East and West Kiss: Gender, Orientalism, and Balkanism in Muslim-Majority BosniaHerzegovina Author(s): Elissa Helms Reviewed work(s):

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ARTICLES

East and West Kiss: Gender, Orientalism, and Balkanism in

Muslim-Majority
Elissa Helms

Bosnia-Herzegovina

"East

and West

Kiss"

on billboards In January and tram 1999, a provocative image appeared were two young women: shelters all over the city of Sarajevo. Pictured stop one in a black Islamic head who was dressed scarf smiling up at another the "Muslim" woman, in a red bra and Santa hat as she embraced kissing in a play on the her on the nose 1). The accompanying caption, (figure II Partisan words of a socialist World War song, read, "Ljubi se istok i za for the latest (East and west kiss).1 The posters were advertisements pad" news magazine for which this picture issue of the local independent Dani, served as the cover page. was created in secular magazine The image by this antinationalist, to suppress to calls by Muslim the widely nationalists response religious Deda Mraz its well-known and New Year celebration symbol, popular This charge was led by "pan-Islamists" Frost) as un-Islamic. (Grandfather leaders of the Stranka Demokratske in and around (SDA; Party of Akcije Bosniac the prominent democratic (Bosnian Muslim) action), party that was as socialist The SDA in 1990 took power Yugoslavia disintegrating.2 to de efforts have dominated establishment and its allies in the religious a major and cultural national fine Bosniac identity, advocating political secu of atheist, that includes role for Islam in a population large numbers to the New Year Their "Muslims."3 larist, and nonpracticing objections
This ous has paper audiences. Nicole benefited I also from the feedback de Haan, I received from Rada at different several and from vari stages Xavier readers, including Robert Greenberg, Jessica

received

valuable Francisca

comments

Bougarel, Hayden, Sorabji, but absolve supported the Study and

Constable,

Stef Jansen, Husanovic, Jasmina as Slavic Review's as well anonymous them by the of World of

Abby Margolis, reviewers.

Drezgic, Paula I thank The Board

for the final product. responsibility and Exchanges Research International summer from and Politics, grants

and Cornelia Pickering, them all for their insights on research is based paper for the Institute (IREX), for European Studies

the Council

Rooms. of Pittsburgh the University Nationality "Budi se istok i zapad!" 1999: cover. The original 1. Dani, (East song begins, 4January are mine.) translations and west (This and all other awake!) in of this from Xavier 2. I take the term pan-Islamist description group's Bougarel's to Party of Dem "From Young Muslims on what became the SDA. Xavier fluence Bougarel, Islamic in Bosnia-Herzegovina," of a Pan-Islamist Trend The Action: ocratic Emergence 533. Studies 36, nos. 2 and 3 (1997): 3. The encompassed Slavic Review SDA was urban 67', no. formed by pan-Islamists former intellectuals, 2008) around Communist the Party but its base late Alija Izetbegovic, secular and more networks,

1 (Spring

Gender, Orientalism,

and Balkanism

in Bosnia-Herzegovina

89

Figure
1999,

1. "East and West Kiss." Dani,

cover.

4 January

were celebration and Deda Mraz's holiday's of which association

not based, resemblance with

on resistance only to St. Nicholas, socialism. As in other

(hereafter Bosnia-Herzegovina been a part, had successfully cently incorporated St. Nicholas into a redefined secular celebration eyes of the pan-Islamists,
Bosniacs.

to the Christian calendar but just as intently on the socialist states, Yugoslavia, re or BiH) Bosnia had until

then,

Bosniac

tree and the Christmas of the New Year.4 In the was to be op identity directly

minded period ership balance

political In BiH, tral) used

concern "From Young Muslims." Here is primarily the my Bougarel, the end of 2000, when lead dominated the SDA up until pan-Islamists that time, the and conservative articulations of Bosniac Since identity. (religious) new between and secular nationalists has been redistributed religious through over and but debates the place of Islam continue. institutions, parties of the war the term Muslim refers parlance, latter being which Mraz to ethnonational as well as In common as much as to (ances background are in this paper, "Muslim" and "Bosniac" name. not the more official But "Bosniac" should anyone Year's religious Was from Tree BiH regardless of ethnonational of could Politics

religion.

the interchangeably, be confused with "Bosnian," affiliation. 4. The redefined symbols) "The New Deda shifted New

denotes and

the New from a

older

pagan

the focus Or How

holiday

(themselves resignifications one to a secular that East

be celebrated by all in the spirit of socialist (multiethnic)

Sklevicky, Year: a Tradition

"brotherhood
Tempered,"

and unity." Lydia

European

andSodeties4

(1990): 4-29.

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to socialism, as Dan?s cover and Christianity. Further, secularism, posed was seen as part of a this controversy between conveyed, widely struggle east and west, and modernity, tradition Islam and Europe. What is especially about this image is that these dichoto noteworthy mies were as is fre indexed women, by gendered representations?of the case. While to light the discursive scholars have brought and quently work of such imagery in and toward the Balkans political concepts through like orientalism and balkanism, the frequent of gendered appearance in this region has received to gen little notice. Attention representations some recent der reveals shifts in orientalist shifts and balkanist rhetoric, not only in the Balkans that operate as well.5 I take Muslim but globally as strad majority Bosnia-Herzegovina?a place and population imagined fault-lines of eastern and western and culture, dling historical religion, a ex civilization?as to view these changes, site from which productive the specific forms amining they take in this particular setting. Through an of media, and "everyday" discourses, ethnographic analysis political, I show how the various of east/west, Islam/ gendered reconfigurations Europe, tradition/modernity a much resentations, masking at play. local dynamics reaffirm ultimately greater complexity such dichotomous of global, regional, rep and

Symbolic

Geographies

and Bosnia

A well-established toward eastern and the symbolic geography Europe to Balkans has been evoked "western" powers and local actors by both a superior west and a backward construct like the workings of east, much as described orientalism for the specificities Said.6 To account by Edward of representations of southeast Maria Todorova has introduced Europe, as the term for the derivative "balkanism" but distinct project of construct as "the other within" a backward and primi ing the Balkans Europe, more tive "self" than an alien while Said's orientalism "other."7 Furthermore, was tied to (histories was built balkanism colonization, of) direct western on much more diffuse and indirect of domination and sub relationships ordination vis-?-vis "the west." Nevertheless, is when the subject especially or not, western Islam or Muslims, whether dominance has been European to the Balkans evoked and constructed in relation the language through
over Turkish 5. Debates for revolve around women's dress and authenticity, example, in terms of east and west. Faces See especially Yael Navaro-Yashin, frequently expressed and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, 2002). of the State: Secularism 6. Edward On western of this re constructions Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978). see Vesna Ruritania: The Imperialism (New gion, Goldsworthy, Inventing of the Imagination the Balkans Invent Haven, Todorova, 1998); Maria (Oxford, 1997); Imagining Larry Wolff, on theMind The 1994). (Stanford, ing Eastern Europe: of Civilization Map of the Enlightenment are On entalisms: Milica "local" The discourses Case and Geography Imagining in former of Former Yugoslavia, Slavic Yugoslavia," Robert M. Hayden, in Recent the Balkans. American Yugoslav See see Milica Review 54, "Orientalist Cultural Bakic-Hayden, no. 4 (Winter Variations Politics," Slavic Ori "Nesting 917-31; 1995): on the Theme Review'51, no. 1

Bakic-Hayden 'Balkans': Symbolic 7. Todorova

(Spring 1992): 1-15.

and Balkan Historiography," Historical also K. E. Fleming, "Orientalism, Review 105, no. 4 (2000): the Balkans, 1218-33.

Gender,

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"when has argued, then, as Katherine Crucially Fleming those orientalism loses much of its structures, [colonial] a discourse the West on the East) and be (as unidirectionality by imposed . . . comes instead embedded in East and West and internalized alike. Or, of 'orientalist' the adoption rhetoric both East and West, the through by to blur."9 It is boundaries the two categories between this begin precisely or born of the liminal position "between blurriness, ambiguity, poles" of east and west, that provides and especially Bosniacs and Bos Balkaners, to invert, the materials with which and transform nians, with challenge,
such frameworks.10

of orientalism.8 divorced from

Yugoslavia, as to portray themselves their while superior/western/European casting as part of the inferior, southern and eastern oriental "east."11 neighbors a more These formulations follow of social distinc pattern general in that opposi have called fractal recursions, tions, what sociolinguists tional pairs such as west/east, male/female, European/oriental, public/ can recur within one half of a broader private oppositional pair, making of repositioning of superiority for endless within categories possibilities like those associated with east and west.12 As Islam and as and inferiority the lowest rungs of nesting orien sociation with the Ottoman past occupy ancestors to Bosnian talist hierarchies, Muslims?Slavs whose converted often placed outside the symbolic Islam during the Ottoman period?are of Europe and thus the west. Bosniacs have in differ themselves borders to defy such negative ent ways attempted the mal portrayals, reflecting rather leable quality of dichotomous frameworks.13 Yet, as I argue here,
8. Bakic-Hayden and Balkan and Hayden, "Orientalist the Variations," 3; Fleming, "Orientalism, notes western the different construction

It is also in what was

crucial

to note

the specific pattern of "nesting orientalisms" in which members of one nation have attempted

Balkans

of Greece, Diplomacy Herzfeld,

Historiography." one she calls a "surrogate in Ali-Pasha and Orientalism

also Fleming orientalism." s Greece

Anthropology through the Looking 1987). Eng., (Cambridge, the Balkans 9. Fleming, "Orientalism, in Balkan 10. On ambiguity symbolic Locating Marginality 11. Bakic-Hayden, of Reason: Slavic "Balkan

K. E. The Muslim Fleming, Bonaparte: See also Michael 151-52. (Princeton, 1999), Glass: Critical Ethnography in theMargins of Europe and Balkan 1224. Historiography," see Sarah F. Green, Notes geographies, on the Greek-Albanian Border (Princeton, also Patrick in Slovenian,

Balkans: the

Lindstrom, East European

1 (Spring Razsa and Nicole 110-41; 2003): Maple in the Political of Tudman's Discourse Balkanism Croatia," Marko "Serbian Stories and Societies Politics Zivkovic, 18, no. 4 (2004): 628-50; of Chicago, in the 1980s and 1990s" and Destiny of Identity 2001). (PhD diss., University "A Semiotics of the Public/Private Susan Gal, 12. See, Distinction," e.g., Differences The Politics 1 (2002): Susan Gal and Gail Kligman, 77-95; 13, no. of Gender after Socialism: T. Irvine and Susan "Lan A Comparative-Historical ;Judith Gal, 2000) (Princeton, Essay in Paul Kroskrity, and Linguistic ed., Regimes Differentiation," guage of Language: Ideology see Green, Notes from 35-84. For a critique, and Identities (Santa Fe, 2000), Ideologies, Polities, Review 62, Is Beautiful: the Balkans, 128-58. mappings: or a united inhabitants rather to balkanist of Bosnia also attempted supporters reconfigure to the Bosniacs intervene should that western in arguing governments help whose to cosmopolitan done the war damage BiH, Sarajevo, they emphasized to look and behave be understood could Europeans/westerners 'just like us" white than "true" Muslims. 13. Outside

Edge Discourse,"

and Ambiguity see Orientalisms"; "Nesting The of Balkanism Boundaries no.

the from 2005). "On Patterson, Hyder and Italian Austrian,

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than

the polarization of east and west, rejecting or boundaries the valences of such dichotomies This

tend to shift they instead to suit specific political

agendas.

is also true of attempts to a that identity. Arguments posit hybrid are irreconcilable, ethnonational differences and a functioning Bosnian state therefore a unattainable, frequently reproduce Huntingtonesque view of "clashing" and Islamic civilizations where (Christian) European Serbs and/or Croats are the defenders of Europeanness the alien against In contrast, Muslims.14 those supporting the idea of a multiethnic, unified state often favor as a or crossroads east between images of Bosnia bridge and west.15 These metaphors were over and over I invoked Bosnians by met in the course of my research when tried to explain they everything to from politics to ethnic to the status of women relations in BiH. religion As Pamela has argued for the case of Istrian "hybrid" Ballinger identity, this stance can be mobilized while in support of a multiethnic society?in this case a Bosnian re ethnic it also effectively state?and/or tolerance, inforces the notion of separate east (Islamic) and different and west (Eu civilizations.16 ropean)
"Islam" is often to to the analogous rather than opposed "Europe" the for some, for "Christianity," implying association?positive negative with secularism and of "Islam" as a of "oriental" "Europe" totalizing descriptor culture. Such formulations nevertheless even Ortho reconfigured Huntington, moving dox Christian to the side of "the west" countries rather than them with Islamic grouping countries and "the rest." Samuel The Clash and the Remaking Huntington, of Civilizations of World Order For examples, see Robert M. as 'Others' (New York, "Muslims 1996). Hayden, in Serbian and Croatian in Joel M. and David A. Kideckel, Politics," eds., Neigh Halpern bors at War: on and History Anthropological Culture, Perspectives Yugoslav Ethnicity, (University Stef Park, 116-24; Us?' 2000), Serbian Nationalist Jansen, "'Why Do They Hate Everyday of Muslim Studies Hatred," 215-37. Knowledge 13, no. 2 (2003): Journal ofMediterranean These were formulations also gendered: found Serbs who fears that Jansen expressed Muslims lock Serb women would into harems and them with Muslim impregnate sperm " while Serb men. Us?' 219. circumcising Jansen, "'Why Do They Hate 15. These different and have different metaphors imply histories, things explorations of which are the scope of this paper. On see Nirman beyond "crossroads," Moranjak "The Crossroads: The Metaphor Bramburac, and Discourse of Space," Forum Privileged Bosnae 11 (2001): On 233-46. see Dusan the bridge, I. "Introduction: " Bjelic, up Blowing the in Dusan I. Bjelic and Obrad as Between Global Savic, 'Bridge,' eds., Balkan Metaphor: ization and Elissa Helms, Mass., Fragmentation 2002): 1-22; Xavier (Cambridge, Bougarel, and Ger in Xavier Elissa Helms, and Ger "Introduction," Duijzings, Bougarel, Duijzings, eds., The New Bosnian Mosaic: and Moral in a Post-War Claims Identities, Memories (Al Society Notes from the Balkans. dershot, 1-2; Green, 2007), " 16. Pamela 'Authentic in the Balkan Current Anthro Ballinger, Borderlands," Hybrids' :31-60. A "multiethnic and "ethnic tolerance" do not neces pology 45, no. 1 (2004) society" Unlike Serb and Croat most forms of Bosniac sarily overlap. nationalism do nationalisms, not advocate secession from BiH but instead a unified state. But this support (multiethnic) not does a to live with or a Serbs and Croats to sub necessarily imply deep wish willingness ordinate "Bosniac interests" the prominence to the interests of Islam) of a secu (including state. To be sure, many lar, multiethnic Bosniacs and Bosnians to seemed seek to genuinely the multiethnic nature of Bosnian but it was often preserve to difficult society, distinguish even for the actors themselves. motives, Practical considerations from the Bosni stemming acs' geopolitical a also role: because a position played major state," like they lacked "parent or Croatia, Serbia state would a leave Bosniacs with up the current carving tiny, fractured drzava See Steven L. and Paul S. (demi-tasse fildzan The War in Bosnia state). Burg Shoup, religious others?of term 14. Note that

Gender, Orientalism,

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of the various these reconfigurations?like Furthermore, expressions are often invoked?are in the service of which nationalism frequently they of women, accomplished through representations, especially gendered In the and legitimize tend to naturalize differences hierarchies.17 which as a whole, and orientalist/balkanist both nationalist former Yugoslavia for often have relied on gendered invoking, representations, depictions or women the Bosni Bosnian relations different among purposes, gender to the ways in which there has been virtually no attention acs.18 However, or resonate within BiH itself. such representations appear of this process thus offers an ethnographic This article exploration them of Bosnians the lens of gender and from the perspective through to the frequency to point with which discourses selves. My aim is first around and state identity are constituted about ethnonational gendered to argue visible that this approach and further makes representations some recent in wider orientalist and balkanist shifts representations? I now of gender and sexuality. shifts that turn precisely upon depictions one one. outline these shifts by clear makes Said did not analyze Orientalism: it, his material Though was infused with representations of gender and sexual that orientalism was constructed through images of "deviant" erotic ity.19 Eastern otherness female often within unrestrained behavior and alluring, sexuality?albeit of the notorious harem.20 Muslim the confines leaders, along religious in gen have recast this opposition in the postcolonial with others world, west where the of a decadent the dangers instead dered terms, describing and of female values is posed by open displays threat to Muslim sexuality
Susan L. Intervention and International Ethnic N.Y, (Armonk, 1999); Herzegovina: Conflict the Cold War (Washington, Chaos and Dissolution Balkan D.C., 1995). Woodward, after Tragedy: on and nationalism, literature 17. In a see, e.g., Anne McClintock, gender large 44 Feminist and the Family," Review Nationalism Feuds: 61-80; Gender, (1993): "Family in Modern and Abnormal L. Mosse, and Sexuality: Nationalism Sexuality Respectability George (New York, Europe as a "naturalizing" 1985); Nira framework, Yuval-Davis, see Joan Gender Scott, and Nation and Gender (London, 1997). the Politics of History On (New gender York,

1999).
18. ence Waller York, Political Studies to "From Rever of nationalist see, e.g., Vesna Kesic, representations, analyses in R. of Ethnic and Genderized An Anthropology Violence," Marguerite Rape: and Resistance Feminisms: and Jennifer (New Women, War, eds., Frontline Rycenga, of Social, and the Patterns Conflicts "Ethnic-National Korac, 23-36; 2001), Maja For and Sexual Violence Power in Culture and

Identities: Global The Case of Yugoslavia," against Women: The Body of War: Dubravka Zarkov, 153-82; 5, no. 2 (1998): On orientalist in the Break-up and Gender 2007). (Durham, Media, of Yugoslavia Ethnicity, Serbian Croatian "Muslim Women, Women, Women, see, e.g., Vesna Kesic, depictions, . . ." in as Dubravka and Savic, Women Albanian 311-21; eds., Balkan Metaphor, Bjelic in the Former of Ethnic Hatred and the History Orientalism Zarkov, "Gender, Yugoslavia," in Eu and Gender Lutz and Nira Yuval-Davis, in Helma Racism, eds., Crossfires: Nationalism, The Body of War. and Zarkov, 105-20; 1995), rope (London, Feminist East Feminist and Middle "'Orientalism' 19. Lila Abu-Lughod, Studies," and Orientalism: 1 (2001): Reina Studies Race, Femininity Lewis, 101-13; 27, no. Gendering and the Con Occidentalism, "Orientalism, 1996); Laura Nader, (New York, Representation 323-55. Cultural Dynamics 2 (1989): trol of Women," Veil: Modesty, and Resistance El Guindi, 20. Fadwa Said, 1999); (Oxford, Privacy Orientalism.

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as Neil Macmaster sex outside and Toni Further, patriarchal marriage.21 Lewis have noted, western orientalist have also shifted since de depictions an eastern colonization. Whereas Said described threat conveyed through sexu female male and (feminized) homosexual images of uncontrolled threat of the Muslim is now depicted world ality, the political primarily women through images of strictly controlled female sexuality: "hyperveiled" in all-encompassing "War on Terror," With the American-led coverings.22 and growing anti-Muslim in in Europe sentiment (embedded immigrant its own symbolic as well as north/south), east/west geography involving ever more such depictions have become visible tools of political rheto Women ric:23 in burqas and other veils have been used all-encompassing to symbolize the brutality of Islamic of and the backwardness regimes "Muslim culture" and to action.24 Contemporary ultimately justify military Bosnian discourses draw on a similar of covered and op iconography to express fears of the threat of Islam. pressed women political Balkanism: As Todorova one of the ways in which balkanism argues, differs from orientalism is in how it is gendered: in contrast to the femi erotic depiction of the Orient, were balkanist discourses remark nized, and decidedly all but invisible.25 This male, with women ably unsexualized claim may be overstated, as there is also evidence that both male and female western to the Balkans travelers of the local provided descriptions as beaten down by their harsh women, lives of labor and entirely typically from the frail, protected Victorian ideal of femininity.26 Never opposite the dominant of balkanist was that of the di theless, discourses figure violent in blood feuds and revolts.27 The sheveled, peasant man engaged
21. 22. Nader, "Orientalism, Neil Macmaster and Studies Occidentalism." Toni

fournal

"Orientalism: to From Unveiling Lewis, Hyperveiling," 1-2 121-35. 28, nos. (1998): 23. Representations of to have also seem shifted somewhat: homosexuality although are still feminized, Muslim enemies as in intimations that some 9/11 had homo hijackers sexual the Taliban's strict punishment of has been tendencies, held homosexuality up as evidence of that enemy's barbarity. 24. See, "Do Muslim Women Need Anthro e.g., Lila Abu-Lughod, Really Saving? on Cultural Reflections Relativism and Its Others," American 104 pological Anthropologist Dana L. Cloud, "To Veil the Threat of Terror': 783-90; (2002): Women and the Afghan 'Clash of Civilizations' in the of the U.S. War on Terrorism," Imagery Quarterly fournal of of European

Speech 90, no. 3 (August 2004): 285-306.

25. 26. Todorova, Parallel

in as Lewis discussed orientalism, constructing for example, western women like Rebecca West Orientalism, and Edith Dur a in the construction of balkanist significant part images, through largely travel literature. See John B. Allcock and Antonia Black Lambs and Grey eds., Young, Falcons: Women Travellers in the Balkans, 2d ed. For historical (Oxford, 2000). represen of Balkan tations women, see, e.g., Bakic-Hayden, Orientalisms," 921; Dusan "Nesting I. and Lucinda the Serb," in Bjelic as and Savic, Cole, Bjelic eds., Balkan "Sexualizing Aleksandra "'Get Armed or and Buy Your Women' 279-310; Horv?th, Metaphor, Djajic What Did the Globetrotter See in Northern Albania?" Albanian Turn-of-the-Century four nal of Politics 1 (2006): 26-43. This work 2, no. that further is needed suggests analysis to determine more how balkanist discourses have precisely historically " been gendered. 27. See Bjelic and Cole, the Serb"; 'The Proud Name Bracewell, "Sexualizing Wendy of Hajduks': as Bandits in Balkan Heroes Politics and Culture," in Norman M. Ambiguous in Gendering ham played

the Balkans, Imagining to western women's roles

15.

Gender,

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a shift in this aspect; while Bosnian the image of reflects case, however, the Balkan man remains and violent, his violence is now more primitive often indicated the women he attacks, whether domes through through or tic violence in the case of Serb men) ethnic and cleansing (especially as the real and wartime victims of this violence, rape.28 Women, perceived more in representations have thus become of the Bal visible (or again) in the "west" and "the Balkans" both themselves. kans, Indeed, images of as victims of wartime Bosnian have come woman, rape especially Muslims, as a whole.29 to stand for the victimization of Bosnia

Viewing

Discourses

Ethnographically

in the decade is based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted My analysis in 1997 and 1999-2000, since the end of the Bosnian which war, mainly and activities of women examined the representational activ strategies here reflects interaction with these activists ists.30 The material presented sexes in a but and with other Bosnians of both variety of settings. Often, as a "westerner" not always, my presence between provoked comparisons as my research east and west focus on women defined), (variously just to issues of gender. These turned the topic of discussion often topics also came up I also incorporate "on their own," however. frequently examples au at Bosnian from public and print media aimed speeches primarily the effects of my presence in everyday both as a guard diences, against as part I treat media and because and political discourses conversations, of the ethnographic the ideas, rhetoric, and visual context.31 However,
the Balkan and Its Historians: and Holly Wars Case, eds., Yugoslavia Understanding the Balkans. Todorova, 22-36; (Stanford, 2003), of the 1990s Imagining the Serb"; Wendy and Cole, in Kosovo: 28. See Bjelic Bracewell, "Rape "Sexualizing and Nationalism and Serbian Nations 6, no. 4 (2000): 563-90; Nationalism," Masculinity of State Power: International Elissa "Gendered Transformations Helms, Masculinity, Naimark Intervention, Iordanova, Mattijs contents under van and Cinema the Bosnian of Flames: no. 3 (2006): Dina Nationalities Police," 343-61; Papers 34, Balkan and theMedia Film, Culture 197-212; (London, 2001), and Other Instances Civilisation and Its Dis Wars, of the Wild:

Masculinities Zivkovic, 1998); Marko "Ex-Yugoslav to War," Nationalities and Go Men Skin Cats, Beat up Gays, Why no. 3 : 257- 63. As noted in Kosovo," and Bracewell, by Wendy (July 2006) "Rape Papers 34, to this essentialized im The Body of War, feminists have also contributed Dubravka Zarkov, men. Balkan age of violent, sexually aggressive Female Gaze, or 29. Elissa Bosnia-Herzegovina," Zarkov, saic, 235-53; "War Rapes Zarkov, tim Identity," 30. Elissa in Post Is a Whore': and Victimhood Women, Morality in Bougarel, and Duijzings, Mo Helms, eds., The New Bosnian and the History of Ethnic Orientalism Dubravka Hatred"; "Gender, in Yugoslavia: On Masculinity, and the Power of Rape Vic Femininity voor 140-51. 39, no. 2 (1997): Tijdschrift Criminologie Helms, "'Politics "Gendered Visions of Helms, in Post-War Bosnia-Herzegovina" Akhil and the Bosnian (PhD Future: diss., Women's University Activism of Pittsburgh, and

de Port, Gypsies, in a Serbian Town (Amsterdam,

war

Representation

2003).
The Discourse of Corruption, the "Blurred Boundaries: Gupta, no. 2 (1995): 385-86. the Imagined State," American Ethnologists, as uni cannot in the media discourses be treated As Sabina Mihelj out, balkanist points re even in one and are more examined with form, productively together community, "Media and the Symbolic is consumed: Sabina Mihelj, into how media search Geographies 31. Culture See, e.g., of Politics,

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in which here were part of a global circulation Bosnians I analyze how they were articulated While and took on spe participated.32 to the ways cific meanings in this particular context, my point also relates in which broader and shaped of east and west are reflected symbolisms those specificities. that dichoto far from claiming Furthermore, through mous were frameworks aim is to examine how gender my all-pervasive, was mobilized in those discourses with re that did appear, nevertheless, tropes discussed markable frequency. was concentrated towns of Ze The research in the Bosniac majority nica and Sarajevo, where the SDA and other Bosniac-identified parties have dominated and government for much of the post-Yugoslavia politics The war left BiH of under the control period. split into territories ethnonational but areas with a Bosniac majority retained much (ist) parties, more in and "others") (Serbs, Croats, significant populations "minority" to territories under Serb or Croat control. for amulti comparison Support ethnic BiH state was widely shared among all residents of Bosniac major as noted reasons less earlier. There was much areas, although varied, ity consensus over the form that Bosniac should Bosnian and/or take, society in terms of the public and political role of Islam and though, especially were part of a concern in general. These with religion questions general and economic that had gained urgency political developments particular after the ethnicized violence of the war, the uncertainties of postsocialist and the physical intervention of western transformations, (s), all presence of which to the fore.33 had brought debates about identity It was in this context that Dam, a magazine itself as secular, positioning and supportive of a multiethnic evoked state, so effectively antinationalist, the essence of these debates the image of two women through kissing. Re to the "East and West Kiss" cover, we understand that the turning readily western woman's and red (sexy) bra signal an essentialized west, makeup feared by some and desired others for its associations with sexual free by as woman visible female marked dom, especially openly sexuality.34 The eastern about feared and admired aspects alternately similarly represents
of Europe: The Case of Yugoslavia," inWilliam Uricchio, ed., We, Europeans? Media, Repre Identities sentations, (Bristol, forthcoming). in which texts circulate the ways 32. On discourses and and get into incorporated see Susan Gal, local meanings in a given "Movements The Circulation of Feminism: place, of Discourses in Barbara about Women," and Social Move Hobson, ed., Recognition Struggles ments: Contested and Power 93-118. Identities, 2003), Agency (Cambridge, Eng., 33. Stef Jansen has catalogued in the everyday discourses similar effects of residents of Zagreb and Belgrade, in arguing that such preoccupation Michael Herzfeld following of is a scheme larger geopolitical things Stef Jansen, "Svakodnevni Orijentalizam: u i i drustvo 18 (2002): 33-71; Dozivljaj Beogradu 'Balkana/'Evrope' Zagrebu," Filozofija and Michael Cultural Social Poetics in theNation-State Herzfeld, (New York, 1997). Intimacy: 34. In a smaller inside like a glass this woman the magazine, holds what looks image of champagne, for New Year's celebrations but also a contrast with the Islamic appropriate among ordinary reflection of people with their particularly unsettled place times. in the See alcohol prohibition against of older conventions gender and, for among a woman, all ethnic a clear groups. symbol of modernity and rejection

Gender,

Orientalism,

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the east and Islam, conveyed through her covered head and Islamic dress. To some, a covered woman a is pious and sexually pure, symbol of the moral of the east. To others, her scarf signals backwardness, superiority eastern of women, the oppression and ultimately ignorance, inferiority. stance ismade cues. The western The magazine's clear through gendered woman is depicted in a male her simultaneous sexualized role, despite She is taller (and light-haired) and is the initiator of the hug femininity. and kiss, while the eastern woman stands shorter, (with dark complexion) in clothing that always marks with an indulgent and, smile, femininity, to be acted upon. The message allows herself is that, passively conveyed even embraced as an of the east may be tolerated, while elements integral of "our" identity, the west is still dominant, part preferred. Yet the mood of of this image is decidedly ridicule suggesting playful, those who express fears of either "east" or "west." Indeed, urban secular were at the magazine) Bosnians tick (like the journalists overwhelmingly to socialist kitsch but also because of references led, both by the nostalgic and unity" among ethnonational in their late Over coffee, one couple those symbols evoked. groups which cover because it poked fun at the re twenties about the raved delightedly of their campaign and the ridiculousness against Deda ligious nationalists for with support Mraz. This dismissal of "extreme" Islamic attitudes, along was a common a multiethnic of cosmopolitanism marker BiH, (secular) I discussed the to Europe and "the west." By contrast, when and belonging to a more a young fundamentalist female adherent (covered) image with are." strain of Islam, she grew stern and said, "We know who our enemies as a was indeed also by the SDA, whose taken Dants message provocation, to the posters that had hung the advertising leaders pressured company their ads from public cancel Dants contract, removing effectively space.35 the viewed Bosniac certain nationalists in what As I detail follows, to reconcile as a the Others "west" secular, non-Islamic sought danger. much in a unique, Bosnian of "east" and "west" form, hybrid advantages a I as in Dants and everyday kiss. Through discourses, variety of public were in which such positionings the ways gen through expressed explore to distance and Bosniacs Bosnia dered attempts tropes, as were opposing was also used to (re)create and re from threats from the "east." Gender the official atheism and "brotherhood I I explain hierarchies. inforce balkanist conversations, how, in everyday to the south and east was often to "more patriarchal" societies referred were I conclude with a look at treated with greater brutality. where women model for BiH. the west as a desirable about of discourses the gendering
soon gave leaders 1 February 2. SDA "Uz ovaj broj," Dani, 1999, Pecanin, on with to catch the party's to the New Year after it failed support up opposition to raise the issue ers among secular-oriented the more they continued Although public. was the local SDA in Zenica in 1999, circles, by 31 December mostly religious periodically, events. Several New Year's later, the religious newspaper years organizing actively already a Deda Mraz-like on the appearance of a Dedo Hidzr, gift-distributing reported Preporod nova li ljudi ili nojevi?" New Year for the Muslim (Hidzretska Preporod, 'Jesmo godind). figure this to my attention. to Xavier for calling I am grateful 30 January 2007. Bougarel 35. Se?ad their

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Even when for its primitive the balkan and oriental "east" was derided treatment free of women, did not necessarily visions of western freedoms women from patriarchal like the red bra sexual Indeed, expectations. a our female Deda Mraz, celebrations of the west often izing suggested male gaze. patriarchal as a (Gendered) Threat

"Europe" Bosnia

to the has not been immune and rush to symbolically postsocialist the European Union (EU).36 In economically 'join Europe," especially was shorthand official discourses and everyday for the speech, "Europe" to be reached standard in any given area?social, economic, technologi was often to modernity, cal, political?and accompanied by references and prosperity.37 This view was strongly encouraged and also civilization, the powerful "international of mostly western reproduced by community" and donor policymakers agencies charged with overseeing implementa tion of the peace actors that ended the war in 1995. These agreement the development state of a democratic, multiethnic strongly supported with a free market, secular political for international and respect sphere human those advocating rights conventions, including gender equality.38 and nationalist Muslim leaders, however, were reluctant Many religious to embrace the entire national promised package by "Europe." Echoing ist discourses in the former elsewhere as in the Yugoslavia, postcolonial instead of a Europe, and "the west," that was mor world, they warned in spirituality and essence, to self and doomed ally bankrupt, lacking Both destruction.39 and political Bosniac nationalist leaders cul religious tivated their moral at the of victimhood narratives legitimacy through hands of atheist as well as (nationalist) communists Serbs and Croats. A secular political and social system, the of a nonreligious all promotion or even BiH the downplaying of Islam, were seen as therefore identity,
see and Hayden, "Orientalist Susan Gal, Variations"; examples, Bakic-Hayden Funeral: of Europe in Political American Rhetoric," Representations Hungarian 18 (1991): Nicole "Between and the Balkans: 440-58; Lindstrom, Ethnologist Europe Map Slovenia and Croatia's to 'Return in the 1990s," Dialectical 27 ping Europe' Anthropology For "Bartok's 36.

(2003): 313-29.
37. 38.

Cf. Jansen, See Elissa

"Svakodnevni

Orientalizam." of Ethnic Reconciliation? Women's NGOs

Women's Studies Interna Bosnia-Herzegovina," tional Forum 26, no. 1 (2003): and "Gendered Transformations of State Power." 15-33, are most 39. Such stances to those at the bottom available or of balkanist readily orientalist the forms on which hierarchies, though they take vary depending hierarchy is being addressed. On Serbian exhortations the "Rotten West," Ivan see, e.g., against The Politics in Serbia, trans. Celia Hawkesworth Colovic, of Symbol (London, 39-47; 2002), "Serbian of Stories and On more Zivkovic, in Identity Destiny." equivocal positionings Croatia and Slovenia, and Lindstrom, Is Beautiful," "Balkan see, e.g., Razsa and Jansen, "Svakodnevni as such, 52. Though seldom and sexual Orientalizam," analyzed gendered ized representations were also present in such discourses, most when Croa dramatically tian writers as "a whore"! denounced Boris Buden, Is a Whore," in Nena Europe "Europe Brunner et al., eds., Media and War 53-62. Skopljanac 2000), (Zagreb,

and

International

as "Women Helms, Agents Intervention in Post-War

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to the core of Bosniac threats their officially stated nationalists, despite a multiethnic, of creating democratic state.40 goal In a familiar pattern, in these dis gendered images figured prominently courses over families, concern and reproduction.41 Dire sexuality, through were nations fate of western sounded about the disastrous that, warnings of their permissive and spiritual because immorality frailty, had allowed to fall, threatening of the nation. One the very existence their birthrates in 1997 in the pro-SDA commentator, daily newspaper, specifically writing not forget and morality: "We must linked national survival with sexuality are in the west and many nations that natality has sharply fallen seriously to many of them and is unknown this. Marital concerned about fidelity to their misfortune, does not bother love triangles are very common. This, because have lost their sense of moral them too much purity."42 they wrote a the war, Dzemaludin Latic, pan-Islamist, prominent During of a series of articles in the Bosniac nationalist Ljiljan warning magazine He and non-Muslims. between Muslims of "mixed marriages" the dangers to mould into Bosniacs of seeking this practice those who praised accused into "total the nation "a sad copy of European Satanism," leading thereby were characterized of mixed marriage Proponents capitulation." spiritual "the who have forgotten as "secularized old communists and Eurocentric" from which in the center" and the mosque with Mother neighborhood a rejection of religion, thus represented morality, they came.43 Europe of Bosniac in short, of the essence and tradition, by symbolized identity, as as the of the family and spiritual the "mother" purity. This guardian the neigh of females with the domestic sociation sphere of the family and
see Xavier and religious nationalism, Bougarel, political Ivan and A. Dyker in David and Communitarianism," and Rebirth in Fragmentation, and After: A Study (New York, eds., Yugoslavia Despair Vejvoda, Muslims." "From Young and Bougarel, 87-115; 1996), of 'the Na and the Biological "Women 41. See, e.g., Wendy Bracewell, Reproduction " "Gender Susan Gal, 1-2 Forum Womens Studies International 17-24; 19, nos. (1996): tion,' East European Politics in Hungary," Debate The Abortion Transition: in the Post-Socialist "State Fatherhood: and Janadas Geraldine 8 (1994): Devan, and Societies 256-86; Heng et al., in Andrew Parker in Singapore," and Race of Nationalism, Politics The Sexuality, : The Politics and Sexualities 1992); Gail Kligman, (New York, of Duplicity eds., Nationalisms and Gender Romania in Ceausescus Yuval-Davis, 1998); (Berkeley, Controlling Reproduction 26-38. Nation, The au 30 May "Fafaron u rahat-lokumu,"DnevniAvaz, 1997,11. 42. IsmetKasumagic, It is known "This is no coincidence. to eating character thor goes on to link moral practices: the a It is also known character. that, among that the kind of food one eats affects person's to those is then transferred That characteristic feel jealousy. the pig cannot animals, only Euro non-Muslims?most eaters a are, of course, who make part of their diet." Pork pork of whom the also lapsed or nonreligious Bosniacs, Serbs and Croats?but including peans, insult. with pigs as a serious the association understand nevertheless latter would on mixed articles 10 June 43. Dzemaludin 1994, 40. Latic's Latic, Ljiljan, "Bezbojni," brakovi in a booklet, are collected, (Mixed marriages), Mjesoviti along with others, marriage brakovi Hadzic, ed., Mjesoviti (Sarajevo, Mehmedalija by the Islamic Community: published chose close ties to the governing that this official It is significant party body with 1996). the Muslim issues affecting in a series on religious this topic for its first postwar publication 40. For an analysis of Bosniac "Bosnia and Hercegovina: State community.

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as town center, to the secular in is a common borhood, pattern opposed areas of BiH, rural and urban both rates of workforce par despite high women women in the "public" sphere.44 Latic validated by ticipation only in their as the roles and posited the feminized domestic nurturing sphere of a modern, roles have secularized where women's polar opposite Europe been a from their "natural" form.45 He removed thus explicitly opposed western orientation for BiH, as he did in a later article west denouncing ern feminists over restrictions for their concerns on women under the women Taliban in Afghanistan: are in the west, he wrote, "lonely beings a true husband who have everything and a healthy except family."46 sex were also noted Nonmarital and homosexual as reasons Bosniacs should not emulate the west.47 The deputy Reis ul-ulema (head) of the BiH Islamic the official Islamic institu (Islamska Community Zajednica, articulated this in a speech given just after the end of tion), Ismet Spahic, the war: "I hear a lot of 'We want to go to [join] people saying these days, I say I don't want to go to I'll take their technology Europe.' Well Europe. but I don't want to go to There instead Europe. they lead around poodles on their walks. There of children the church men with men is marrying and women with women! Don't take me to Europe!"48 was delivered This to a Bosniac at the audience speech reopening for a mosque that had been Serb forces during ceremony destroyed by the wartime "ethnic of Muslims from the town. Many of the cleansing"
44. munity "Mixed Fawzi For rural areas, Bosnian see Tone Village Nationalism in a Central Motives: El-Sohl the Bosnian and Com Bringa, Being Muslim Way: Identity for urban see Cornelia areas, (Princeton, 1995); Sorabji, and Mevluds in an Unstable in Camillia Yugoslavia,"

Women's Choices: eds., Muslim Religious Belief and Social Real "Muslim and Islamic Faith in Sarajevo" ity (Providence, Sorabji, Identity and cf. Dzevad a (PhD diss., Cambridge 1989); Karahasan, University, Sarajevo: Exodus of Drakulic the of City, trans. Slavenka 1994). All of these bring out both (Sarajevo, gendering familiar oppositions?public/private, multiethnic/ political/domestic, secular/religious, as the well in which recur monoethnic, west/east?as and in nested ways they fractally as discussed above. patterns 45. Cf., and Colonized "Colonialism, Nationalism, Chatterjee, Women"; McClintock, "Family Feuds." 46. Dzemaludin iTalibani," "Osmi Mart 18 March Latic, 1998, 46-47. Ljiljan, 47. This fear is the in classic orientalist of ram discourses interesting, given portrayal in the Orient as part of the feminization and therefore pant male homosexuality denigra tion of the east. Similar sexualized were in Serb and Croat dis representations reproduced courses about Muslims in the Balkans. See Dubravka "The Body of the Other Man: Zarkov, Sexual Violence and the Construction of and in Croatian Masculinity, Sexuality Ethnicity in Caroline O. N. Moser and Fiona Media," C. Clark, or Actors'? eds., Victims, Perpetrators and Political Violence Gender, Armed Conflict, 69-82. (London, 2001), 48. Ismet ef. Reis ul-ulema of the Islamska of Bosnia, in Spahic, deputy Zajednica Bosanski 26 July 1997. This rhetoric mirrors Petrovac, statements and Croatian by Serbian nationalists that assailed women who did not to models conform of "traditional" rural families were because educated (heterosexual) moth they professionals, single divorced ties to westerners, or did not have ers, had at all. See, children Drakulic, e.g., Slavenka "Women and the New in the Former in Nanette Funk and Magda Democracy Yugoslavia," and Post-Communism: Mueller, eds., Gender Politics and the For Reflections from Eastern Europe mer Soviet Union '"Our Women'/'Their (New York, Women 123-30; 1993), Julie Mostov, Territorial and Violence in the Balkans," Boundaries, Peace and Change Symbolic Markers,

Islam, and Judy Mabro, Cornelia 1994);

20 (1995): 515-29.

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the BiH remained abroad, while Serbs, who fled when to return and take town at the war's end, had begun the army occupied for refu under backed part in local government programs internationally return and property events were to com restitution. These invoked gee in insisting that Bosniacs maintain the urgency pound conveyed Spahic to attend Men were their Muslim faith and thus their national cohesion. a and refrain from drinking but females alcohol, mosque posed specific men to marry and modest" "honorable girls who danger. Spahic urged cover themselves in Islamic dress and with whom Mus they will produce to the dress of their wives and lim children. Men should also pay attention "Ifmini skirts are worn, the shells female kin. Otherwise, Spahic warned, ... If the Cetniks will begin [Serb nationalists/soldiers] falling again. who will!" don't send them, Allah will find someone as both an ethnic marker and in In Spahic's dress, usage, women's was surance thus the ethnic within bear children that women group, as to the cultural survival of Bosniacs and biological linked specifically in a it conceals and reveals of the body?is what Dress?and people.49 as a a common often of ethnic marker functioning belonging, general to members of one's group, defined and fidelity of sexual morality marker the miniskirt, and ethnic.50 in this case as both Furthermore, religious as the dress and the west, was also understood here a symbol of modernity This was ap and sexy women. of young, sexual, unmarried, especially for Spahic's of most of the townspeople in the reactions present parent less enthu the SDA but were Bosniacs who generally supported speech, the pan-Islamist siastic about they actively participated agenda. Although as shown by their strong sup Islam as key to Bosniac in affirming identity, statements off the cleric's the mosque, they shrugged port for rebuilding even as extreme, of alcohol dress and men's about women's consumption were of and many covered as usual, very few women ridiculous. Indeed, summer on that warm ones wore miniskirts and halter the younger tops in the In fact, many to the deputy Reis's words. oblivious day, seemingly and several of my to be ignoring the speech seemed crowd altogether, as rep statements concern take the cleric's that Iwould friends expressed I understood, To ensure attitudes. of Bosniac resentative they pointed beer as and men to the throngs of teenaged drinking girls in miniskirts These were people and ways of being Bosniac. attitudes of different proof their closer ties to Zagreb, Croatia stressed who (coded as more western), and other to the southeast where farther than to Sarajevo, away Spahic was still came from. This alternate nationalists stance, therefore, religious mark in terms of gendered measured based on an east/west dichotomy ers where women's dress figured prominently.

town's Muslims

had

in Miao of Gender The Contouring Alterities: 49. See, e.g., Louisa Schein, "Multiple in Guate and Carol A. Smith, Chinese "Race/Class/Gender Nationalisms," Ideology Out of F. Williams, in Brackette both and Anti-Modern mala: Modern ed., Women Forms," and 50-78. 79-102 and the Race of Nationality Place: The Gender 1996), (London, of Agency across Time and Ethnicity: B. Eicher, 50. Joanne (Oxford, ed., Dress Space and Change and

1995).

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Bosnia The

between

East

and West to the

in ap the diversity underscores speech have Even within the SDA, pan-Islamists identity. these questions and have in fact seen their power in recent years. Prominent reduced Muslim leaders, including religious the Reis ul-ulema sentiment have echoed himself, popular widespread form of Islam, suggest Bosnia's among Bosniacs emphasizing "European" an less a desired from "the west" and more distance ing image of BiH as a crossroads or and between these two worlds.51 SDA founder bridge invoked this image in the title of one of his pan-Islamist Alija Izetbegovic Islam between East and West.52 Although like best-known books, Izetbegovic, stressed that Islam is an integral part of Europe's he also others, heritage, Islam as a synthesis of eastern and western in the bridge values; portrayed Islam always stands for the "eastern" element, while metaphor, "Europe" is read as "western" as well as "modern." In Dams "East and West Kiss," the portrayal of synthesis was therefore the least likely of all the elements as a critique. at play to be understood the trope of BiH as (cultural, was crossroads Indeed, ethnic) religious, a unified shared among all Bosnians who state, includ widely supported or secular. For the SDA, then, this Bosniacs whether ing most religious was an element in their initially successful to both image appeal religious conservatives and the more secular Bosniac masses. This was graphically in the 2000 election in the Sarajevo Canton, for which conveyed campaign the SDA's slogan was, as Beautiful as "For a Sarajevo Women" Sarajevan featured beautiful (Za Sarajevo lijepo kao Sarajke). Their billboards young, women in western dressed in front of Ottoman landmarks styles posing and architectural in Sarajevo. features The juxtaposition of the "mod ern Ottoman as much architecture invoked girls" and historic hybridity as the of east and west. One billboard, explicit representation particular a main in the center of the prominently displayed along thoroughfare one young woman in an Islamic head scarf and another city, depicted without Dams "Kiss" image in its representation of (figure 2), recalling the coexistence of east and west. In the same male candidates campaign, as their full names with actors, but women appeared specific (political) and architecture served as symbols, decorations that beautified the city and lent it its and Islamic character. simultaneously modern/European reaction crowd's to Bosniac proaches never had a lock on
51. E.g., Mustafa "ADeclaration of European in Zagreb, Ceric, Muslims," speech given 24 February "Is 'Euro-Islam' a Myth, or a Real 2006; Enes Karic, Challenge Opportunity for Muslims and Europe? 435-42. 22, no. 2 (2002): "Journal ofMuslim Minority Affairs 52. Alija Islam between East and West In this work, Izet 1984). Izetbegovic, (Indianapolis, a much offers less radical vision of political stress on Islam, with more begovic democracy and the merging of "eastern" and "western" in his earlier values than Islamska Deklaracija as "The Islamic in South Slav Journal 1990), Declaration," (Sarajevo, 6, published English no. 1 (1983): Note 55-89. also the postwar SDA campaign "We are supported slogan, by East and West" Istok i Zapad), to financial which alluded and moral (Nas podrzava support from governments in Europe as well as from and America, the Muslim world.

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Figure 2. "For a Sarajevo Beautiful Sarajevo Canton. Author's photo.

as Sarajevan Women."

SDA election

billboard,

concern those expressing with The crossroads metaphor overlapped In fact, BiH could offer the the threats posed "east" and Vest." by lives. for women's from both ideal mix of the positive realms, especially a for the Islamic Community, (a pseudonym), working Lejla journalist on women: "The I asked her about her writing this stance when typified woman in a European and emancipated Bosnian is emancipated, way. She even more in than women and possibilities, has lots of freedom maybe eastern state of affairs to "a certain this positive the west." She attributed in eastern role of the mother wisdom" and "the irreplaceable society." As them to survive had allowed women's she described Bosnian it, strength moth their "eastern" qualities, the war, even while especially preserving to preserve the have managed "Bosnian women erhood. She concluded: in parlia In Sweden there are more women and get to parliament. family ment than almost else, but the family has fallen apart because anywhere comments leaders about families of it." These echo the fears of nationalist as both pure and the valorization of motherhood in the west, along with women I encoun like several other devout Muslim "eastern." But Lejla, or the west as bastions of sin or did not simply portray tered, Europe of achievements the positive for them "the west" also represented danger; women in public life. in the public of paid work In fact, it was this engagement spheres and therefore Bosnia's that signified and "even" politics Europeanness that of another modernness. dichotomy, classically Evoking gendered an orientalist interlocutors the public/private, framework, my through over

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the west, and modernity, roles with Europe, women's correlated public or who are shielded women in the home remain who while positioning and the east.53 of primitivism, from public view as markers backwardness, in implied women in BiH, to me, Muslim As was repeatedly explained were not "shut up inside the to non-European contrast Muslim women, in but were that is, heavily or "wrapped house" veiled, up" (zamotane), who "this is Europe." stead "modern" because Or, as one religious woman "we're up-to-date Muslims." in current dressed (I re styles of hijab stressed, that Islam is what makes turn to the issue of veiling below.) Some asserted and as a that promotes and civilized, modern Bosniacs learning religion little In this regard, more women than other religions. many rights gives one of Cornelia the war when since before has changed Sorabji's Sarajevo to be Muslim."54 told her, "It's modern informants in the previ contrast directly with those discussed formulations These a ous section, which roles and domestic value on women's positive placed a seen as active in the public value on women who were sphere. negative in as they originate are not irreconcilable, These two positions however, lauded wom of Bosniac Those who the same set of affirmations identity. not necessarily that this en's presence in the public presume sphere did to family and the home. In fact, the logic with women's duties interfered was that Bosnia's and Muslim of being character simultaneously unique was what allowed women to do both. Women's roles as markers European and reproduc of ethnic difference and their responsibility for the honor tion of the nation remained intact. These the oriental left unspoken however, "bridging" metaphors, ist implication the not-European and that the rest of the Muslim world, "eastern" part, therefore lacked The journalist civilization.55 fully Lejla under Islamic also claimed that polygynous allowed marriages, though wom in BiH.56 She attributed taken hold this to Bosnian law, had never men: to to be in refusing en's "European" strength "Polygamy subjugated never on here because women Bosnian didn't allow it." BiH had caught while thus selectively absorbed both eastern and western characteristics, as within the western remaining fundamentally (European) sphere, again the "kiss" image suggested the dominance of the woman symbol through or balkanist than challenge the west. Rather orientalist frameworks, izing of bridges those and crossroads reinforced then, metaphors ultimately
see e.g., Gal, 53. On the "A Semiotics of the Public/Private dichotomy, public/private Louise Gal and Kligman, Politics Gender Distinction"; Socialism, 37-62; Lamphere, of after of Men: "The Domestic The and Limi of Women and the Public World Sphere Strengths in Caroline tations of an Anthropological and Carolyn Brettell eds., Dichotomy," Sargent, in Cross-Cultural Gender 3d ed. 100-109. Saddle River, N.J., 2001), Perspective, (Upper "Mixed Motives," 116. Sorabji, 55. More devout but not Muslims, though, especially and connection all Muslims among continuity throughout as not "true" of folk differences regional vestiges practices, tation "Muslim 56. the among the more and committed Islamic in fact corner Muslim revivalists during Identity see also Faith"; been practiced of BiH. 54. stressed the neo-Salafists, only the world, unique dismissing this orien Islam. Sorabji noted the 1980s in Sarajevo. Sorabji, the Bosnian Way. the Bosniacs of among

has Polygyny remote northwest

Bringa, Being Muslim times since Ottoman

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logics; further

the effect was merely to the east.

to redraw

the boundaries

of

the uncivilized

"The East"

as a (Gendered)

Threat

were keen me to convince Both religious and nonreligious Bosniacs that or terrorists, nor out to create in BiH were not "fundamentalists" Muslims an Islamic state (as Serb nationalists have alleged and some U.S. officials have speculated since 11 September world 2001). The outside especially I was the momentary had to know that Bosnian (of which representative) were Muslims "not like Arabs" but traditionally Islam was there tolerant; to the recreation fore not an obstacle of "life together" in a state (suzivot) or even to into the European with Serbs and Croats Union. integration To convince in that Bosnian held women Muslims me, they emphasized to what in contrast I had been assumed in the they high regard, taught a clear awareness United States about Islam. Many Bosniacs thus showed to counter of orientalist of Islam in the west, yet the attempt depictions them again did not reject the west/east but merely opposition realigned was not BiH away from the east. Even when the subject of conversation of relations the status of women served as a measure gender specifically, and "civilized" BiH society was. Further, in a how "modern," "European," to of western reflection orientalist with veiling, the degree preoccupation was which women did or did not cover themselves cited as an frequently status. indicator of women's are recent concerns: These under the Muslim "east" socialism, mostly was as to be viewed in less value-laden ways, as fellow members likely just or of the Non-Aligned Movement for migrant and a destination workers to have These morally surfaced appear comparisons tinged shopping.57 of war and postsocialist the sud with the uncertainties especially changes, to Bosnia and Bosniacs, which intensified den international attention paid to the 9/11 attacks. Especially troublesome again after the U.S. response were of what the public calls vehabije the small but visible communities ac are more (Wahhabists), they themselves reject this label and though to as neo-Salafists.58 These formed around male referred groups curately aid workers from the Middle and humanitarian East and jihadist fighters the war, taking in young men and South Asia who came to Bosnia during women Such believers stood out from the local population. followers men grew un trimmed markers: from the rest of society through gendered themselves beards while women covered and wore ankle-length trousers, the nikab face veil and in dark, plain colors, including wearing completely to cover their hands and arms. long gloves women in BiH covered their heads A visible number of devout Muslim wore in hijab. For the most the sort of and dressed part, they modestly
57. ongoing 58. European Cornelia since Xavier Policy made these observations based Sorabji e-mail the mid-1980s. communication, Sorabji, of Balkan Muslims "The Role Bougarel, Center Issue Paper 43 (2005). on her fieldwork a in Sarajevo, 2002. European Islam,"

17 October in Building

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or modern in places like Turkey, Palestine, styles found they did Egypt; not cover their faces or restrict to dark colors. In the popula themselves tion in general, the vast majority of Bosniac women did not "cover" at all the exception of women from villages, were and, with indistinguishable in appearance from non-Muslims.59 of veil Bosniacs' rejection general of "Arab" styles, was evident I worked the war when ing, especially during at a camp for BiH in Croatia of a Kuwaiti refugees. When representatives in the height visited of summer in shorts and saw Bosniac women charity to withhold and sleeveless threatened aid if these further tops, they any women did not cover themselves As incentive, they left dona properly. secure tions of veils and all-encompassing The women, cloaks (abayas). in the conviction to send them aid, that west Europeans would continue amused themselves the coverings, poses by modeling striking dramatic and mimicking the erotic movements of the veiled of ori belly dancer was ridicu entalist This form of dress, representations. they emphasized, to them "as Europeans." lously foreign In postwar BiH, "that kind of Islam" was likewise said to have "noth to do with Bosnia." The visibility of such different ing practices by the to undermine neo-Salafists therefore threatened Bosniacs' particularly on their insistence It was also a way for both religious and Europeanness. to assert their secular Bosniacs and worthiness, sophistication especially to me and the rest of the western world. these declarations Significantly, were most directed the gendered of the "ve vehemently against practices the women's face veil. This was often the first thing that habije," especially to when Bosnians the influence of "non worry about pointed expressing Islam. The of women's I was frequently faces, told, European" covering had never been in Bosnia, the fact that most Muslim practiced despite women in BiH, in urban covered areas, had very thoroughly including their faces, in a much au different before the communist though style, thorities outlawed the practice in the 1950s.60 Other such as practices, were also an appearance and were polygyny, making sharply condemned of all political re orientations. As we saw above with Lejla's by Bosnians this was considered even alien to Bosnia, marks, completely unacceptable as a way to care for the of mothers widowed large number by the war; this idea was related as a joke to convey how some of the local hodzas primitive were who had such things. Less frequently, (Islamic preachers) suggested moral were also asserted when and cultural distinctions it came to male practices, especially the short pants and scruffy beards of the "vehabije."

women 59. Many in and from wore the older ones, villages, typically dimije (baggy scarves and head a range as of hair that marked them trousers) (worn with coverage) both Bosniac and rural. Some Croat women and Serb village also wore marked ethnically but Muslim on her research dress was the most distinctive. Based in a Bosnian clothing, in the late 1980s, Tone identified this as a source of orientalist village Bringa prejudice toward Muslim to which were few men the Bosnian villagers, subject. Bringa, Being Muslim 1%, 60-65. 60. Senija o i literatura "Izvori zene Muslimanske Penava, problemima emancipacije u Bosni i za Prilozi no. Institu?a 18 (1981); Verom Radmila Radie, Hercegovini," istoriju 17, u i verske zajednice 216. 1995), protiv ver?: Drzava Srbiji 1945-1953 (Belgrade,

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in Zenica Islamic Pedagogical told me that she Academy out some radical male students had had to straighten to look females in the eye or sit with them in class. This been told about Islamic practice by the "Arab" jihadists to the students that such the war. The teachers explained "This is Bosnia. We are in their school because, practiced to Europe." We belong European. culturally were For the media, the nikab and other gendered practices poignant of the political threat posed by "eastern" Islam at a critical junc symbols to to be "headed ture when At the BiH was "instead" Europe." supposed a in an end of 2000, the news weekly Start ran a cover featuring figure "Fanaticism: Who's the headline, Circumcising alongside Afghan burqa second-hand inside revealed and How."61 The article Women testimony to say about the and had nothing "circumcision" of one case of a female women Imet a garment radical Muslim that none of even the most burqa, cover said they had ever seen in BiH.62 Still, the image of the Afghan said to be prac of female discussion and the article's circumcision, ing a clear, "some tribes in Africa," ticed among warning gendered conveyed to our close had "come dangerously which about non-European Islam, A
region."

teacher at the and her colleagues who were refusing is what they had met during they was not behavior

in black nikab face veils several covers with women Dani also featured that announced One as ominous of a future of oppression. harbingers their women "The New Face of Sarajevo," nikabs were despite wearing and Covered "Naked Politics Another small numbers. read, relatively inside was accompanied The article the Nikab." Future under Women: in 1900 and 2000" of "women on the streets of Sarajevo (fig by photos fash dresses and hairstyles ure 3). The women in 1900 wear (European) of 2000 wear at the time, while the women ionable cloaks, long black a the influence decries The author holds and nikabs. One baby. gloves, nationalists that the religious and bitterly warns of Islam (ists) in politics into the home and their retreat of women the covering who encourage "There's and therefore all of society, backwards: are leading Bosnian women, and of mother the services no more talk about and seductive hypocrisy is her role in the family and society, her role in the world. Her place wife,
Her i Start Bosne zene? Nema "Ko i kako obrezuje 61. Jelena Padovan, toga u Bosni?" in a case was reported female cover circumcision and 32. The 7 November 2000: cegovine, had who mother said her daughter woman's Bosnia town in northwest small by the young a follower Islam." of "orthodox of her husband, at the request done the procedure had not the stone "This is the twenty-first The mother century, age!" complained, in Bosnia, on Saudi Islam influence and radical Radio Public In a National 62. piece Saudi-financed the newly built, outside women in "burqas" seeing reported Sylvia Poggioli em as Balkan "in a forested in Sarajevo (described [my valley" resting King Fahd mosque She socialist-era it is on a small hill amid apartment buildings). high-rise though phasis] a more was familiar women veils but the burqa in nikab have meant could perhaps only to the Taliban. also inter attention the media term to American audiences Poggioli given and blamed bin Laden Osama who a viewed Slav?tall, blond, blue-eyed" praised "typical and other kinds Ukrainian and Romanian for bringing "the Americans" drugs, prostitutes, 14 July 2002. See also "Bosnian to Bosnia. Islam," Weekend Edition, of?gendered?"evil" of Terror." the Threat "To Veil Cloud,

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N!

Figure 3. "Women on the Streets of Sarajevo and 2000." Dani, 10 March 2000, 38.

in 1900

known: trayed

the nikab!"63 under as a historical trend

Islam thus of cultural

threatens development

to reverse

is por what even in which the

Dani, dress

cover; Vildana 1998, Selimbegovic, cover and 38-39. Both these photos 2000, whereas in the minority for its time period: that was in 1900, for Muslim in 2000 was extremely the nikab small, even a the eyes. face veil covering heavy precisely 63. Dani, 3 October

30 March

"Buducnost in fact women show at the number

pod a form of women least,

nikabom," of women's

wearing was the norm

Gender,

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and seductive talk" of official socialist "hypocrisy was at least a form of progress. women's equality Domestic and Patriarchal Men

proclamations

about

Peasants,

Violence,

status in Women's was another common and the household ref marriage erent in discourses about of civilization the level in society. Portrayals of those seen as more were understood backward and primitive in gendered terms through what Dubravka Zarkov calls the "Orientalist about myth Muslim of all, cruel to its own conservative, community: rigid, and most women."64 This was complicated by balkanist imagery of violent peasant the archetypal of gendered wartime violence men; although perpetrators were as its Serb men, those most represented (only) victims were Mus lim women, as Stef rural women.65 Further, especially put it in Jansen his analysis of "everyday in Serbia orientalism" and Croatia, "the term to mark 'Balkan' is often used the darker stu side of Yugoslav epochs: and 'unculturedness' violence [nekultura]?in short, pidity, primitivism, " To this list of "primitivisms" he also adds "violence, 'peasantness.' patri The degree of subordination of women in archy, and uneducatedness."66 and families, in terms of domestic therefore violence, marriages especially a marker of relative became "primitivism." This was illustrated in several conversations I had with both male and saw themselves as "civilized," female Bosnians who and "west "modern," on ern." The young women since the start of city streets wearing hijab said to be "peasants," the war were from rural areas and there displaced more fore uneducated, backward and primitive?"definitely ignorant, not from the city," as one male insisted. Upon that I Sarajevan hearing was researching to do with women, assumed that, since many something I was a female a feminist out to criticize from the "west," I was probably men to document and the treatment of women in BiH, and thereby how from a handful and patriarchal" of their society was.67 Aside "primitive was eager to convince women's (feminist) rights activists, nearly everyone me otherwise. treat On dozens I was told about of occasions the terrible sure to contrast ment in rural BiH, as speakers made of women these those of "modern," urban women. with On the subject of descriptions was always that only "peasants" or men domestic the assumption violence,
64. 65. Zarkov, in Yugoslavia," "War Rapes 147. "'Politics Is a Whore' "; Zarkov, the History "Svakodnevni of Ethnic Hatred."

Helms, Orientalism and

"War Rapes

in Yugoslavia"

and

"Gender,

66. Jansen, in Allcock the Balkans," "Definitional Ballinger, no. the 2 73-91; (1999): 67. As has been feminism and rejected

B. Allcock, Orientalizam," 48; see also John "Constructing and Grey Falcons, Pamela eds., Black Lambs 234-38; Young, as 'Culture Area'?" Dilemmas: Southeastern Europe BalkanologieS, van de Port, Gypsies, Wars and Other Instances of the Wild. and the case in other

central and east European societies, postsocialist as a western stereo much has been import) maligned, some women's activists, many including by rights though typed, The Space Between Us: Negotiating do embrace it. See Cynthia Gender and National Cockburn, Identities in Conflict Visions of the Bosnian "Gendered 189-92; Helms, (London, 1998), 155-96. Future," term (understood in Bosnia,

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even research beat their wives, would "peasant mentalities" though showed otherwise.68 to what were then frequently Conversations moved said to be even more to the south and east. Because and patriarchal societies primitive a low in the hierarchy of Balkan "nested they already occupied position to Albanians Bosnians with their turned and Montenegrins orientalisms," histories of tribal social organization feuds for a nearby, but and blood more as to define themselves which clearly "primitive," society against closer to Europe I thus heard many and "civilization." stories about violent on women to enforce exacted and con their subordination punishments trol their sexuality in accordance tribal with Albanian and Montenegrin I had wounded customs.69 At times, it seemed national people's pride by even to gender on them when was I in BiH?why paying attention picking worse those other primitives among things were much nearby? one occasion, On Iwas visiting a married and a friend of theirs. couple The friend his amazement at how related mutual another "patriarchal" friend was because his wife did all the cooking The husband and cleaning. a of the host couple flashed conspiratorial grin and exclaimed, "Why, he's a than /am!" understood that "Alba bigger siptar [Albanian] Everyone nian" term siptar) was synonymous the derogatory with both (especially was so and "primitive"; it went unsaid that Albanian "patriarchal" society that Albanian men would never stoop to "women's patriarchal performing work." Our hostess, meanwhile, said she was surprised, since the absent in question friend had a reputation for being in step with the latest trends from the west?a "modern" guy, a "rocker." To her itwas coun thoroughly so terintuitive that anyone with the west could possibly closely associated to such old-fashioned, adhere Yet I heard plenty of notions. patriarchal men in BiH express their own self-described in terms of modern identities about women's the idea that roles, including assumptions were more women" (and that as "emancipated readily available sexually were entitled "modern" men, to freer access to such women without they to adhere to old-fashioned norms of marital having fidelity). The comment husband's a sort of self about Albanians reflects I encountered orientalization/balkanization quite often.70 At times, this was used, as in the above mode to make or example, light of justify do mestic violence and the subordination as if to say, we cannot of women, or crude, we are abusive Balkaners.71 field help being primitive During research in Zenica on local police to domestic in 2004, violence responses very patriarchal
To Live With(out) Violence?Final Violence Zenica, Report: against Women see also Helms, "Gendered of State Power." Transformations 1999); See Christopher Blood Revenge: The Enactment and Management Boehm, of Conflict in and Other Tribal Societies "Sex and Power Montenegro 1984); Bette Denich, (Philadelphia, in the Balkans," in Michelle Z. Rosaldo and Louise and eds., Woman, Culture, Lamphere, Ian Whitaker, "'A Sack for Carrying The Tra (Stanford, 243-62; 1974), Society Things:' ditional of Women Role in Northern Albanian 54, no. 3 Society," Anthropological Quarterly (Zenica, 69. 68. Medica

(July 1981): 146-56.

70. Cf. Herzfeld, Cultural Intimacy; Jansen, and Other Instances Gypsies, Wars, of the Wild. 71. See Helms, "Gendered Transformations talism and the of Ethnic 111. Hatred," History

"Svakodnevni of State

Orientalizam"; Zarkov,

van

de

Port,

Power";

"Gender,

Orien

Gender,

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111

I encountered not only constant that only "peasants" beat their assertions wives but also a joking of masculinity in which offi performance police cers boasted about how they kept their own wives "in line" while deriding or their colleagues for being hen-pecked the husbands, (under papucari wife's house This was part of a more widespread slippers, papule). joking a sense of celebration of "primitive for culture," which conveyed nostalgia male with a simultaneous that such senti prerogatives acknowledgment
ment was not modern or "civilized."72

A joke circulated about Fata, the stock female in Bosnian character who is identifiably to an "international con feminist Muslim, jokes going women ference" where learn how to get their husbands to do more of the housework. After the conference, the organizers call the French and German and confirm their progress, but they reason that participants these are European should hear from a woman in a women; they really more backward So they call Fata to see how she is place. getting along: caller: fata: caller: fata: caller: fata: Did you see any improvement on the first day? No. What about on the second day? No. Did you see anything on the third day then? Well, yeah actually, by then Iwas starting to see again out of my
left eye . . .

Note that "feminism" is associated with Europe and as it is the modernity, French women and German who succeed in its alleged easily applying I first heard this joke at a meeting of local women from non principles. other on, among (NGOs) working governmental organizations things, domestic All violence. the women the com with combating laughed, mon that this kind of joke always celebrates the primitive, understanding backward Bosnian is "of course" who violent and pa (Muslim) peasant as modern triarchal.73 themselves these women urbanit?s, Seeing clearly excluded themselves from this culture. More of Sarajevans to a poster in the subtly, the reactions campaign summer of 2003 revealed how representations of women acted as a vehi cle through which civilizational and national were drawn, es boundaries between the (civilized) urban and the (uncivilized and hopelessly pecially rural. Sarajevan artist Sejla Kameric a had overlaid of "Balkan") picture herself with the wartime of a Dutch United Nations soldier graffiti serving ... ?A Mustache in the enclave ... ? Smel Like of Srebrenica: "No Teeth Shit... ? Bosnian Girl!" These words had been found (figure 4). jarring on the walls of the in the village of Potocari, some where battery factory Bosnian Serb forces were 8,000 Bosniac men massacred last seen alive by
72. 73. tributed "Gendered Helms, The women's NGO among all economic Violence. editors Transformations Medica classes, Zenica of State found

353-54. Power," that domestic violence places of origin. reported

Live With(out) his hotline, and cart. din Avdic,

Nevertheless, to illustrate chose "Pozivi puni

professions, a local when the straha Zenica, article

and

Selvedin personal

Avdic,

communication,

photograph i nade," Start, 25 February 28 February 2000.

journalist a with

dis equally To Zenica, on Medica's violence of a peasant's horse Selve 2000, 26-27; Medica

was

Slavic Review

Figure Poster

campaign

4. "Bosnian Girl!" by Sejla from Summer 2003.

Kameric

ones as the enclave fell. The Dutch were later implicated by their loved on 11 for their part in these crimes. Kameric 's posters first appeared July the route through the of the tragedy, along the eighth 2003, anniversary center of coffins holding the of Sarajevo taken by the procession being from mass and remains of Srebrenica victims exhumed graves recently a stir. Most Sara taken to Potocari for reburial. The being image caused not only of the Dutch of the complicity, understood it as a reminder jevans to stop the carnage for its failure for Srebrenica, but of the west as a whole war until of the Bosnian it had raged for nearly four years. The contrast the young, beautiful artist and the crude words of contempt from between no the Dutch soldier?in the idea of flawed English, less?challenged western superiority. mes saw yet another Some educated younger Sarajevans layer in this the artist and the words associated the clear contrast between sage. They in Srebrenica and the women divide the about with the urban/rural as inferior, to look down on rural refugees for urban Bosnians tendency and "uncultured" thus read the .74 (nekulturni) My interlocutors primitive, 74. See Cornelia Sorabji, "Managing Memories in Post-War Sarajevo: Individuals, Bad Memories, and New Wars" Journal of theRoyal Anthropological Institute 12 (2006): 1-18;

Gender,

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tank shown in her "modern" of an urban Bosnian, posters as the distancing women of disheveled, rural top, from the iconic image fleeing weeping scarves and dimije. in head I had encountered similar reac Srebrenica at the image tions from many urban Bosnian who were women, indignant of rural Bosnian often with head scarves and dimije, shown in the women, As an Islamic in Zenica, world media.75 teacher who herself (mu'alima) wears commu that the international hijab, put it, "It's absurd and wrong as backward, women Bosnian is illiterate. This uncivilized, nity portrayed . . We're . not reality. not Kurds or something, we have civilization here." The Modernity of Playboy

With Bosnians who considered themselves "modern" constantly pointing to the fashionable town centers in micro young women strolling through miniskirts and tight halter that the more skin the women tops, it seemed western the more a and less Islamic the society was.76 Similarly, showed, was associated certain level of gender and freedom for women equality with "the west," "civilization," and "modernity." Tone Bringa this captured sense in her wartime of a rural Bosnian Muslim footage couple washing their home. When dishes outside the husband chafes at being shown do such a female task on camera, his wife teases him ing saying, "Come on, let see that Bosnians the world are up-to-date people/men [ljudi]l"77 to the image of confined In contrast "eastern" women, "western" soci for women's ety was seen as superior by some precisely public visibility. A to a newspaper in a reaction survey typified this formulation respondent a group of neo-Salafists who had decried status women's devalued against in the west:
Why ers, did and they other not mention medicine, where women education, can art, be even culture, more comput successful

professions

than men? This is something that has been shown by the most developed countries in the world, which are possibly precisely for this reason more de is just a "machine for giving birth," a veloped than those in which woman person whose face can only be seen by the men to whom they secondary are MARRIED, and often without the consent of both sides.78
Anders "Urban Exile: Newcomers and the Cultural Transformation of Stefansson, Locals, in and Duijzings, 59-78. eds., The New Bosnian Mosaic, Helms, Sarajevo," Bougarel, " " Is aWhore.' 'Politics 75. Helms, writers also used miniskirts 76. Foreign to make and gendered such com behavior A French the war about in Sarajevo Islam wrote, parisons. journalist writing during "Judg a a Muslim are more is clearly Sarajevo ing by its streets, European city, not capital. Women wear miniskirts than head drink alcohol." "The End scarves; men likely to Remy Ourdan, of a Dream," World Press Review 1 and translated 42, no. 29, reprinted 1995): (January from Le Monde. We Are All Neighbours 77. Tone with Debbie Worlds Christie, series, Bringa (Disappearing film, 1993). documentary su "Zene 15 March 11 (emphasis 78. 1998, added; ravnopravne," Oslobodenje, capital in the original). The ization survey was part of an extended Oslobodenje opinion polemic that ran in the Bosnian in March 1998, at a roundtable press after an incident organized by on the local women's for International activists Women's of "Women, (8 March), Day subject

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6. BOO SAMBA BiH HE

BAN

.t

BOSfftfSE VRACaSEBI
SREBRENICA1995*2000

Figure Bosnia
cover.

5. "The Returns

Constitutiveness to Itself!" Dani,

of Nations: 7 July 2000,

went Endorsements of western modernity beyond rejec frequently on to celebrate sexual tions of traditional and religious restraints sexuality in freedoms. Yet patriarchal and androcentric views did not disappear as sexualized of heterosexual male desire, every case; women, ap objects as markers in both media and informal discourses of modernity, peared an and the west. Dani offered this sort of association when civilization, covers featured a buff" and woman other of its busty confidently, standing a bikini hands on hips, wearing with the colors and symbols of patterned are also, not coincidentally, the BiH flag, which those of the European to this cover literally reads, Union "Bosnia 5) ,79The caption flag (figure
and Religion." Society, international feminist regime group in Afghanistan, of neo-Salafists, caused quite under divorce A petition campaign was part of an at the circulated which being gathering, to call attention to the of women under the Taliban plight women in posters in burqas. The of a appearance symbolized by in short pants the men and beards and the women and totally veiled was in Kabul the ones sexual a were who perfectly protected needed help because of women.

gloved, and respected of high

79. This flag was deliberately

by representatives

claimed that women group in the west were Islam, while women low birthrates, and rates, pornography, the country, governing of all political (i.e., to offer

a stir. The

objectification

chosen for BiH by the High Representative,

ethnonational) unifying symbol forces. Not that

head of
could be it

the pseudo-protectorate accepted

surprisingly,

Gender,

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returns to itself!" best translated to its senses!"80 The oc as, "Bosnia comes a constitutional to make casion was a ruling that had expanded provision in BiH constitutive all three major ethnonations the peoples throughout as a sup in ethnically rather than only defined entities. Dani, country BiH, used the sexualized porter of a multiethnic image of the anonymous a sense of to convey woman-as-nation and triumph. Now that optimism the constitutional for a united BiH had been shored up, and its framework self restored, Bosnia stride into the future. The could confidently prewar on her bikini blond women's features and the pattern the direc conveyed or at least a unified, BiH tion of that stride?Europe, multiethnic that on how the colors and of Europe, shares the qualities symbols depending were in posing The model's confidence scantily clad further interpreted. a future of and tradition. rather than of religion implied "modernity" was a cultural A similar message in the same commentary conveyed by that a new graphics should be taken seriously company magazine arguing to support for its "modern The chief example European design." given was an advertisement this assertion for woven wool products the slo with me out," "which, to in a double meaning, what needs gan "Lay suggests or else with wear be done either with the woven the female model rug never is a kind of ad the Bosnian textile ing the rug, which industry has had before." For the author, this image was emblematic of progress: "Now taste to recognize it is clearly up to those with the value of the modern team. If it creative European design being produced by [the company's] as is recognized and accepted BiH will be able to exist as an legitimate, one as of the world that treats good design equal member community, without life would be uglier which than it already is."81 What something access woman?was to a beautiful would make life less "ugly"?sexual a heterosexual thus defined male exclusively through perspective.82 was one of the same The this commentary picture accompanying "Postcard from Sarajevo" entitled, postcard company's designs (figure 6). Two young women, in the old, Turkish identical twins, stand together one in Islamic dress?a of Sarajevo, section loose, long tunic and head in a black miniskirt scarf?the other and tight-fitting halter top. East and as are west and coexisting again represented simultaneously opposed an and again As with the "eastern" categories through image of women. woman in the "East and West Kiss" image, this "eastern" twin's Islamic dress and wary posture make her decidedly unsexual orien (unlike eroticized, twin is also serious, but the thrust of her hips, position talist images). Her
more acceptance gained ethnonational autonomy a united those BiH than among those among favoring favoring or M. Hayden, See Robert "Intolerant separation. Sovereignties over in Protectorates: and 'Multi?Multi' Sites and (In) tolerance Competition Religious in Chris M. Hann, and Practices in Eurasia the Balkans," ed., Postsocialism: Ideals, Ideologies, 170. 2002), (London, se vraca cover. sebi!" Dani, 80. "Bosna 7 July 2000, 31 March 60. 81. N. Dz, Dani, 2000, "Cardeaje ozbiljna pojava," 82. Bosnians, perspective A lesbian as was never would have occurred interpretation I got when from the puzzled looks apparent to the "East and West in relation Kiss" image. to the vast such suggesting of majority a possible

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Figure 6. "Postcard from Sarajevo: Twins." Dani, 31 March 2000, 60. of her sexual

Bosnian

a confident, and dangling arms, heavy makeup, wisp of hair convey stance. That she represents the west and "modernity" ismade clear on her top. Some of the her miniskirt and the French through writing women educated Bosnian I discussed this image felt with whom urban, a certain that this twin emanated and assertiveness, strength especially to her withdrawn in contrast sister. This power, however, is still based on to men, the heterosexual male attractive gaze being sexually reinforcing text. Further, in the accompanying and most the sis conveyed important, as ters are presented their only identification, essence; symbols of national one "Bosnian and political is a national the cultural twins," sense). (in a Bosnia as a crossroads In this case it is once where the distinct, again of west and east, Europe and Islam, modern and gendered categories traditional exist side by side. a Secular Bosnians also found that BiH was headed message hopeful a Bosnian woman was toward Europe and the civilized world when "finally" featured nude for the first time since the war in the June 2000 issue posing of Croatian Muslim and nationalist leaders religious Playboy.83 Predictably, 83. This followed the scandal inNovember
Alisa contest, nude photos Sisic, of her a would-be surfaced. model Like Fetic, from

1999 involving the winner of theMiss BiH

stripped winner of her and her crown after supporters

who was Zenica, the dethroned both

Gender,

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saw Some of my acquaintances her morals. her and questioned criticized no less, a Muslim, and one from Zenica, irony in the fact that it had been a a town with a of mudzahedin and fun for being stronghold reputation the model, Nadina In an interview, Muslims. damentalist Fetic, now living in attitudes the differences in Croatia, toward her Playboy appear stressed see my as ance: "In Croatia, readers completely something photographs Bosnia is a small country, and normal. still in some sort of patri ordinary me now because of but it's stupid for them to condemn archal upbringing, In the hierarchy of nested Croatia was these nude photos." orientalisms, "or and the west where female closer to Europe sexuality and nudity were a contrast to "patriarchal" Bosnia. Tellingly, and normal," however, dinary sent of the messages Fetic also complained about the inconsistency being to women the struggle over Bosnian and Bosniac national iden through the war, many were against 'covered women,' while tity: "In Zenica during now I don't also against the 'uncovered'/'revealed' [odkrivene]. they're over it is they really want."84 These understand what debates protected or liberated female thus remained and within sexuality firmly patriarchal
nationalist concerns.

focused here on a Muslim-dominated in Europe community a liminal as east and west. Even for between imagined inhabiting position or secular/atheist non-Bosniac Bosnians the history of Ottoman Bosniacs, to Islam have colored rule and conversions their own and others' views of an their place in the world. This has become contested ques especially with real consequences, since of the violent dissolution tion, fraught the question of Bosnian various interven statehood, foreign Yugoslavia, now associated with tions, and the shifts in world geopolitics immigration to the European Union and the U.S. "War on Terror." Just as critics have out that orientalist and balkanist from the west are constructions pointed or unidirectional, not homogeneous these Bosnian show the va examples those positioned of contestations and reconfigurations by riety proffered on the other of the These multiple side, in "the Balkans."85 configurations or balkanism east /west dyad can be seen to slip in and out of orientalism I have
bemoaned rhetoric Mile with a hole 84. the "backwardness" and conservatism of Bosnia. wrote: Islamic "Crucified between the leaders, of the even One ideology the and

of

commentator, of the Near

citing East

the normalcy

Stojic, "Ljepotica the many other

between

nearer like most of her generation, chose the latter." west, Alisa, i zvijeri,"Dam, of the jury, fed up 12 November 1999, 37. A member in Bosnia, and open told a reporter, "We're not injustices questions in the center BiH East and West, is something we're of the Bermuda like Triangle. sta imamo in the ozone." "Svi znamo 12 November Dani, 1999, 38. ispod odjece," Interview with Nadina . . ." Slobodna Bosna, Fetic by 8 June of balkanism, Edin Avdic, 30-33. 2000, see Patterson, "Zenicanke nisu valjale dok su bile

"On the Edge of Reason"; such critiques Mihelj, of Europe"; and the Symbolic the Balkans, "Orientalism, Geographies Fleming, On the diversity of balkanist "Balkaners" Balkan among representations Historiography." see Bracewell and Alex Drace-Francis, "South-Eastern themselves, History, Wendy Europe: Maria "Introduc 3, no. 2 (1999): Boundaries," 47-66; Todorova, Balkanologie Concepts, in Maria Identities: tion: Learning Todorova, ed., Balkan Memory, Remembering Identity," and Memory Nation (New York, 2004). "Media and

'pokrivene,' 85. For

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into related?gendered?narratives about modernity, civilizational prog tend to reaffirm and reproduce ress, or race. Yet they ultimately the no tion of civilizational at east and west differences poles. In particular, I have called attention to the of balkanist gendering and orientalist constructions. of gender notions Essentialized equality, were "women's and sexual morality the vehi emancipation," frequently or cles through which the relative advantages of "east" and disadvantages "west" were portrayed. For those who favored "eastern values," the west a threat of the ways in which because "traditional" posed precisely (patri were to be disrupted. Yet, even archal) gender configurations imagined on the when the west was valorized?often of sexual precisely grounds and other freedoms for women?the imagined regimes gender along with these idealizations did not necessarily hierarchies escape patriarchal
or an androcentric gaze.

in the these Bosnian reflect shifts broadly, examples larger to the of orientalist In contrast and balkanist gendering representations. masculine of rough and unruly described peasants by Todorova, images come to play a female role in recent symbols have configura prominent as the female tions of balkanism. Not only have nations been feminized war victim, as victims but women of rape and "traditional" patriarchal Muslim of the backwardness and culture have served as indicators (rural) of "the Balkans." This feminization is different from that of co brutality in an erotic or is not portrayed sexualized violence lonial orientalism; on violence, sensual way but with an emphasis and victimhood, barbarity, awareness to an increased violence of wartime images contributing global women. themselves have set orientalist Moreover, against representations in favor of those conveying the of exotic and erotic harems aside images east through and sexu of the Islamic (political) danger "hyper-veiled" women. Muslim Bosnians take part in these discourses, ally controlled their own meanings but also using similar tropes in their various adding to within and global themselves attempts regional, European, position hierarchies. All of this is not to say that every Bosnian with Europe who identified or "the west" also upheld values, or that there simultaneously "patriarchal" were no advocates for gender in BiH who did not also categori equality the west. On the contrary, idealized visions of emancipated cally valorize women in the west were prominent in discussions of gen and democracy in BiH, especially der relations women's NGO activists and western among of the international As we have only glimpsed community. representatives some of these activists orientalist and balkanist here, explicitly opposed of "Bosnian women." Yet others, and often the very same individu images the and further about als, also reproduced them, complaining shaped to civiliza of patriarchal References "Balkan mentalities."86 persistence tional hierarchies thus frequently in women's rights discourses appeared as invocations no were of east/west differences constructed upon just
86. Helms, "Women the Bosnian Future." as Agents of Ethnic Reconciliation?" and "Gendered Visions of

More

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as determined as some activists, of gender. Moreover, and scholars, were to subvert such hierarchies, this was no guarantee that public figures not be or their words and actions would orientalist interpreted through or to which balkanist hierarchies. The extent these frameworks constrain and the particular empower ways in which positioned subjects differently this affects social practices in specific "Balkan" settings deserve further as do the ways in which visions of research, essentialized, occidentalist, to support various positions. "the west" are marshaled Gendered concep east and west tions of opposing to escape, civilizations may be difficult tions in post-Yugoslavia and in the larger also provides space for multiple malleability also material of power. relations ultimately both geopolitical reimaginings but context, of symbolic their and