks. Multiple correlations were also developed among compressive strength, rebound hammer number and ultrasonic pulse velocity for the same purpose. The mixture proportion of the concrete used in the paver block production was as follows: Cement: crushed granite rock fines: 10 mm and down granite chips is 1: 5.9:3.4 with w/c = 0.6. Some of the properties of the paver blocks such as shape, size, porosity and tensile strength are presented in Table 1.
Schmidt rebound hammer test

The most satisfactory way of establishing a correlation between the compressive strength of concrete and its rebound number is to measure both the properties simultaneously on concrete blocks. So the blocks were held in a compression testing machine under a fixed load of about 7 MPa and nine rebound numbers were taken on each of the two accessible faces. The average of 18 readings following IS 8900:1978 gave the rebound index for the block.20. Here the procedure given in IS 13311(Part-2):1992 was followed. Subsequently, the blocks were tested for compressive strength following IS 15658:2006.17, 21
35
ultrasonic pulse velocity test

In this test, the direct transmission method was employed across the thickness of the blocks. This test was performed following IS 13311(Part-1):1992 at the centre of the specimen, as the core of the block is vulnerable to bending. From the path length and the transit time, the ultrasonic pulse velocity was calculated. The testing was done at the same spot twice and the average velocity was reported. The variation between two measurements was within about 5 percent.
Combined method
In the present work, an effort also was made to develop multiple correlation of the type C=k+aN+bV where k, a and b are constants of the equation. The constants k, a and b are 57.31, 0.692 and 20.584 respectively. N is the calculated rebound number and V is the UPV value in km/s. Here the r2 is 0.94 and standard error is 2.02. As the r2 is higher than that obtained in the other cases, the combined method represents a better correlation. ......(2)
Compression test on paver blocks

The most commonly used dumble shaped paver blocks (140 mm x 200 mm x 75 mm) were tested following IS 15658:2006.
results and discussion
use of calibration charts
Based on the destructive and non destructive results, calibration correlations were developed using the method of least squares. Figures 1 to 3 correlate compressive strength with rebound number, compressive strength with ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound number with ultrasonic pulse velocity respectively. These figures give the calibration correlation as a straight line. In such expressions, the degree of correlation and its efficiency is evaluated in terms of r the correlation coefficient. For practical applications, r0.85 is acceptable. Figures 1 to 3 show a high degree of correlation between the parameters considered and hence these graphs can be used for practical applications.
In order to check the applicability of these charts, three sets of paver blocks were tested; two sets were from the same manufacturer (Sample 1) and the third set was from a different source (Sample 2). Eight blocks were tested at the age of 21 days by the non destructive and destructive methods and the corresponding compressive strength was determined as explained above. Table 2 presents the results. The strength variation based on the rebound number was within 7 percent. The compressive strength variation based on the UPV was about +17 percent for the blocks from the same manufacturer. However, the variation increased to 33% when the samples were from the second manufacturer. Clearly, the calibration charts give incorrect strengths if the blocks are not manufactured under the same conditions.
Table 2. Calculated and estimated compressive strength of paver blocks

Source Calculated actual compressive strength, MPa Calculated average rebound number, R Calculated average ultrasonic pulse velocity UPV, m/s 3520 3810 Estimated compressive strength from Fig.1 based on N, MPa Estimated compressive strength from Fig. 2 based on UPV, MPa Estimated compressive strength from equation 1, combined method MPa 35.90 +1.1% 50.18 +14.70%
Sample-1 Sample-2
35.5 42.8
30 42
33.3, -6.2% 45.7, +6.8%
41.49, +16.9% 56.9, +32.9%
36
Table 3. Calculated and estimated compressive strength of paver blocks using charts and equations
Source Calculated actual compressive strength, MPa Calculated average rebound number, R Calculated average ultrasonic pulse velocity UPV, m/s 3455 3605 Estimated compressive strength from Figure 1 based on N, MPa 42 (41.6), +2.3% 49 (48.9) +10.2% Estimated compressive strength from Figure 2 based on UPV, MPa 38 (38.02), -7.4% 45 (46.02), +1.2% Estimated compressive strength from equation 1, combined method MPa 40.10 -2.3% 48.04, +8.1%
Sample-3 Sample-4
41.04 44.46
38 45
use of combined method

The compressive strength estimated using the combined method based on equation 2 was close to the actual value for sample 1 but +14.7 percent for sample 2. However, the variation in the combined method was less than that in the individual method. The analysis was extended to include two more samples. These additional blocks were again procured from two different sources and were designated Sample 3 and Sample 4. Ten blocks from each source were tested following the same sequence as described before. Table 3 summarises an estimate of the compressive strength made using the charts. The UPV is the average of all 10 values based on direct transmission method. The Rebound numbers are average for each block and the average of 10 such averages was taken for strength evaluation. The V values shown in the brackets are from the equations shown in the graphs. The combined method was also applied using equation 2. Table 3 gives the calculated compressive strength for the observed values of R and V. The strength estimated by the rebound method was higher by 2.3 percent and 10.2 percent for samples 3 and 4 respectively. However, UPV gave a lower estimate for samples 3 (by 7.4 percent) and a marginally higher estimate for sample 4 (by 1.2 percent). However, these variations were within the limits permitted by the codes. The combined method based on the equation 2 gave a lower strength for samples 3 (2.3 percent lower) and a higher strength (about 8.1 percent) for sample 4 than the actual strength. However, these variations were within the limits permitted by the codes and were significantly less than the individual methods.
quality of the blocks. Since the factors such as the type of cement and mineral admixtures, aggregates, surface condition, moisture condition, age of concrete influence the test results, they are to be kept in mind while interpreting the results. If these factors change separate calibration charts are to be developed. The combined method of predicting the compressive strength the based on both rebound number and UPV gave better results than the individual methods. references
1. Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, Fourth edition, Pearson education, India, 2006. 2. Mehta P.K., Concrete- structure, Properties and Materials, Prentice Hall Inc, Engle wood cliffs, New Jersey, 1985. 3. del Viso JR, Carmona JR and Ruiz R., Shape and size effects on the compressive strength of high-strength concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 38, Number 3, 2008, pp. 386-395. 4. Wattanasiriwech D., Saiton A. and Wattanasiriwech S., Paving blocks from ceramic tile production waste, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 17, Number 18, 2009, pp 1663-1668. 5. Nataraja M.C., Nagaraj T.S., Bavanishankar S., Reddy B.M. Ramalinga, Proportioning cement based composites with burnt coal, International Journal of Materials and Structures, Volume 40, Number 6, 2007, pp. 543-552. 6. Nataraja M.C. and Nagaraj T.S., Exploiting potential use of partiallydeteriorated cement in concrete mixtures, International Journal of Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol 51, No. 2, 2007, pp. 355-366 7. Nataraja M.C. and Nalanda Y. Performance of industrial by-products in controlled low strength materials (CLSM), International Journal of Waste management, 2008, Vol 28, No. 7, pp. 1168-1181. 8. Nataraja M.C., Rahman S.S., Lelin Das, Richard Sandeep, Nagaraj T.S. Proportioning concrete mixtures with crushed concrete paver blocks as recycled aggregates, Proceedings of the international conference, Role of concrete in global development, Edited by R.K. Dhir et al., University of Dundee, 2008, pp. 511-522. 9. Chi-Sun Poon and Dixon Chan, Effects of contaminants on the properties of concrete paving blocks prepared with recycled concrete aggregates, Construction and Building Materials, 2007, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 164-175. 10. Poon C.S. and Lam C.S., The effect of aggregate-to-cement ratio and types of aggregates on the properties of pre-cast concrete blocks, Cement and Concrete Composites, Volume 30, Number 4, 2008, pp. 283-289. 11. Poon, C.S. and Chan D. Paving blocks made with recycled concrete aggregate and crushed clay brick, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 20, Number 8, 2006, pp. 569-577. 12. Chen D. and Poon C.S., Using recycled construction waste as aggregates for paving blocks, Waste and Resource Management, 2006, Vol 159, No. 2, pp. 83-91. 13. Brozovsky J., Matejka O. and Martinec P. Concrete interlocking paving blocks compression strength determination using non destructive methods,
Conclusions
The compressive strength prediction by knowing two NDT parameters namely the UPV and rebound number appears to be practicable. The strength assessment is rather quick and gives initial information about the
37
The 8th international conference on the Slovenian Society for non destructive testing, application of contemporary non destructive testing in engineering, 2005, Slovenia, pp. 91-97. 14. Breysse D, Klysz G, Drobert X, Sirieix C and Lataste JF. How to combine several non-destructive techniques for a better assessment of concrete structures, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 38, Number 6, 2008, pp. 783-793. 15. Atici U., Ersoy A. and Ozturk B. Application of destruction specific energy for characterization of concrete paving blocks, Magazine and concrete research, Volume 61, Number 3, 2009, pp 193-199. 16. IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of practice, (Fourth Edition), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 17. IS 15658:2006. Pre cast concrete blocks for paving-Specifications, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 18. IS 13311(Part-1):1992. Non destructive testing of concrete - Methods of test, Ultrasonic pulse velocity, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 19. IS 13311(Part- 2):1992. Non destructive testing of concrete - Methods of test, Rebound hammer, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 20. IS 8900:1978. Criteria for rejection of outlying observations, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 21. Proceq-Concrete test hammer, Operating instructions, Type N, PROCEQ SA Zurich, Switzerland, 1977. 22. RILEM, 1994, RILEM technical recommendations for testing and use of concrete construction materials, E & FN Spon. 23. Qasrawi, HY. Concrete strength by combined nondestructive methods simply and reliably predicted, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 30, 2000, pp. 739-746.
24. Arioglu, E., Arioglu, N., Girgin, C. A. Discussion of the paper Concrete strength by combined nondestructive methods simply and reliably predicted by H.Y. Qasrawi, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 31, 2001, pp. 1239-1240.
Dr. M.C. Nataraja holds a PhD from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. Presently, he is a Professor in the department of civil engineering at Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore. He has research experience of 25 years and has published over 100 technical papers in national and international journals and conferences. His areas of interest are SFRC, concrete mix design and controlled low strength materials. He is in the international technical committee of PROTECT in connection with international conferences. Mr. Lelin Das received his BE in Civil Engineering, M.Tech in Structural Engineering and is pursuing his PhD at Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore. Presently, he is a Technical Officer at Ultratech Cement Ltd. at Mysore. His research interests include use of marginal materials in concrete, special concretes and concrete mix design.
Statement about ownership particulars about newspaper ('The Indian Concrete Journal') to be published in the first issue every year after the last day of February. ForM IV (See rule 8) 1 2 3 Place of Publication Periodicity of the Publication Printer's Name Whether citizen of India If foreigner, state the country Address Publisher's Name Whether citizen of India If foreigner, state the country Address Editor Whether citizen of India If foreigner, state the country Address Name and addresses of individuals who own the newspaper and partners or shareholders holding more than one percent of the total capital. ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604. Monthly A.N. Singh Yes ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604. A.N. Singh Yes ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604. A.N. Singh Yes The Indian Concrete Journal, ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ambuja Cement India Private Limited, 106, Maker Chambers III, Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021. Life Insurance Corporation of India, Investment Department, 6th floor, West Wing, Central Office, Yogak Shema, Jeevan Bima Marg, Mumbai 400 021. ICICI Prudential Life Insurance Company Limited, Deutshce Bank AG, DB House, Hazarimal Somani Marg, Post Box No. 1142, Fort, Mumbai 400 001. J. P. Morgan Funds Emerging Markets Equity Fund, J P Morgan Chase Bank N.A., India Sub Custody, 6th Floor, Paradigm B, Mindspace, Malad West,Mumbai - 400 064. The Growth Fund of America, Inc., Deutsche Bank AG, DB House, Hazarimal Somani Marg, Post Box No. 1142, Fort, Mumbai 400 001. Flagship Indian Investment Company (Mauritius) Ltd, J.P. Morgan Chase Bank N.A., India Sub Custody, 6th Floor, Paradigm B, Mindspace, Malad West, Mumbai 400064.
I, A.N. Singh, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. Dated : March 1, 2012 A.N. Singh Publisher, Printer and Editor
38
Tall Buildings
A year in review : Trends of 2011 Skyscraper completion reaches new high for fifth year running
Nathaniel Hollister and Antony Wood
The annual story of tall building construction is becoming a familiar one: 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and now 2011 have each sequentially broke the record for the most 200 meter or higher buildings completed in a given year. Once again, more 200 m+ buildings were completed in 2011 than in any year previous, with a total of 88 projects opening their doors. Shenzhens Kingkey 100, at 442 meters, tops the 2011 list.
Continuing shifts
The buildings completed in 2011 have effected a significant change in the worlds tallest 100 buildings, with 17 new buildings added to the list. Perhaps most significantly, for the first time in history the number of office buildings in the tallest 100 has diminished to the 50% mark, as mixed-use buildings continue to increase, jumping from 23 to 31. As recently as the year 2000, 85% of the worlds tallest were office buildings meaning that a 35% change has occurred in just over a decade. In terms of location, Asia, now with 46 of the 100, continues to edge toward containing half of the worlds tallest buildings. The Middle East region saw an increase of three, while Europe diminished to only one building in the tallest 100: Capital City Moscow Tower.
several cities, not previously seen as centers of tall building construction, are quite evident in this group of projects. In fact, the three cities to complete the most 200 m+ buildings in 2011 are all relative newcomers to the list: Panama City (10 completions), Abu Dhabi (9 completions), and Busan (9 completions). Before 2011, these cities had a combined total of six 200 m+ buildings. Together, they now contain 34 such buildings and accounted for 32% of completions in 2011, surpassing traditional tall building centers such as Dubai, Shanghai, and Singapore.
China
When discussing skyscraper completion, it is impossible to neglect the market of China, which contributed 23 completions in 2011. However, quite surprisingly given the regions impressive market, we have seen Chinas global percentage of building completions begin to drop off slightly. In 2009, China contained 45% of the buildings completed and 33% in 2010. In 2011, China contained only 26% of the global total of 200 m+ completions. This decreasing figure demonstrates that, despite the continued increase in building construction in China and relatively tame historical markets, other new markets are immerging. Shenzhens Kingkey 100, at 442 meters (1,449 feet), was the tallest to complete in 2011, opening in December. The 100-story building is topped by a 38-meter (125-foot) sky garden which serves as the lobby of the buildings hotel and contains three levels of restaurants/ bars. Also completed in 2011 was the Longxi International Hotel, located near the Chinese village of Huaxi. The village, rumored to be the richest in China, sees the building as a
dominant and emerging markets

The eighty-eight 200 m+ projects completed in 2011 (the tallest 20 of which are profiled in Figure 1) provide a helpful insight into where this expected increase in international building development will take place. On the one hand, statistics show that several of the major markets in recent years continue to thrive and drive a significant percentage of the tall building market. China and the UAE contain a total of 39 of the projects over 44% of the worlds completions in 2011. However,
39
Tall Buildings
Figure 1. The tallest 20 buildings completed in 2011, 10 of which, for the first time in history, are supertalls. CTBUH
mark of their economic development over the past halfcentury, with its height symbolically matching (within two meters) the height of the tallest building in Beijing, the capital of China.
Panama
Before 2008, no 200 m+ buildings existed in all of Panama. Then, between 2008 and 2010, three buildings opened. In 2011, Panama City completed ten 200 m+ skyscrapers, more than any other city and more than double the number of completions in all of North America. With these completions, there are now 12 such buildings in Panama, perhaps signalling a new day for the tall building in this region. One of these buildings, the Trump Ocean Club International Hotel & Tower, became the tallest building in Central America when it completed in 2011 at 284 meters (932 feet) in height. Additionally, there are another eight buildings currently under construction and set for completion by the end of 2012, an impressive figure for a country of only 3.5 million inhabitants. While these numbers are easily dwarfed by the immense number of completions in China or other major tall building markets, they point to an immerging tall building market. Panama is not the only emerging market in this region: Mexico also completed its third 200 m+ building in 2011 and currently has three other significant tall building projects under construction.
dubai
Another significant existing market is the city of Dubai, which added six 200 m+ buildings in 2011. It is helpful to recall that, just a decade ago, the entire UAE contained a total of only three 200 m+ buildings. It now contains 60 such buildings, behind only China and the USA. Within ten years, the country has established itself as a centre of tall building construction, and has completed more 200 m+ buildings than any other country except China in the past two years. In 2011, Dubais 23 Marina became the worlds tallest residential building, at 393 meters (1,289 feet). Coincidentally, the building sits near both The Torch (the previous worlds tallest residential for a short time) and the under construction Princess Tower (set to become the worlds tallest in 2012), making the Dubai Marina the tallest residential skyscraper cluster in the world.
40
Tall Buildings
Figure 1. continued
abu dhabi
Another emerging market in 2011 was Abu Dhabi, Dubais neighbour. This city added nine 200 m+ buildings in 2011, remarkable as it contained only two such buildings at the beginning of the year. Another thirteen 200 m+ buildings are currently under construction in Abu Dhabi, showing that the city will continue to be an important market for the next several years. Abu Dhabis largest project to complete in 2011 was Etihad Towers, a complex comprised of five towers ranging between 218 meters to 305 meters. The complex provides a significant amount of residential, office, and hotel space to the city. The tallest of the towers, Etihad Towers 2, became the citys tallest building and first supertall.
city, Busan. 2011 saw all this change with 9 of the 11 Korean completions taking place in Busan. This included the completion of the Doosan Haeundae Weve the Zenith Tower complex and Studio Daniel Libeskinds Haeundae IPark complex. These two projects, which sit directly next to each other, added five 250-meter (820-foot) residential buildings to Busan. 2011 also saw the completion of Koreas tallest building, the Northeast Asia Trade Tower. The building is located in Incheon which, since it became Koreas first free economic zone in 2003, has seen significant tall building development.
united States and europe

What role do developed regions, like the United States and Europe, play in the future of the tall building? Are these markets expanding or expended? Historically speaking, the United States experienced its skyscraper heyday in the 1980s, when forty-nine 200 m+ buildings were completed. To put this in perspective, during the same decade China and South Korea each completed only two such buildings, while Europe and
Busan
The Korean tall building market has also seen significant development in recent years, containing twenty-four 200 m+ buildings by the end of 2010. However, only one such building existed in the countrys second largest
41
Tall Buildings
danger of becoming obsolete, significant renovations can be more effective than complete demolition.
Conclusion
Having examined the history and status of a variety of tall building markets, several assumptions can be made about the next decade of tall building construction. Existing skyscraper markets, particularly China and the Middle East, are predicted to continue to play a major role in the tall building industry. China currently has over 180 projects under construction that are over 200 meters in height, and thus will undoubtedly play the primary role in tall building development for the rest of this decade. However, the tall building typology continues to diversify, and we can expect to see the further development of a number of new markets over the next few years. Cities like Panama City, Abu Dhabi, Busan, and many others in Central and South America, Asia, and the Middle East will continue to play an increasing role in tall building development. the UAE completed none. This building boom continued into the early 90s, until it ended in 1994, after which the US did not complete any 200 meter buildings for a full five years. In 2011, two 200 m+ buildings were completed in the US: New Yorks Eight Spruce Street and Cincinnatis Great American Tower. Eight Spruce Street, recipient of the CTBUH 2011 Best Tall Building Americas Award, uses its faade to create a draping fabric-like quality, a unique addition to the citys skyline. Europe, another significantly developed tall building market, completed four 200 m+ buildings in 2011, matching its record set in 2008. These buildings, spread through the UK, France, Germany, and Russia, seem to point to a possible resurgence of the tall building in continental Europe. There are currently 20 such buildings under construction in Europe, with some ten set to complete in the next two years. Frances Tour First building, completed in 2011, took a 40-story building completed in the 1970s and completely refurbished it. The project retains the integrity of the original tower while providing a modern interpretation of the concept and vastly improving the environmental performance, internal conditions, and circulation. With the addition of ten floors, the project became Frances tallest building at 231 meters (758 feet). This reuse and reinvigoration of an existing building can be seen as a model for what is likely to become a common event around the world. As buildings age and become in With over 300 projects above the 200-metre mark currently under construction internationally, the tall building community is set to continue to develop at an incredible pace. As new markets continue to discover and develop the tall building, it is quite possible that this pace will continue through the end of this decade. Without a doubt, the skylines of the world will see tremendous change by the year 2020. For the detailed report, readers are requested to get in touch with the authors at info@ctbuh.org
Nathaniel Hollister, BArch, received his professional Bachelors degree in architecture from the Illinois Institute of Technology. He is the Production Coordinator at the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), USA and is primarily responsible for contributing to the research, design, and production of various CTBUH publications and press releases, including the 2010 CTBUH Reference Guide a book documenting current tall building statistics. In addition, he facilitates the research and organization necessary for the production of the CTBUH in Numbers articles and other technical reports. Dr. Antony Wood, PhD RIBA, is Executive Director of the CTBUH, responsible for the dayto-day running of the Council and steering in conjunction with the Board of Trustees. Based at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Antony is also an Associate Professor in the College of Architecture at IIT, where he convenes various tall building design studios. A UK architect by training, his field of specialism is the design, and in particular the sustainable design, of tall buildings.
42
Superposition principle invalid in iS 13920 design of slender rc walls with boundary elements
D.H.H. Rohit, P. Narahari, Arvind Kumar Jaiswal and C.V.R. Murty
Current code IS 13920:2002 for ductile detailing of concrete structures assumes that moment capacity of a RC structural wall with boundary elements is the sum of moment capacity of the web portion of the wall and that due to the couple using axial capacity of the boundary elements and lever arm between them. This assumption leads to gross over-estimation of design moment capacity of the wall. In this paper, provisions are reviewed and improvements suggested eliminating this deficiency in the code provisions. A nonlinear method is suggested based on principles of mechanics for estimating the combined Pu-Mu strength envelope, considering the combined contribution of the web and boundary elements of the wall. Using this, a numerical study was performed of moment capacity of RC structural walls (both with and without boundary elements) to demonstrate that superposition principle is not acceptable in the design of RC structural walls with boundary elements.
Key words: RC frame buildings; RC structural walls; design code; moment capacity; superposition.
rC Walls with boundary elements
RC structural walls in RC frame buildings can be designed without or with boundary elements (Figure 1). Often, a uniform column grid is maintained and walls
43
Notations
Asi = Area of steel reinforcement bar i A st = Area of uniformly distributed vertical reinforcement be = Boundary element BE = Boundary element CA = Centroidal axis d = Cover to steel reinforcement bar Es = Elastic modulus of steel f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete fscx = Stress in concrete at depth x from extreme compression fibre fsi = Stress in steel reinforcement bar i fy = Characteristic strength of steel hw = Vertical height of wall lw = Length of wall inclusive of boundary elements P u = Axial compression on whole wall crosssection P be = Axial compression on boundary element only Puz = Axial capacity of whole wall cross-section (with Mu=0) Mu = Moment on whole wall cross-section Muv = Moment on wall web only Muz = Moment capacity of whole wall cross-section (with Pu=0) NA = Neutral axis tw = Thickness of wall xu = Depth of neutral axis from extreme compression fibre xi = Depth of steel reinforcement bar i from neutral axis c = Strain in concrete si = Strain in steel reinforcement bar i t = Percentage of vertical steel reinforcement c = Stress in concrete si = Stress in steel reinforcement bar i
built between two column lines (placed symmetrically in the two plan directions to avoid twisting in the building).1 The boundary elements provide the needed confinement at the wall ends as well as offer a consistent architectural form at the exterior surface, in addition to providing for a uniform structural grid.2 Conventionally, Reinforced Concrete (RC) structural elements should be designed to behave in an underreinforced manner; steel should yield before concrete crushes, and this gives enough warning before the
structural element fails. But, a critical review of the current design provisions in the IS 456 confirm that this desired mode of failure is not realised analytically.3 IS 456 specifies that the limiting state in compression of concrete is reached when compression strain in the extreme concrete fibre reaches 0.0035. But, many text books and handbooks on the subject take this strain of 0.0035 in the calculation of moment capacity Mu of the section to occur under all circumstances, irrespective of whether the RC section is in compression or in tension. The negative consequence of this is that academics, students and practitioners involved in design of RC structures do not internalise the importance of making RC structures under-reinforced. In the specific context of structural walls, being made under-reinforced means tension steel reaches the limiting strain in tension before the extreme fibre in compression reaches limiting strain in compression. Mu calculated by the textbooks and handbooks is not far from the exact intent when the RC section is shallow, e.g., RC columns or beams.4-7 But, the said misinterpretation leads to Mu estimates that are significantly off from those obtained from the exact interpretation of the clause, when the RC sections are deep, e.g., RC walls.1,2,3,8 In RC slender walls with low elevation aspect ratio (hw /tw), the under-estimation of Mu is even more amplified by the linear super-position suggested in IS 13920 in the calculation of Mu.9-11 This paper explains the above mentioned misinterpretation; lays down the exact method of estimating Mu that is based on fundamentals of mechanics, namely equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive law; and argues in favour of discontinuing the use of principle of superposition for estimating Mu of RC walls as laid down in IS 13920.
estimating moment capacity Mu of structural walls
The moment capacity of RC structural walls subjected to compression and flexure is governed by Clauses
44
38.1 and 39.1 of IS 456 and based on the following considerations:3 Plane section normal to the axis of bending remains plane even after bending Bending compressive strength of concrete is 0.67 times the characteristic cube compressive strength. Design stress-strain curves of concrete and steel are shown in Figure 2. Maximum compressive strain at the highly compressive extreme fibre in concrete is 0.002 in pure compression, 0.0035 in bending compression, and 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressive extreme fibre under combined axial compression and bending (when there is no tension on the cross-section) Tensile strength of concrete is ignored Maximum strain in tension reinforcement at failure is not less than 0.002 + (fy /1.15Es), where fy is characteristic strength of steel, and Es modulus of elasticity of steel; and Partial safety factors for material strengths are 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel. Using these considerations, Annex A of IS 13920 provides the following closed-form expression to estimate ultimate moment capacity Mu of RC structural walls without boundary elements:11-13 (a) When ,
(b) When
......(2)
where
and
In Eq.(2), (xu/lw ) is obtained by solving the quadratic equation , where
and
Eq.(2) has an error; the expression for 2 should read as: ......(1) where ......(3)
The assumptions and limitations behind expressions for Mu are:7,12,13 ; and 1. The stressstrain curve for steel is assumed to be the bilinear one (Figure 2(b)). 2. Reinforcement bars are assumed to be distributed uniformly along the wall length. If any other distribution is adopted, the expression may not help in obtaining Mu.
45
3. The extreme compressive fibre of concrete always develops a strain of 0.0035. Assuming the concrete fails first even when the structural wall section is under-reinforced, results in violation of basic mechanics. 4. Annex A of IS 13920 does not provide expression for M u when neutral axis is located outside the section [Figure 3 (d)]. 5. T h e m i n i m u m v a l u e o f maximum tension strain in reinforcement bars is 0.0020 + (0.87fy /Es). 6. When boundary elements are provided, Clause 9.4 of IS 13920 uses principal of superposition to determine the total Mu contributed by structural wall and boundary element, even though the stress-strain curves are nonlinear for both steel and concrete. 7. Under pure axial compression, the axial strain is 0.002 throughout the section. In the expression of Puz , the contribution of concrete, i.e., 0.446 fcklwtw with 0.446 fck being the stress in concrete throughout the section, is consistent with the axial strain of 0.002, but that of steel is not. At a strain of 0.002, the stress in steel must be 0.79fy, but is taken as 0.75fy for Fe 415 steel (Table 1) in IS 456:2000 and SP 16; and it is about 0.75fy for Fe 500.
Table 1. Calculation of stress in steel during pure axial compression for different steels (from Table A of SP 16)
Design Stress 0.85 0.87fy = 0.7395fy 0.90 0.87fy = 0.7830fy 0.95 0.87fy = 0.8265fy Strain Fe 415 0.00163 0.00192 0.00241 Fe 500 0.00195 0.00226 0.00277
compression strain of 0.0035. Also, exact stressstrain curves can be used of concrete and steel. When boundary elements are provided at ends of RC structural walls, the whole cross-section should be considered together in arriving at Mu, thereby eliminating the need to apply principles of superposition on individual contributions of moments of resistance of wall web and wall boundary elements. Instead of specifying the minimum value of maximum strain (of 0.0020+0.87f y /E s ) in reinforcement bars with highest tension strain, a limiting strain (of 0.0020+0.87fy /Es) should be specified. This will complete the definition of limit state design by specifying the limiting strain on the tension side. The advantage of such an approach is that a section can be designed to be under-reinforced, and thereby have adequate warning, before failure of the wall.
Suggested improvements in calculation of Mu of structural walls
Changes are required in both interpretation and assumptions made in the Indian Codes for calculating the ultimate moment of resistance Mu of RC structural walls. The following improvements are suggested: Principles of Mechanics should be employed to arrive at Mu of RC structural walls, which are consistent with the basic tenets of Limit State Method of design for strength. This approach will provide a general method to arrive at Mu for any location of neutral axis; this will eliminate the incorrect assumption that concrete will always fail first and that too at axial-cum-bending
Principles of mechanics for estimating Mu
Rectangular RC structural wall sections (Figure 4) have two equilibrium equations, one for axial force on the section (Eq. (4)) and another for bending moments about axis of bending (Eq. (5)):
46
and
......(4)
......(5)
where N is the number of steel reinforcement bars in the cross-section. Stress-strain constitutive relations of concrete (Eq.(6)) and Fe 415 steel (Eq.(7)) can be expressed respectively (Figure 2) as:
......(6)
......(7)
The RC structural wall section consists of two materials, namely concrete and steel bars. As per Limit State Method of design, either or both of them can reach the limiting strain first; the limiting strains of concrete and steel bars are: ......(8)
47
and ......(9)
If concrete reaches the limiting strain first, and , then ......(10)
[IS 456:2000] (Figure 2).6 The percentage of minimum longitudinal reinforcement used is 0.25% of the gross cross-sectional area in accordance with IS 13920. This minimum longitudinal reinforcement is distributed across the cross-section as per literature.14 This study uses the basis of minimum longitudinal reinforcement as proposed in the said publication (Figure 5). The discussion is based on P-M interaction curves of chosen wall sections. Walls without boundary elements Some changes are needed in the current code design philosophy as well as provisions. To establish the same, a comparative study between IS 13920 and the proposed
Table 2. Error in Mu of a RC structural wall with crosssection aspect ratio 5.0 and reinforcement 0.25% as per IS 13920 and method given in literature14
t 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.75 Error in estimating Mu (%) Pu /Puz=0 Pu /Puz=0.1 Pu /Puz=0.2 Pu /Puz=0.3 Pu /Puz=0.4 13.6 12.46 12.4 11.11 8.79 5.05 4.67 4.51 4 2.64 1.13 0.95 0.65 0.6 -1.08 -1.64 -1.97 -2.57 -3.18 -4.88 -2.46 -2.75 -3.03 -3.29 -7.69
and if steel reaches the limiting strain first, and , then ......(11)
numerical study and discussion

As per Clause 9.1 of IS 13920, the thickness of wall shall not be less than 150 mm, and the reinforcement shall be provided along the plane of the wall. The thickness of the web of the wall is taken as 300 mm. The material properties of RC structural walls are taken as per IS 456
48
method on estimating the strength of the structural element with aspect ratios 1.5 and 5.0 was carried out. To begin with, the error in the expression for Mu (as given by Eqs.(1), (2) and (3)) is emphasised (Figure 6 and 7). Figure 6 shows a kink due to the error, which is eliminated by using Eq.(3) and reflected in Figure 7; this kink occurs at the balanced section.
49
Consider an RC column with cross-section aspect ratio of 1.5 and vertical reinforcement of 0.8%. Figure 8a shows that expression from IS 13920 (with correction) estimates a lower moment capacity of the section when compressive axial load Pu is below the balanced level (and failure occurs by steel reaching the limiting strain in tension). Now, consider a RC structural wall with crosssection aspect ratio of 5.0 and vertical reinforcement of 0.25%. Figure 8b shows that expression from IS 13920 (with correction) estimates higher moment capacity of the section when compressive axial load Pu is below the balanced level; Table 2 shows the error in estimating Mu by IS 13920. The maximum error is 13.6%. Walls with boundary elements For RC structural walls with boundary elements, the axial compressive load demand on the boundary element as per IS 13920 is: ......(12)
that the boundary elements of the RC wall (a) resist only pure axial load without any bending moment on it, and (b) contribute to overall wall moment capacity through moment couple between the axial loads on the boundary elements at wall ends separated by the distance Cw (Figure 9). In IS 13920, the moment capacity of a wall with boundary elements is required to be calculated as a sum of the moment capacity of the web alone and moment couple due to axial capacity of boundary elements as shown in Figure 9; this procedure hereinafter is referred as the Principle of Superposition. But, it is to be noted that in order to fully comply with the assumptions behind this principle, the strain variation has to be linear and continuous across the cross-section whereas IS 13920 considers separate strain conditions for wall/web and boundary elements. Hence, the Superposition Principle is invalid. The axial load capacity Puz under pure compression is given by: ......(13)
where Mu and Muv are the moment demand on the RC wall and moment capacity of the web alone of the RC wall, respectively. Eq.(12) is based on the assumption
50
where
Ac,BE is area of concrete in the boundary element, and Ast,BE area of steel in the boundary element. Rewriting Eq.(12), ......(14)
Rational interpretation is suggested on the provisions available in IS 13920 for design of structural walls. Expressions are presented, which are consistent with fundamental principles of mechanics, namely equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive law. A numerical study is performed to study P-M interaction curves of structural walls of different cross-sectional aspect ratio. This study suggests that: 1. Superposition principle should not be used to estimate moment capacity of RC structural walls with boundary elements as given in IS 13920; and strength of wall web and boundary elements should be estimated considering composite action of wall and web elements. 2. IS 13920 provision as given in Annex A, should be corrected related to estimating moment capacity of RC structural walls without boundary elements; the error is in the expression for 2 as given in Eq.(3). 3. Consistent with the limiting states specified in Limit State Method of design for RC structural walls (when high yield strength deformed steel bars are used), in the derivation of the expression for ultimate moment capacity Mu of the wall section, the limiting strain for steel should be taken as 0.002+0.87 fy /Es and not just 0.87 fy /Es as taken in Annex A of IS 13920. This should be reflected eventually in the expressions of two parameters and , as
This superposition approach for estimating the moment capacity of RC structural walls is not acceptable even when cross-sectional aspect ratio of wall is 20.0. Figure 10 shows P-M interaction diagrams of walls of different cross-sectional aspect ratios lw/tw of 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20. Four curves are shown representing: 1. IS 13920 : Web only 2. Method given in literature Web only14 3. IS 13920 : Web and boundary elements 4. Method given in literature: Web and boundary elements14 IS 13920 estimates higher moment of resistance of RC structural walls than method given in literature that is based on principles of mechanics;14 for small crosssectional aspect ratios lw /tw, moment capacity of RC wall with web and boundary elements is amplified by use of the principle of superposition (Eq.(14)). The difference reduces with increase in cross-sectional aspect ratio lw /tw. The code expression for calculating Mu for RC walls with boundary elements should be replaced with a rational approach similar to that suggested in this paper. Also, SP 16 1978 provides details for P-M interaction curves for rectangular column cross-sections with reinforcement distributed equally on two sides parallel to the axis of bending, and reinforcement distributed equally on four-sides.4 Similar curves should be made available for use in design of RC structural walls with reinforcement distributed equally on two sides perpendicular to the axis of bending.
and
......(15)
......(16)
IS 13920 provisions on expression for Mu of structural walls needs to be revised accordingly. Eqs.(15) and (16) are purely based on strain variation across the section and position of neutral axis as shown in Figure 3. references
1. Dasgupta,K., (2008), Improvement of Geometric Design of Reinforced Concrete Structural Wall to resist Earthquake Forces, Ph.D Thesis, IIT Kanpur, June 2008. 2. Dasgupta,K., (2002), Investigation of IS Code Provisions on Seismic design of Reinforced Concrete Structural Wall, M.Tech thesis, IIT Kanpur, August 2002 3. IS:456, (2000), Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
Concluding remarks
This analytical study on moment of resistance of RC structural walls discusses IS 13920:2008 provisions.
51
4. SP:16, (1978), Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS: 456-1978, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi 5. SP:24, (1983), Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced 6. Sinha,S.N., (2008), Reinforced Concrete Design, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2008 7. Varghese,P.C., (2007), Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design, Prentice Hall (India), New Delhi 8. Dasgupta,K., and Murty,C.V.R., (2005), Seismic Design of RC Columns and Wall Sections, Part I: Consistent Limit State Design Philosophy, The Indian Concrete Journal, March 2005, pp 33-42 9. Dasgupta,K., Murty,C.V.R., and Agarwal,S.K., (2003), Seismic Shear Design of RC Structural Walls Part I: Review of Code Provisions, Indian Concrete Journal, November 2003, pp 1423-1430 10. Dasgupta,K., Murty,C.V.R., and Agarwal,S.K., (2003), Seismic Shear Design of Reinforced Concrete Structural Walls - Part II: Numerical Investigation of IS:13920-1993 Provisions, Indian Concrete Journal, November 2003, pp 1459-1468 11. IS:13920, (2008), Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi 12. Medhakar,M.S., and Jain,S.K., (1993), Seismic Behavior, Design and Detailing of RC Shear Walls, Part I: Behaviour and Strength, The Indian Concrete Journal, July 1993, Vol.7, pp 311-318 13. Medhakar,M.S., and Jain,S.K., (1993), Seismic Behavior, Design and Detailing of RC Shear Walls, Part II: Design and Detailing, The Indian Concrete Journal, September 1993, pp 451-457 14. Rohit,D.H.H., Narahari,P., Sharma,R., Jaiswal,A., Murty,C.V.R., (2011), When RC columns become RC Structural Walls, The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2011, Vol. 85, No. 5, pp 35-45
Letter to the Editor
Design of confinement reinforcement for RC columns
D.H.H. Rohit is Graduate Pway Engineer at WS Atkins (India) Private Limited. His research interests include design and analysis of concrete structures, and earthquake engineering.
Dear Sir, This has reference to the Point of View by Dr. N. Subramanian titled " Design of confinement reinforcement for RC columns" published in the ICJ issue of August 2011, Vol. 85, No. 8. The topic of Dr. Subramanian is nice and informative. I feel that confinement of stirrups is required at the supporting junctions to withstand more shear forces. This statement is missing in IS codes. On the other hand, ACI 318 clearly states that confined stirrups is required at supporting points, for example, in columns junctions between footing and column and at the floor level to handle the horizontal forces transferring due to diaphragm effect. I suggest that we take up this in the next revision of IS codes. The same type confinement of stirrups required in the beams supporting points also. Thanking you and with regards, Shridhar Technical Manager TEEMAGE PRECAST IN 39/2, N.G. Palayam Pirivu, Thekkalur, Avinashi, Tirupur 641 654, Tamilnadu
P. Narahari is a Field Engineer at NTPCBHEL Power Projects Ltd., currently posted in Mannavaram, Andhra Pradesh. His research interests include seismic analysis and design of steel and RC structures.
Arvind Kumar Jaiswal is Chief Consulting Engineer at EON Designers, Secunderabad. He is also a Visiting Faculty at Engineering Staff College, National Council for Cement & Building Materials, and National Academy of Construction. His areas of interests include 3D computer modelling of structures, behaviour of RC frames due to earthquake loads, structural design software validation, large span structures, continuing education, and capacity building in earthquake engineering education for professional engineers. C.V.R. Murty is a Professor in Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai. His research interests include the non-linear behaviour of reinforced concrete and steel buildings and bridges, and of limit state design of reinforced concrete, relevant to earthquake-resistant structures. He is a member of the Earthquake Engineering Committee of the Bureau of Indian Standards.
52
Point of View
Are heritage structures in Tamilnadu seismically vulnerable?

A. Veerappan
This article is written with the sole purpose of starting a healthy discussion and providing a different point of view on the earthquake vulnerability of Chennais historical buildings such as Fort St. George and Madras High Court, following the revision in IS 1893:2002 changing Chennais earthquake proneness from Zone II to Zone III. The basis for this discussion is a report published in a Chennai daily using somewhat debatable observations made by a well-known Professor and structural engineering consultant. The expert is reported to have said that: From colonial structures such as Fort St. George to single pier flyovers and 20-storey high rise buildings springing up in the suburbs, there is a need to check their earthquake resistance and carry out seismic retrofitting While delivering a lecture at a well known University in Chennai, the expert is reported to have further stated that: Fort St. George, seat of power in the state, would not withstand earth quakes of Zone 2 intensity. (When the codes for the earthquake were revised in 2002, Chennai was moved up to Zone 3 up from Zone 2 as it was found to be more vulnerable). No effort has been made to strengthen it said the expert.
Similar is the case of the Madras High Court buildings. In Ripon Buildings, modifications have been suggested as part of extensive rehabilitation, but as of today it was also vulnerable, said the retired professor. The thickness of the shear walls, the ground floor car park and the use of flat slabs in high-rises were also quite vulnerable to earthquakes, as they would not be able to resist the lateral load.
53
Point of View
The expert claims that his study on eight modern apartment buildings in the city has revealed that seven of them were not earthquake-resistant. He further states that the single-pier bridges in the city on Pantheon Road, Royapettah High Road and TTK Road would suffer from functional vulnerability in the event of an earthquake. To reinforce his point he showed slides featuring quake damaged bridges that were designed with single-piers. For some other bridges in Chennai his recommendation was for providing seismic arresters to prevent their collapse in the event of an earthquake. He listed inadequate planning, design and application, poor code compliance, non-engineered buildings, inadequate detailing of reinforcements, extensions, alterations and encroachment as the reasons for the vulnerability of the Chennai monuments and buildings of historical importance to earthquake forces.
In my opinion these observations must be examined in detail and the context understood. Perhaps these statements were made with the purpose of creating an awareness among civil engineering students and faculty about the importance of designing structures, both load bearing and RC framed structures, taking the seismic forces into account and following IS 1893 : 2002. Perhaps the expert was also right in pointing out that many of the multi-storeyed apartment buildings with stilt (soft storey) constructed recently were not designed to resist even an earthquake of moderate intensity. However, to me most of the observations appeared to be generalised statements made without any specific data on building distresses and corresponding past earthquakes.
54
Point of View
In my opinion, even though many of buildings the expert referred to were designed 100 years ago, without taking earthquake forces into consideration, they might not get distressed in the event of an earthquake simply because their layout, wall thickness and other systems for transmitting loads were adequately constructed based on the knowledge available then. And it is not only true for Chennai buildings, throughout the world century old buildings and monuments were not designed constructed considering earthquake forces. However, renowned architects and builders of the yester years constructed buildings by designing them following the norms prevailing then. They especially included wider foundation base, thicker walls (say min 16 to 50) that distributed loads more or less uniformly; more particularly they ensured that the centre of gravity (CG) of the load system was below 1/3 height of the structure, thereby providing stability, safety and serviceability to the structure. They also made sure that the buildings were without any tilt or overtapping. Many such constructions have performed well until now. Chennais previous classification of earthquake proneness was under zone II. In 2002, it was changed to zone III in IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 based on the digitised data of Survey of India. Would such a re-rating of earthquake proneness cause any severe effect on the existing century old structures? Should a mere change in the classification be the basis for worrying about the stability of century old structures?
The answer to these questions lies in examining the structures and analysing their construction data. To begin with, TN never experienced an earthquake exceeding 6 on the Richter scale. The quakes of 1966 and 2001 measured 5.4 and 5.6 on the Richter scale respectively. The change in classification means that in future the buildings have to be planned, designed and constructed providing adequate safety against the likely Zone III seismic forces (3.5 to 4.20 in Ritcher Scale).. In order to effectively resist the seismic and lateral forces, one of the important criteria specified in the building construction in general and in the framed structures in particular is the provision of strong column and weak beams. In other words, the stiffness of columns, piers or pillars should always be greater than the stiffness of beams and supporting floor or roof slabs. An examination of the old buildings in Tamil Nadu suggests that this theory was indeed followed in Chennais Fort. St.George Secretarial buildings, Rajaji Hall, Cheppakkam PWD Buildings, Presidency College, High Court Buildings, Madurais Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal, Thanjavurs Serfoji Palace and in many multitiered Hindu Temples. In sizing piers and the thickness of the load bearing walls the engineers of yester years have taken care to effectively prevent distress in the structure due to lateral loads including from seismic forces by constructing stronger pillars, piers, walls compared to floor, roof beams and slabs.
55
Point of View
Similarly, the foundation base of these buildings are symmetrical either as a square or rectangular, without any eccentricity or cantilever projections. Building such foundations is one of the criteria specified for earthquake resistant structures. The Fort St. George Secretariat buildings and multistoreyed Building (MSB) satisfy this important criterion and thereby minimize the effect of earthquake forces. Many of them are supported on a serried of well foundations? To resist lateral forces, some other factors that play an important role in the foundation system are the width of the foundation and thickness of the load bearing walls. In many of Tamil Nadus historical and monumental buildings including the palaces and temples, the base width of the foundation is in the range of 50 to 100 or more and the ground floor wall thickness is in the range of 16 to 30. Further the CG of the entire load system is ingeniously arranged to be at 1/3rd of the height of the buildings. Further, Height/Breadth/Width or Length/Breadth value is also kept well within 2 to
impart safety and stability to the structure against lateral forces including earthquake. The Fort St.George and New MSB Secretariat buildings also satisfy these criteria. They are therefore are not likely to get distressed due to earthquake forces of the intensity as experienced in the past. Yet another important aspect in these structures is the load bearing masonry construction with allowable compressive and tensile bearing stresses. The factor of safety in many of these old constructions is 10 (not 3) in compression and 8 in bending /tension as against ( 1.5 x 1.5 =2.25) 2.25 specified in IS: 456 - 2000. Due to this higher factor of safety adopted in the load bearing masonry structures such as Fort St. George Secretariat and other historical buildings, the safety and stability of these structures against
56
Point of View
seismic forces is adequate. These details explain why these buildings did not get affected during the earthquakes of 1966 and 2001. The design concept for structural use of unreinforced masonry is given in TN Building Practice, NBC of India 2005 , IS 1905 1985 - Code of Practice and SP : 20 (S & T) 1991 Hand book on Masonry Design and Construction BIS. Although the present day structural engineers and design experts are highly knowledgeable about framed RC structures, their exposure to the nuances of load bearing masonry structures is not enough. It would not be a surprise if many of them are not even aware of what the guidelines provide in IS : 1905 1985 and SP : 20 (S&T) 1991.
More than theory, analysis and design of structures conforming to the latest codal provisions, the performance of the structure during its life time should be the basis for vulnerability comments. Needless to say that buildings such as St. George, Chennai High Court and other Secretariat buildings
57
Point of View
withstood and performed excellently during the earthquake in 1966 and 2001. The experts comment about the vulnerability of single piered flyovers on Pantheon Road and TTK Road, casting doubts on the ability of these structures to withstand the earthquake forces corresponding to Zone II / III is also debatable. Those involved in the construction of these structures were expected to follow the applicable design codes in designing and constructing the flyovers structural elements including single piered columns (with double cantilevers). The design of these structures follows IRC Standards and includes seismic forces. Only after satisfying themselves about the competitiveness of the designs do the authorities approve them for execution. Therefore, these flyovers are also not likely to suffer from any distress during earthquakes of the intensity as experienced in the past. For the sake of this discussion it is presumed that the expert has analysed and checked the stability of these single piered columns as free standing cantilever. However, design practices suggest that these single piered columns, from their real edge conditions, are to be treated as propped cantilever (since sway is adequately resisted and restrained by the heavy beam elements, under which the intensity of moment due to lateral load is reduced to of that of the free standing cantilever). In view of this fact, the approving civic authorities are encouraged to check the design details of the structures and reply to the expert based on the data. Notwithstanding the above, it is necessary to check the safety and stability of the historical buildings and present day RC framed structures with respect to likely earthquake
58
Point of View
forces and take suitable measures as specified in the following codes. 1. IS 1893:2002 Indian Standard criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures 2. IS 4326:1993 COP Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings. 3. IS 13828:1993 Indian Standard Guidelines for improving Earthquake resistance of Low strength masonry buildings 4. IS 13920:1993 Ductile Detailing of RC Structures subjected to Seismic forces. In this connection it is worthwhile to consider the opinion of Prof. S.K.Duggal, Prof of Civil Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Tech, Allahabad and author of the book titled Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures published Oxford University of Press (2007).
Severity of ground shaking at a given location during an earthquake may be minor (occurs frequently), moderate (occurs occasionally) or strong (occurs rarely). The probability of a strong earthquake occurring within the expected life of a structure is very low. Statistically, about 800 earthquakes of magnitude 5.0-5.9 occur in the world, while only about 18 of magnitude above 7.0 are registered annually. If a building is designed to be earthquake proof for a rare but strong earthquake, it will be robust but too expensive. The most logical approach to the seismic design problem is to accept the uncertainly of the seismic phenomenon. Consequently, the main elements of the structure are designed to have sufficient ductility, allowing the structure to sway back and forth during a major earthquake, so that is withstands the earthquake with some damage, but without collapse. An earthquakeresistant structure resists the effects of ground shaking; although it may get severely damaged, it does not collapse during a strong earthquake. This implies that the damage should be controlled to acceptable levels, preserving the lives of the occupants of the building at a reasonable cost. Engineers thus tend to make the structures earthquake resistant.
59
Point of View
Finally, the following may be suggested for making the buildings and structures resist the seismic forces to a reasonable extent. 1. Construct RC / Concrete Tie beams in both directions at Grade beam level (just below the EGL) 2. Provide RC continuous lintel at lintel level 3. Have RC Floor / Roof beams in both directions at Floor level / Roof level. 4. Reinforce the four sides / circumference of large openings 5. Separate the asymmetrically loaded / projected cantilever elements from the main structures 6. Reinforcing load bearing masonry walls at corners and junctions as shown in the enclosed sketch. 7. Have compulsory provision of Ductile detailing of Rebars in foundation footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs and beam column junctions as specified and detailed in IS 13920 1993 (Sketches enclosed) 8. Adopt Grade of concrete and steel Rebars according to exposure conditions as specified in Table No. 3 & No. 5 of IS : 456 -2000 Code of practice for Plain & Reinforced concrete BIS These measures are sufficient to protect buildings and structures against the seismic forces expected to occur in and around Chennai. So the learned Professors statements should be seen as a statement of caution and his stress on the importance of designing and constructing buildings and structures against the codified earthquake forces must be understood, appreciated and adopted in practice to have durable structures in the state of Tamil Nadu.
A. Veerappan, ME(Struct) FIE, MICI, Dip LL and AL is former Chief Engineer, Tamil Nadu Public Works Department. Presently, he is a structural consultant and state secretary of TNPWD Senior Engineers Association. He has delivered more than 2500 technical lectures to practising engineers (government engineers in particular). He has edited and published 40 technical handbooks for day-to-day use of field engineers and engineering students. He has won several prizes for his engineering writings, which have highlighted the importance of adopting modern constructions techniques and cost effective construction materials including the use of construction chemicals. He has many years of experience in restoration and strengthening of distressed buildings and foundations.
What is your opinion?

Do you wish to share your thoughts/views regarding the prevalent construction practices in the construction industry with our readers? If yes, The Indian Concrete Journal gives a chance to the engineering fraternity to express their views in its columns. These shall be reviewed by a panel of experts. Your views could be limited to about 2000 words supplemented with good photographs and neat line drawings. Send them across by e-mail to editor@icjonline.com.
60
Postal Regn. No. : Tech/47- 914/MBI/2012-2014. Posted at Patrika Channel Sorting Office, Mumbai 400 001 on the 1st of every month. RNI No. 13986/57.
Building an Infrastructure Strong India
Extradosed Bridge built by Gammon for Delhi Metro
Gammon India is not only one of the leading Civil Engineering construction companies in India, but has also
built the largest number of bridges in the whole of the Commonwealth. Over nearly a century, Gammon has established an admirable track record of executing prestigious engineering and construction projects... inspired by a spirit of enterprise and a commitment to build a strong India. Power Projects I Environmental Projects I Marine Projects I Pipeline Projects I Public Utility Services BOT Contracts I Marine Projects I Heavy Industrial Structures I Specialised Foundation Works
Gammon Group of Companies
Gammon India Limited Gammon House, Veer Savarkar Marg, Prabhadevi, Mumbai 400025. India Tel. +91 22 6744 4000 Fax. +91 22 6744 4105 www.gammonindia.com
Printed, published and edited by A.N. Singh on behalf of ACC Limited. Printed at Classic Prints, B-25G, Malad Indl. Estate, Ramchandra Lane Extn., Kachpada, Malad (W), Mumbai 400 064. Published at ACC Limited L.B. Shastri Marg, Near Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.

March 2012

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

March 2012

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Published by ACC Limited March 2012, Vol. 86, No. 3, Rs.

Bridge Management System Tall Buildings NDT

publishing / EdiTorial / advErTisEmEnT & CirCulaTion offiCE

Editor: A.N. Singh Editorial Team: Ulhas F. Fernandes Sushma V. Mathur

for subsCripTion Tariff, please see page 2

MARCH 2012 ThE INdIaN cONcRETE JOURNaL

E-mail id:_____________________________________________ Website: ______________________________________________ Signature: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________________________________________

For online payment and other details, please visit www.icjonline.com

Rice husk ash

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

quartz sand, 42%

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

News & Events

World construction aggregates demand (million dollars) % Annual Growth

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Powder & Bulk Solids India 2012

Global Cement Expo 2012

Indian carbon nanotubes in Forbes 30 listing

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

Some studies on the effect of carbonation on the engineering properties of concrete

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Table 1. Physical properties of the materials used in the study

Table 2. Chemical composition of the ordinary Portland cement

Table 3. Phases present in the ordinary Portland cement

Table 4. Mix proportions for different grades of concrete

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

rapid chloride ion penetration test

accelerated carbonation studies

Table 5. Compressive strength of different grades of the concrete

Table 6. Chloride Ion permeability based on charge passed (ASTM C 1202)

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

results and discussions

Table 7. Carbonation depth for different grades of concrete specimens

C1 NA 11.35 21.28 34.04

Table 8. Compressive strength of different grades of non-carbonated and carbonated concrete

Table 9. Ratio of the properties of non-carbonated concrete to carbonated concrete

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Table 1. Minimum length to be traversed to be classified as a bridge

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

Status of management of road bridges in India

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

objectives, activities and modules of bridge management system

Table 2. Objectives, activities and modules of BMS

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

Bridge inspection practices

Table 3. Types of inspection in different countries

Superficial / Routine / Regular / Assessment

Type of inspection General / Major / Detailed Principal

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Bridge health index

united States of america

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Bridge condition states

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

MARCH 2012 The IndIan ConCreTe Journal

Table 4. Type of condition states

The IndIan ConCreTe Journal MARCH 2012

E-mail id:_ Website: Signature: Date: _______