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Course T-5008

Vehicle Detectors
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VEHICLE DETECTORS COURSE #C-5010

Robert T. Hintersteiner, P.E. Transportation/Forensic Engineer

This course will discuss alternative types of vehicle detectors that can be placed at an intersection to detect vehicular traffic. States and local governmental jurisdictions have their own standards for the type, placement, size, of vehicle detector used. The guidelines for the placement of vehicle detectors are set forth in the Traffic Detector Handbook, Second Edition1, published by the Institute of Transportation Engineers, and by various standards promulgated by the Departments of Transportation in different States. A vehicle detector is comprised of two separate devices. The first device senses the presence of vehicles (detector sensor unit), and the second device (detector amplifier unit) transmits a signal to the traffic controller. Each lane or approach may have a detector, which informs the controller that there is a demand for that particular approach. The detector units are the primary source of information for an actuated controller in determining when the right-of-way should be changed, and for what duration. This course will discuss different types of vehicle detectors, along with their basic design criteria. The design and operation of these detector units can determine the operations for an isolated intersection and/or for an intersection within a system. The detectors and detection systems will be discussed as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1

Definitions Detection Types Loop Detector Installation Detection Design and Operation Curb and Shoulder Installation Time Delay Detectors

ITE Bookstore, 1099 14th St., NW Suite 300 West, Washington, D. C. 20005-3438, (202) 289-0222, www.ite.org.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS Manufacturers have developed different types of sensing units to detect vehicles, which are classified as follows:

Pressure sensitive; Inductance; Radar (Sonar, Ultrasonic); Magnetic; Light emitting (Optical); and, Video imaging.

DEFINITIONS:
There are many different types of detector sensing units, with varying applications, in use today:

General Definitions:
Actuation: The sensing of a vehicle or pedestrian. Advisory Detection: The ability to sense a vehicle on one or more intersection approaches solely for the purpose of modifying the phase sequence and/or length of time for the other approaches to the intersection. Cross talk: Any electrical current generates a magnetic flux or electrical field around a wire, and this electrical field can induce a current in the adjacent wire (transformers operates on this principle). Current flow: The right-hand rule is where the thumb points in the direction of the current flow and the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic flux field, or in a counter clockwise direction. When a vehicle goes over the lane or roadway loop detector (a wire placed in the pavement), a change in the magnetic flux field is registered in the detector amplifier unit. Detector or Detector Unit:2 A device for indicating the presence or passage of a vehicle or a pedestrian.
2

Traffic Detector Handbook, Second Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Detector Amplifier:3 A device that is capable of sensing and intensifying the electrical energy produced by a detector sensor, which then transmits an electrical signal to the controller. Detection Area (Zone Of Detection): An area that is being detected. It may consist of one or more detector sensing units to cover the entire detection zone. Detector Sensor: The actual unit that senses the presence of a vehicle. Lead-In-Cable: A shielded pair of wires leading from the splice box servicing the detector sensing unit to the terminal board located in the controller cabinet. Each pair of wires is shielded to prevent cross talk or inducted current from an adjacent pair of signal cables and/or Lead-In-Cables. Passage Detection: The ability to sense a vehicle passing or moving through the detection field or zone, ignoring the presence of a stopped vehicle within the detection zone. Presence Detection: The ability to sense the presence of a vehicle, whether moving or stopped, as it enters the detection area or zone. Spill Over Actuation: An unwanted vehicle actuation caused by a vehicle in a lane adjacent to the lane that is being detected.

Types of Detectors: 4
Advisory Detectors: A point or calling detector used in a system to determine which signal plan shall be used or to extend the signal timing for that phase. Bi-directional Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of being actuated by vehicles proceeding in either direction. It also indicates in which direction the vehicles are going. The direction is determined by
3 4

National Electrical Manufactures Associations - NEMA Standard 11-6-1975, TS-1 1983 page 5. Ibid.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS which detector sensor unit is actuated first in a series of detector sensing units. Calling or Point Detector: A detector sensing unit that is installed in a selected location to detect vehicles as they approach an intersection. The calling detector amplifier transmits a signal to the controller indicating that a vehicle has passed a certain point in the street (Figure 1).

OR

FIGURE 1 POINT OR CALLING DETECTORS Classification Detector: A classification detector sensing unit consists of one or two calling or point detector sensing units placed at a predetermined distance to determine the volume of traffic, the speed of traffic, and the length of each vehicle. By measuring the time that a vehicle takes to travel over the detector sensing unit(s), analog formulas are used to determine the speed of traffic and/or the length of the vehicle. Classification detectors can be permanently installed in the pavement or mounted overhead on a highway. Classification detectors can be installed temporarily in a roadway lane, which are self containing traffic counters 5 (Figures 2 & 3).

Nu-Metrics - Hi-State or Count card Magnetic Sensing units.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS
Permanent Loop Detectors

Temporary Road Tubes

FIGURE 2 CLASSIFICATION DETECTOR SENSING UNITS

Directional Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of being actuated only by vehicles proceeding in one specified direction (i.e. two-way traffic on a one-lane roadway or driveway; or regulating the closing of a parking gate after a vehicle has left the gate area in a driveway or at an automatic toll booth). Extension Detector: The detector sensing unit is placed in advance of an intersection to sense vehicles that are standing still for a predetermined time. The controller will only act upon the signal from the amplifier during the green interval for that approach. The extension detectors will increase the green time for that particular phase. Extension detectors are used to improve transit operations at intersections, and they are also used to reduce extremely long queues on exit ramps from highways (Figure 4).
Permanent LoopDetectors

EX IT R AM P

FIGURE 4 EXTENSION DETECTOR SENSING UNITS

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Light-sensitive Detector: A detector sensing unit that utilizes a light-sensitive device for sensing the passage of an object, which then transmits a special type of light beam directed at the sensor. For example, a high intensity light beam transmitter is mounted on an emergency vehicle, and the optical detector sensing unit is mounted over the intersection. Upon sensing the high intensity light beam, the sensor sends a signal to the controller preemption unit to change the existing signal phasing into a preselected phasing program for the passage of the emergency vehicle (Figures 5 & 6)6.

Infrared Detector: A detector sensing unit that senses radiation in the infrared spectrum, which is used as a calling detector. The amplifier unit is call a Transducer. Loop Detector: A detector sensing unit that senses a change in inductance from wires embedded in the pavement, caused by the passage or presence of a vehicle within the inductance field. Currently, inductance loops are the most widely used type of detection. Magnetic Detector: A detector sensing unit that senses a change in the earth's magnetic field by the movement of a vehicle near its sensor, which is used as a calling detector. A magnetic detector sensing unit can be placed in the center of two lanes to detect traffic in both lanes (Figure 7).

Opticom by 3M.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Magnetometer Detector: A detector sensing unit that measures the difference in the level of the earth's magnetic forces caused by the passage or presence of a vehicle near it sensor. Single lane point detection or presence detection with a number of units placed in series and/or parallel are used on bridges where loop detector sensing units could be affected by the steel in the bridge deck (Figure 8).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Microwave Detector: A detector sensing unit that detects the presence of moving pedestrians and/or vehicles. Microwave detectors are found in automatic moving doors, and are used for traffic sensing where loops and other types of detectors cannot be installed (Figure 9).

Non-directional Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of being actuated by vehicles proceeding in any direction. Pedestrian Detector: A detector sensing unit that is responsive to the operation by, or the presence of, a pedestrian. Push buttons are presently used, but there are new products that can sense the presence of a pedestrian by radar, microwave, or video camera. Pneumatic Detector: A pressure-sensitive detector sensing unit that uses a pneumatic tube as a sensor. Existing pressure-sensitive detector sensing units are still being used today as calling detectors, but new ones are not being installed (Figure 10) due to the high construction installation and maintenance costs of each unit. Pressure-sensitive Detector: A detector sensing unit that reacts to the pressure of a vehicle passing over the surface of its sensor. This type of detector sensing unit, which consist of road tubes placed across a lane to count traffic, is also known as an Automatic Traffic Counter (ATC).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Radar (Sonic) Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of sensing the passage of a vehicle through its field in the form of emitted microwave energy. These were widely used during the 1940's and 1950's, but were replaced by loop detectors because the transducers used in them were very expensive to replace. They are making a comeback in today's market since the transducers have been replaced by circuit boards and microchips. Radar detectors are used for point detection per approach, and do not provide for separate lane controls (Figure 11).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Sampling Detector: Any type of vehicle detector sensing unit used to obtain representative traffic flow information. Side-fire Detector: A vehicle detector sensing unit with its sensor located to one side of the roadway on top of a 3 meter (10 foot) pole. Sound-sensitive Vehicle Detector: A detector sensing unit that responds to sound waves generated by the passage of a vehicle over the detection area. Ultrasonic Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of sensing the passage or presence of vehicles through its field in the form of emitted ultrasonic energy (Figure 11). Video Enhanced Detector: A detector sensing unit that is capable of sensing every vehicle per lane per approach per intersection using video images, by selecting certain pixels in the image to detect the location of vehicles on the screen by using analog equations (Figure 12). This is a spin-off of space age technology.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Amplifier Modes:
Carryover Output: The ability of the detector amplifier unit to continue its output for a predetermined length of time following an actuation. Controlled Output: The ability of the detector amplifier unit to produce a pulse that has a predetermined duration regardless of the length of time a vehicle is in the field of influence or zone of detection. Detector Mode: A term used to describe the operation of a detector channel output when a detection occurs. Presence Mode: Detector output continues if any vehicle remains within the field of influence or zone of detection. Presence mode is used in long detection areas. The signal to the controller discontinues when a vehicle leaves the detection zone. Pulse Mode: Detector amplifier unit produces a short output pulse when detection occurs.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Limited Presence Mode: Detector output continues for a limited period of time if a vehicle remains in the field of influence or zone of detection. For example, when a vehicle is parked in the field of influence, the detector will stop registering its presence and will reset itself. Time Delay Output: The ability of a detector amplifier unit to delay its output for a predetermined length of time. Time delay outputs are used for presence detection in the left and right turn lanes, and also for extension detectors.

DETECTION TYPES:
The design and placement of vehicle detection systems within an intersection can determine the efficiency of that intersection, and also the efficiency of the arterial. Detectors are used to inform the controller that a vehicle is approaching the intersection and should be given the right-of-way during the next occurrence of this phase, within the predetermined cycle length. These detectors are use to extend the green time for that phase, and when the actuation ceases, the green time will also cease. Detection areas are designed to provide actuation while the vehicles are within or passing over the detection zone, and this detection lasts until the last vehicle has left the area of detection or when the maximum time for that phase has been reached. There are basically two methods used to detect vehicles: Calling or Point Detectors, and Presence Detectors.

Calling or Point Detectors:

Calling detectors are set back from the intersection and can be either above or below ground. The below ground detector units can be either loop, magnetic, or magnetometer. The above ground detector units can be either radar, microwave, or video imaging types, and they are fixed to an overhead mast arm extending over the lanes or are side mounted on a pole located on the side of the roadway. The area of detection is perpendicular to the travel lane and can be set back from the Stop Line or at the Stop Line. Calling or point detection holds the call in memory until that particular green phase has begun and an initial green interval has completed its timing. Any additional actuation will extend the Green interval by the predetermined passage time.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS The time is set high (3 to 10 seconds) depending upon the distance the detector unit is located from the Stop Line. If an actuation is cut short by the maximum green time, then the controller will automatically place a call into memory so that this signal phase will occur during the next cycle.

Presence Detectors:
Presence detectors are installed in the pavement using detector loops or above ground using video cameras, and are located parallel to traffic. The area of detection extends from the Stop Line for a distance back in the lane to detect traffic as it approaches the intersection. This distance can vary from 6 m (20 feet) to 36.6 m (120 feet), as required by the local governmental agency. For left turn lanes, the detection area can be extended into the intersection with the intention to extend the green time to give motorists enough time to clear the intersection before the clearance interval starts. Normally the area of detection will extend back from the Stop Line about 18 m (60 feet) or three car lengths. On a side street the detection area can be extended to within 1.5 m (5 feet) of the projected curb line or travel way. The detection area can be controlled by a single loop, multi-loops, or multi-point detectors placed close together. Above ground presence detector units are of the microwave or video imaging types. Both these types of detectors must be placed overhead, and be programed to detect traffic on an approach or a lane of travel. They will sense presence and motion within the area of detection.

Types of Detectors:
Detector units are described as follows: Loop Detection: The standard loop detector sensing unit is usually rectangular in shape. The rectangular box is 1.8 m (6 feet) wide, and the length varies according to the length of the zone of detection, size of the lane, and/or the approach width. The standard Loop Inductance Wire is a #14 AWG7, with a plastic jacket to prevent nicking or cuts; however, each State has its own standard wire size. The Loop Inductance Wire is
7

American Wire Gage.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS placed in a saw slot which is 10 mm (3/8 inch) wide and 57 mm (2 1/4 inch) to 8.3 mm (3 1/4 inch) deep. The Loop Inductance Wire is laid in a continuous run without any splices, starting from the pull box, out to the detector sensing unit, around the detector sensing unit many times (1 to 6 layers), and then back to the pull box. The wire is tamped down with a wooden stick (paint stirrer) and then liquid epoxy is used to fill the saw cut. The number of turns per loop can be determined by the formulas set forth in the Traffic Detector Handbook,8 or by referring to the local State standard loop design. Figure 13 shows three types of loop installations.

Depth of Saw Cut

2nd Layer of Sealant Plastic Filler 1st Layer of Sealant

Loop Wire

Sealant

FIGURE 13 LOOP WIRE INSTALLATION

The three typical types of loop installation methods are: place the loops in the with the sealant above and below the wires; above the wires; and with a Plastic Filler (polyethylene rope) which permits the wires to flex with the pavement to reduce stress on the wires. Magnetic Detector: Magnetic detector sensing units are calling or point detectors. Magnetic detector sensing units are placed between 15 m (50 feet) to 30 m (100 feet) back from the Stop Line. Since their magnetic fields will not register a change in their flux for vehicles traveling less then 8 KPH (5 MPH), they have to be placed back from the intersection in order to be able to detect moving vehicles. The magnetic probe (see Figures 1 & 7) is placed in a
8

Traffic Detector Handbook, Second Edition, published by ITE.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS 100 mm (4 inch) diameter plastic conduit (600 mm) 2 feet under the pavement, perpendicular to the travel lane and in the center of the travel lane. For an approach roadway with two lanes, a probe is placed in the center of the two lanes. The magnetic probe is placed in the plastic conduit extending from the pull box about three quarters of the width of the roadway under the lane(s) to be detected. A flexible wooden or plastic stick of known length is used to push the probe to its desired location. The probes connecting wire is then spliced into the Lead-In-Cable. Magnetometer Detectors: Magnetometer detector sensing units can be used for point detection, and multi-magnetometer detectors can be used for presence detection. The sensitivity radius varies between 450 mm (1.5 feet) and 900 mm (3 feet), depending upon the number of probes connected in series. Two or three magnetometer probes can be connected together in series to detect any type of vehicle (autos, trucks, buses, motorcycles, and bicycles), and should be placed between 900 mm (3 feet) and 1.5 m (5 feet) apart in the center of the lane of travel. Each amplifier channel can have up to 6 probes connected to the input device9. Each magnetometer probe requires a hole drilled about 3 mm (1/8 inch) diameter larger than the probe's diameter, to a depth of 480 mm (19 inches) to 610 mm (24 inches), which places the probe into the subbase and below the pavement. A pavement saw cut trench is then installed between each probe and to the curb or edge of pavement. The probes wire is placed in a conduit leading to a pull box to be connected to a Lead-In-Cable. For point detection, one to three probes are placed at a distance back from the Stop Line. For pressure detection, at least 4 sets of magnetometers with spacing of 3.4 m (11 feet) are required to cover the entire area of detection with a length of 12 m (40 feet)10 (see Figure 14). Many governmental agencies use the magnetometers in bridge decks because of the depth of the loop saw cuts would cut into the steel reinforcing bars, which would affect the electric field around the wires. The Magnetometers are rarely used for lane detection due to the high installation cost of each probe, which includes the cost of drilling and saw cutting the pavement.

10

Ibid. page 98. ITE Traffic Detector Handbook Second Edition, Page 101, Figure 99.
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Magnetic Field
1.8 m (6 ft)

Magnetometer

Detection Area

0.9m

3.4 m

3,4 m 12 m (40 feet)

3.4 m

0.9.m

FIGURE 14 TYPICAL MAGNETOMETER PRESSENCE DETECTOR INSTALLATION Light Emitting Preemption: Light emitting preemption detector sensing units consist of three basic parts: the infrared light emitting unit which is placed on an emergency vehicle; the light sensing unit which is placed over the approach lanes at the intersection; and the amplifier unit which transmits the signal to the traffic controller. The light beam which is emitted is sensed by the optical sensing unit mounted over the center of the intersection from a distance of 150 m (500 feet) to 550 m (1800 feet). The controller then changes the traffic signal program into a preemption program, providing vehicle clearances to all phases, followed by a pre-designed Green indication for the direction of the emergency vehicles. There is one sensor unit facing each approach to the intersection (see Figures 5 & 6). It should be understood that if the distance is less than 150 m (500 feet) the time to pre-empt the traffic signal phase could be less than the vehicle clearance interval, and the pedestrian clearance time could be short, leaving the pedestrian in the middle of the intersection and/or in the path of the emergency vehicle. The preemption signal could also provide false calls at other intersections along the route if the emergency vehicle turns or stops prior to the end of the route [anywhere between 550 m (1800 feet) and 150 m (500 feet)]. Another problem can occur when a short Green indication appears on an opposing phase with very little notice to the motorist. All preemption systems have to be planned and tested out to protect both pedestrians and the motoring public. Other preemption systems use a radio frequency instead of a light frequency, with similar setups and drawbacks.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS Hardwire Preemption: Some preemption systems use hardwire from a central computer system to control emergency vehicles routes. This is accomplished by the central fire command choosing a preselected route plan. The fire control center presses the desired route button which in turns activates the pre-designed emergency route in the central computer. These pre-designed plans can change the signal at each intersection as the emergency vehicle travels along its route. A high degree of planning and time testing is required so that the signal is Green when the first emergency vehicle reaches each intersection. This system can reduce the time that traffic is interrupted. The advantage of this method is that the system is hardwired, and it will not be affected by a short route or blockage of the signal by overhanging trees. This system can also separate emergency vehicles coming from different directions. Microwave detectors: The microwave detector sensing units are similar to that of a radar detector, since the emitted energy is reflected back to a sensing unit or antenna, which denotes the passage of a vehicle. The operating frequency is normally in the K-band (24 gHz) or the X-band (10 gHz)11. A Doppler effect is achieved when the units antenna is place at a slight angle to traffic (see Figure 9). For vehicles or pedestrians to be detected, they must exceed 5 kph or 4.4 ft/sec (3 mph). Video Imaging Detectors: Video Imaging Detector System (VIDS) cameras can detect vehicles in a number of different locations within the field of vision. These locations are specified by the user with interactive graphics, which can be changed as many times as desired. To achieved detection, the detection area or points are programmed into the interactive graph program, and when a vehicle passes these pixel dots or points a signal is sent to the controller. These points can be arranged in lines, squares, or rectangles to detect vehicles in each lane. The VIDS can be used to determine turning

11

ITE Traffic Detector Handbook Second Edition, page 164.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS movements, volumes, speed, classification, queuing lengths, etc., (see Figure 12). The installation of overhead detector sensing units shall conform to the manufacturers specifications, and also to the best position that can be obtained for the desired results.

LOOP DETECTOR INSTALLATION The installation of the surface pavement type loop detector sensing units shall conform to the following general guide lines, except when modified by the local governmental agency having jurisdiction. Pavement designs and installations are critical in the service life of the loop detector unit. The three major types of pavement used to construct todays roadways are gravel, asphalt, and/or concrete. The life of the loop detector unit depends upon the thickness of the pavement, the type of pavement used, and the depth that the loops are installed into the pavement. Pavement Types: There are four different types of surfaces: gravel pavement (commonly know as Item 4 base course), asphalt concrete pavement, concrete pavement, and structural bridge slab pavement. Gravel Pavement: Standard surface detection sensor units cannot be installed in a dirt or gravel pavement. Overhead microwave type detectors are most suitable for point detection on such roadways. Dirt or gravel roads are usually found on rural roadways and driveways. Asphalt Pavement: Asphalt Pavement (a/k/a Bituminous Concrete) is the pavement surface treatment most commonly used in the world today due to its reasonable cost. Typical asphalt pavement thickness varies from 165 mm to 230 mm (6.5 inches to 9 inches). Loop detector sensor units are saw cut into the
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VEHICLE DETECTORS pavement to a depth of 50 mm to 90 mm (2 to 3.5 inches), depending upon the number of turns per loop detector in the sensing unit. The top of the loop wires should be at least 40 to 50 mm (1.5 to 2 inches) below the surface of the pavement, thus placing the entire loop detector sensing unit into the binder course of the asphalt pavement. The life of the loop detector sensing units can be related to the minimum depth below the surface. If the loop wire is placed close to the surface of the pavement, the vehicular traffic wears down the pavement surface, causing and the loop wire to be exposed to the elements. At intersections where there is extremely heavy truck traffic, the braking of the vehicles causes the pavement to ripple (washboard effect), shifting the loop detector sensing units vertically and horizontally. In summary, the loop detector sensing unit fails when the pavement fails. There are three methods used today in installing loop detector sensing units:
1. Loop detector sensing unit are installed in the pavement by saw cutting

after the top or wearing course (surface) has been installed. The advantage of using this method is that it can be used in existing pavement and the saw cut can be seen by roadway contractors who are responsible for replacement.
2. Installing the loop detector sensing units by saw cutting the binder

course, and then installing the asphalt top course. To indicate the location of the buried or paved over loops, many jurisdictions place a notch in the adjacent curb at the start and end of each loop detector sensing unit; however, this cannot be done at all locations. The advantage of this method of installation is that it reduces the effects of pavement failures, and it reduces the depth of saw cutting required. The major disadvantage of this method of saw cutting the binder course is that in future years the exact location of the loop detector sensing units may be difficult. Therefore, the governmental agency can not hold a contractor responsible if the detector sensing unit is cut or destroyed during future work. The local governmental agency having jurisdiction must mark off the location of the loop detector units prior to construction.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS
3. Prefabricated loop detector units are placed on top of the binder

course, and the turns are placed side by side in a horizontal format, and the top course is placed on top of the wires. The advantage is the same as stated in section 2 above, in addition to saving the cost of saw cutting. The disadvantage is also the same as stated in section 2 above, with the added problem that if the asphalt is too hot it can melt the plastic protective coating on the loop wire. Since the thickness of the top course is the only protection for the loop wire, as the pavement wears under heavy traffic usage, this protective thickness is reduced, and the wires can become damaged. Concrete Pavement: Loop detector sensor units are saw cut into the pavement to a depth of 50 mm to 90 mm (2 to 3.5 inches), depending upon the number of turns per loop detector sensing unit. The loop wires should be placed at least 40 to 50 mm (1.5 to 2 inches) below the surface of the pavement. At concrete joints and cracks the loop wire shall be placed in a plastic sleeve with slack in the wire (see Figure 15).

If plastic sleeves are not used, the loop wire will snap (break) during cold weather as the concrete shrinks, and in hot weather the joints will
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VEHICLE DETECTORS compress and the sharp edges could cut the loop wire. Remember that loop wire must be a continuous run without splices from the pull box to the loop detector sensing unit and back to the pull box. Once the loop wire is cut or broken, the entire loop detector sensing unit must be replaced in its entirety. The cost of installing a loop detector sensing unit ranges from $2,000 to $6,000 per unit. Concrete with Asphaltic Pavement Overlay: Loop detector sensing units are the same as mentioned above. Metal objects within the detection zone: Metal objects within an approach lane shall be avoided because they will have a direct influence upon the inductance field. The loop detectors are split in two to avoid a manhole cover. If the manhole cover is along the edge of the loop detector, it should be directed around the manhole cover by at least 300 mm (1 ft.) (see Figure 16). Small water or gas boxes will not have an influence upon the detection area as long as they are located near the center of the loop. Thickness of Pavement: The thickness of the pavement also has an affect on the life of loop detector sensing units. The minimum thickness of the pavement should be at least 200 mm (8 inches) to provide proper clearance between the wearing surface and the subbase. Water seeping into the saw cut, from either the surface or subbase, can cause the pavement to develop potholes along the loop saw cuts. Placing the loop wire in the middle of the pavement increases the life of the pavement and the loop sensor units. The majority of loop failures occur in private driveways where the combined pavement thickness ranges from 50 mm to 90 mm (2 to 3.5 inches). For driveways exiting at a traffic signal, the total pavement thickness should be the same as the intersecting roadway, or 200 mm (8 inches) for a distance of at least 30 m (100 feet) from the extended curb or edge of shoulder. Saw Cutting Detector Loops: Loop detector saw cut slot shall be installed without any sharp edges or corners so that the inductance wire plastic coating will not be nicked or cut

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VEHICLE DETECTORS causing the wire to be grounded. The corners shall be cut at an angle or a hole drilled at each corner (see Figure 16).

CORNER CUTS SAW CUT SLOTS Manhole Cover

FIGURE 16 CORNER SLOT TREATMENT

DETECTION DESIGN AND OPERATIONS:

The operation of a traffic signal depends upon the placement of the loop detector (detector sensing units). Each type of loop detector is designed to fulfill a specific function, and their installation can determine the efficiency of the traffic signal operation. The placement of the loop detector within the lane of travel and the control setting of the amplifier can determine the response time of the traffic signal timing module. The loop detector only senses the presence or passing of a vehicle, and this information is transmitted to the amplifier to determine the Green interval timing for that particular phase. Amplifier and timing modular settings are used to determine the length of Green time for each phase, which will be discussed in detail in a future course. The present course will discuss the type, size, and location of a loop detector, which can be used to obtain the desired results using traffic patterns, calling, and presence detection.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Traffic Patterns: The size and shape of each loop detection and the configuration of the detection area depends upon the traffic patterns that exist or are proposed for the intersection. The detection required at an isolated intersection differs from that of an intersection located within an arterial system. To design the type of detection system desired, the following traffic patterns should be determined:
{

Uniform Traffic Patterns - Vehicle traffic is uniform throughout the day (i.e. CBD traffic patterns). Directional Traffic Patterns - Vehicle traffic is highly directional during peak highway hours (i.e. commuter traffic, inbound and outbound flow). Off Peak Traffic Patterns - Vehicle traffic is balanced on all approaches during non peak highway hours (i.e. shopping traffic, noontime traffic, night time traffic). Event Traffic Patterns - Vehicle traffic is highly directional to and from special events (i.e. sporting complex, holiday events). A combination of all of the above traffic patterns.

The most common type of detection systems currently in use are the calling and presence detection sensor units.

CALLING DETECTION:
Calling detectors (Calling Detectors Sensing Units) [overhead or within the pavement] are placed back from an intersection to detect vehicles as they approach the intersection. The distance from the Stop Line varies according to the posted speed limit of the roadway and the physical features of the adjacent properties. Calling loop detectors are used in the Speed Extension Calling Detection System, the Vehicle Calling Detection System, and the Volume Density Detection System.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS Speed Extension Calling Detection System: The location of the Extension Calling Detector is determined by the Dilemma Zone. Dilemma Zone Method: The Dilemma Zone Method is used to determine the distance required for a vehicle to stop safely before reaching the Stop Line, without coming to a skid stop, when a vehicle passes over the calling detector. To determine the minimum distance to place the calling detector from the Stop Line, use the equation for the Safe Stopping Distance on wet pavement12. The Safe Stopping Distance is based on the Reaction Time of the driver (usually about 2.5 seconds for design)13, plus the actual Skid Stopping Distance to a stop.

D = Vt + V2/(30(f ! g))
D = Distance (feet or meters). V = Velocity (feet per sec. or meters per sec.) T = Time (seconds). Vt = Vehicle speed x time [includes perception to reaction time]. f = coefficient of friction for wet pavement14. g = percent of grade divide by 100 [added for upgrade and subtracted for down grade]. If using the English system with MPH the formula is:

D = 1.47Vt + V2/(30(f ! g))

If using the Metric system with KPH the formula is:

D = 0.278Vt + V2/(255(f ! g))

12 13

ITE Transportation And Traffic Engineering Handbook 1976, page 611. AASHTO 1965 & 1984, Reaction Time from varies from 0.64 to 1.7 seconds. 14 AASHTO 1965 & 1984, f = friction factor of the roadway on wet pavement (0.4 to 0.29); g = grade of roadway to Stop Line.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS The computed minimum distance that calling detector sensing units should be placed back from the Stop Line at various speeds when f = 0.29, g = 0, and t = 2.5 seconds are: At 55 mph (88 kph) the distance would be 550 feet, use 550 feet. At 40 mph (64 kph) the distance would be 331 feet, use 330 feet. At 30 mph (48 kph) the distance would be 214 feet, use 210 feet. At 90 kph (56 mph) the distance would be 172 m, use 170 m. At 80 kph (50 mph) the distance would be 142 m, use 140 m. At 50 kph (31 mph) the distance would be 69 m, use 70 m. Therefore, the calling detector should be placed between 70 m (210 feet) and 170 m (550 feet) behind the Stop Line, depending upon the posted speed of the roadway. Vehicle Calling Detection System: Vehicle calling detectors are used in urban areas or where there are on-street parking and driveways near the intersecting roadway. Vehicle extension calling detection sensor units are placed between 6 and 15 m (20 and 50 feet) behind the Stop Line just to call that particular phase. The controller has preset timings that determine the length of time that the Green indication shall remain lit, which is based upon the actuation of each vehicle passing over the calling detector. Usually there is a Green indication of 10 seconds, with the time being extended from 2 to 5 seconds depending upon the distance of the vehicle calling detector from the Stop Line and the average spacing between vehicles. The vehicle calling detectors should always be installed to include the driveway and on-street parking closest to the intersection. Common Types of Calling Detectors: Common types of calling detector units are inductive loops, magnetic, radar, microwave, and ultrasonic, and their installations are explained in the definition section of this course. Inductive loop detector sensor units (loop detectors) are custom designed for each location, and are placed perpendicular to the lane of travel. The length of a loop detector is 1.8 m (6 feet) and the width varies according to the approach width. The width of the calling loop detector extends from 1
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VEHICLE DETECTORS m (3 feet) from the curb or shoulder to 1 m (3 feet) from the center line of the roadway. On a multi-lane approach 1.8 x 1.8 m (6 x 6 feet) calling loop detectors can be installed in the center of each travel lane (see Figure 17).

Calling Detectors Distance from Stop Line

Driveway

Extra Detection
Calling Detectors or Presense Detectors

Exit Detector

CALLING DETECTION

VOLUMUE DENSITY DETECTION

FIGURE 17 CALLING DETECTION

Volume Density Detection System: The Volume Density Detection System uses calling loop detectors, and their locations are determined by the Dilemma Zone Method on the approaches to the intersection. Exit loop detectors are placed ahead of the Stop Line to terminate the vehicle call when the last vehicle has passed the Stop Line. This extra loop detector will terminate the Green indication after a vehicle passes over it if it does not receive a call from the first loop detector. If only the extra loop detector receives a call, it will send a signal to the controller that this phase has detected a vehicle. The Volume-Density Controller will adjust the Green indication for the Initial Minimum Green, and the Passage Time for each vehicle actuating the calling loop detector. The timing operation will be discussed in detail in a future course. In areas where there are driveways and/or parking is permitted between the Stop Line and the
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VEHICLE DETECTORS detector sensing units, an extra calling detector or loop detectors should be installed between 1.5 to 6.0 m (5 to 20 feet) before the Stop Line (see Figure 17). PRESENCE DETECTION: Presence detection is custom designed for each approach to an intersection, and consists of determining the Detection Area and the different types of inductance loop detectors to be installed within the detection area. Detection Area: Presence detection areas are installed to detect the presence of vehicles using the approach lanes and/or the approach roadway. The detection area usually extends from about 3 m (10 feet) from the adjacent travel way to about 18.3 to 36.6 m (60 to 120 feet) past the Stop Line. The detection area is centered in the travel lane or in the approach roadway, with a clear area of 0.91 m (3 feet) from adjacent travel lanes and opposing traffic lanes. Once the Detector Area has been determined, presence detection areas are designed to provide for continuous vehicle detection from the beginning to the end of the detection area. The type, size, and number of inductance loop detectors to be used in the Detection Area depends upon the requirements and design standards of the local governmental agency having jurisdiction over that particular section of roadway (see Figure 18).

FIGURE 18 DETECTION AREAS

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Left Turning Lanes: For left turn lanes, the detection area begins about 6 m (20 feet) in front of the Stop Line. It can extend to 24 m (80 feet) behind the Stop Line. The detection area can cover each individual left turn lane or include all the left turning lanes on that particular approach. Thru Traffic on Main Roadway: If a detection area is required for thru traffic on the main roadway, the thru lanes are covered from at least 3 m (10 feet) behind the Stop Line to approximately 24 m (80 feet) behind the Stop Line. Side Street: For side street approaches, the entire approach width of the roadway shall be within the Detection Area, starting at least 3 m (10 feet) from the intersecting travel lane to approximately 24 m (80 feet) behind the Stop Line. Right and Left turning movements must be included in the Detection Area. Right Turn Lanes: Right turn lanes may be included in a detection area or they may have their own detection area. If the right turning movement can proceed on a Right Turn On Red signal, the detection area is extended to the intersecting travel lane. The detector amplifier would then have a time delay feature to permit the vehicle to make the right turn before sending a call to the controller unit, reducing false calls. The design for the separate right turn lane detection area would be the same as for the separate left turn lane. Left Turn and Thru Lanes: Many approach roadways have the left turn lane and thru lane sharing the same lane of traffic. The left turn detection area should be the same as that for a separate left turn. To accommodate the left turning movement, the left turn detection area would detect a waiting vehicle
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VEHICLE DETECTORS and place a call to the controller servicing the vehicle(s) waiting to make a left turn.

INDUCTANCE LOOPS:
The actual inductance loop (presence) detector design varies from State to State. The following section will describe the different types of designs as they are used by various States and governmental agencies. These loop detectors vary from very large loops extending 37 m (120 feet) in length to a series of small loops of 1.8 x 1.8 m (6 x 6 feet). Small area loop detectors occur in the following configurations: square; parallelograms; round; and diamond. Large area loop detectors are rectangular in shape, but the design can vary from a simple loop to a Quadrupole Loop, with or without a buster loop at the head of the detection area to pick up bicycles and other small vehicles. The following section will discuss the pros and cons of each type of loop detector sensor unit design configuration: Extra Long Loop Detectors: The extra long loop detectors can vary between 24 and 37 m (80 feet and 120 feet) in length, and are designed to detect large spaces or gaps between vehicles approaching an intersection. The signal timing is extended by each succeeding vehicle's actuation, ranging from 0.25 to 1 seconds. Under vehicle presence mode, the phase Green Interval will terminate as soon as the last vehicle leaves the detection area, and after completing the initial Green Interval timing. The extra long loop detectors will hold the actuation for each vehicle while a vehicle is in the detection area, providing that the vehicle gaps do not exceed the length of the detection area. Loop detectors placed in concrete pavement, across expansion joints, construction joints, or through asphalt concrete shoulders, can break due to expansion and contraction of the pavement. If an extra long detector sensor unit is cut or broken, the entire detection area is lost, and the controller shall be placed on recall until the loop detector is replaced.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS The cost of installing a new extra long loop detector ranges between $50 and $60 per linear meter15. The loop detector requires saw cutting the pavement plus placing the inductance wire into the slot. The inductance wire has to start at the junction box, be placed in the saw cut, and go back to the junction box without a splice. Approximately 91 m (300 feet) of saw cutting and wire is required, and the current approximate cost is in the range of $4,500 to $5,500 per loop16 ((see Figure 19).

37 M

Inductance wire in Saw Cut

1.8 M

Saw Cut
1.8 M

Inductance Loop

2.4 to 3 M Saw Cut

6 M to 18 M

Inductance Wire

EXTRA LONG DETECTOR LOOP

LONG DETECTOR LOOPS

FIGURE 19 LOOP DETECTORS

Long Loop Detectors: Long loop detectors can range between 6 m (20 feet) to 18 m (60 feet) in length. They are placed one behind the other to cover the detection area, spaced at 2.4 to 3 m (8 to 10 feet) apart (see Figure 19). These long loop detectors are designed for an average queue length of five (5) or more vehicles per cycle, or over 180 vehicles per hour per lane (vphpl) 17. Long loop detectors are used for both high and low traffic volume roadways
15

Based on 2005 cost of installation which includes: saw cutting, loop wire, connecting to the splice box. 16 2006 prices. 17 Based on 36 cycles in a 100 second cycle length.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS that have large gaps or spaces between vehicles. If the gaps in traffic are greater than the length of the detection area, then the gap timing would be greater than 1 or 2 seconds, depending on the speed of the vehicles. Since long loop detectors perform the same function as extra long loop detectors in detecting vehicle movements with large gaps, the major advantage of the shorter loop detectors are that if one is cut or broken then the others are still in working condition. Extension timing may have to be increased by 0.5 second or more to cover the loss of a detector sensor unit. A common application for long loop detectors are to use them in shorter detection areas, extending back from the Stop Line between 18 and 24 m (60 and 80 feet). Shorter detection areas are used for left turn lanes and side streets. For left turn lanes the detection area would start about 6 m (20 feet) before the Stop Line and extend to 21 m (70 feet) behind the Stop Line, with a total detection area of 27 m (90 feet). Using two 12 m (40 foot) long loop detectors, with 3 m (10 foot) spacing, they would provide a total detection area of 27 m (90 feet) per lane (see Figure 19). The current cost of installing one 12 m (40 foot) long loop detector with a linear distance of 38 m (125 feet) would range between $1,900 and $2,300 per loop detector18. In extra long detection areas, three long loop detectors can be used, with all three being connected in parallel to one detector amplifier channel. Note that all loop detectors should be connected in parallel and not in series in case one unit is cut or broken. Short Loop Detectors: Short loop detectors can range in length from between 1.8 to 6 m (6 feet to 20 feet) and are placed 0 to 3 m (0 to 10 feet) behind the Stop Line (see Figure 20). These shorter loop detectors are designed to detect vehicles during light traffic conditions with short queues. The current cost of installing one 6 m (20 foot) long loop detection, 24 m (80 feet), is about $2,000 per detector loop19. The cost of a short loop detector is higher because of the increased number of linear feet of
18 19

2006 prices. 2006 prices

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VEHICLE DETECTORS inductance wire required, the number of turns required to sense a vehicle, the labor involved in installing the wire, and the additional depth of the saw cut trench for that wire. Shorter loop detectors should be located to detect at least two vehicles in a queue. The cost of installation varies according to the number of loop detectors being installed at one location.
1.8 M X 1.8 M DETECTION AREA (1.8 M X 16.5 M)

3M

1.8 M X 3.0 M

DETECTION AREA (1.8 M X 15.3 M)

3M

FIGURE 20 SHORT LOOP DETECTORS High Flux Detectors: All the above loop detectors are designed to detect normal vehicles, but in many locations the amplifier's sensitivity is set too low to detect bicycles, motorcycles, or high body trucks. If the amplifiers sensitivity is set to high, it could create cross talk or the detecting of vehicles in the adjacent lane. To resolve this type of problem, a High flux inductance loop is installed. The Quadrupole and the Buster Detector type of loop detectors are used to increase the flux of the detector loop. Quadrupole Loop Detectors: The Quadrupole Loop was designed as a small vehicle detection sensor unit, and also to reduce false calls from adjacent lanes of travel. Each Quadrupole Loop has an extra saw cut down the middle of the loop detector sensing unit to intensify the inductance or flux in the center of the lane (see Figure 21). Quadrupole Loops of 6 to 12 m (20
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VEHICLE DETECTORS to 40 feet) in length can be used independently in short or long detection areas, or at the Stop Line in a larger detection area. The cost is one of its drawbacks, i.e., in a 12 m (40 foot) long loop the total saw cut would be 49 m (160 feet) [3 x 12 m + 12 m (3 x 40+40) + lead to splice box]. The cost would range between $3,000 and $4,000 per detector loop20.
Quadrupole Loop

SAW CUT INDUCTANCE WIRE

FIGURE 21 QUADRUPOLE LOOP DETECTORS Buster Detectors: Buster detectors are used in front of a Large Detection Area, and they are connected in series to the larger loop detector. The buster detector is shaped in a 1.8 x 1.8 m (6 x 6 foot) square. The loop wire is placed in one continuous run around the larger loop and then in the smaller loop, with up to 6 additional turns. The small loop detector has a higher inductance and larger flux lines (see Figure 22).
20

2006 prices.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS

FIGURE 22 BUSTER LOOPS

Small Loop Detectors: Small loop detectors are used by many jurisdictions in Large Detection Areas, with varying designs and configurations. Small loop detectors use the following configuration to reduce dead spots within the loop detector area: a 1.8 x 1.8 m (6 x 6 foot) square; a 1.8 m (6 foot) diameter loop; a 1000 mm (40 inch) diameter loop in a precast concrete slab 21 [used in Puerto Rico]; and a diamond shape 1.8 m (6 feet) in width and 1.8 m (6 feet) in length. A number of these types of short loop detectors are placed at specific intervals within the Detection Area. The square, parallelogram, round, and diamond shape loop detector sensing units are placed in the travel lane's Detection Area at a spacing which varies from States to State (see Figure 23).

21

Traffic Detector Handbook, Second Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers, page 135.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Square

Rectangle

Diamonds

Hexagon

Octagon

Circle

Chevron

Modified Chevron

Quadrupole

Triangle

Parallelogram or Skewed

FIGURE 23 SMALL LOOP SHAPES

Source: ITE Detector Handbook

Rectangular and diamond shape detector loops are also used separately and together where the Detection Area covers more than one lane of travel, as shown in the following two New Jersey Department of Transportation Standard Detail Sheets (see Figures 24 & 25).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

Detector Loop Wires:

To obtain the desired inductance or flux in each loop detector, the wire size and number of turns have to be determined. Different jurisdictions have pre-designed the number of turns for each loop detector determined by the size and use of the loop detector. Some jurisdictions require that each Detection Area be computed and the calculations accompany the signal plans during the review process. The following example shows the effects of variations by State on the design of the loop detector sensor units: New York State DOT: Long loop detectors are normally used in New York State, and they are required only on State highways. Local jurisdictions have the choice of using the NYS DOT standard design or their own design. Table 1 shows a standard 1.8 m (6 foot) wide loop with varying lengths, number of turns per loop size, and depth of saw cut required. The Detection Area can be comprised of a number of long detector loops in one lane, connected to a single amplifier channel.
TABLE 1 NYSDOT LOOP WIRING TABLE
LOOP One NUMBER DEPTH OF LENGTH HOW WIRED OF TURNS SAW CUT 1.8 m to 1.8 m (6' to 6') ONE LOOP - ONE AMPLIFIER CHANNEL 5 76 mm (3") 1.8 m to 3.0 m (6' to 10') Wired to a Single Amplifier Channel 4 70 mm (2-3/4") 3.6 m to 6.1 m (12' to 20') 3 64 mm (2-1/2") 6.7 m to 24.4 m (22' to 80') 2 57 mm (2-1/4") 27.4 m to 36.6 m (90' to 120') 1 57 mm (2-1/4") 1.8 m to 1.8 m (6' to 6') TWO LOOPS - ONE AMPLIFIER CHANNEL 3.6 m to 6.1 m (12' to 20') Parallel Wired to a Single Amplifier Channel 6.7 m to 15.4 m (22' to 50') 16.8 m to 36.6 m (55' to 120') 1.8 m to 1.8 m (6' to 6') THREE LOOPS - ONE AMPLIFIER CHANNEL 3.6 m to 6.1 m (12' to 20') Parallel Wired to a Single Amplifier Channel 6.7 m to 10.7 m (22' to 35') 12.2 m to 24.4 m (40' to 80') 27.4 m to 36.6 m (90' to 120') 5 4 3 2 6 5 4 3 2 76 mm (3") 70 mm (2-3/4") 64 mm (2-1/2") 57 mm (2-1/4") 83 mm (3-1/4") 70 mm (2-3/4") 64 mm (2-1/2") 57 mm (2-1/4") 57 mm (2-1/4")

Two

Three

ALL LOOPS SHALL BE CENTERED IN LANE, 1.8 m (6 feet) WIDE, BY THE LENGTH SHOWN Source: NYS DOT Course #5010 Page 38 of 47

VEHICLE DETECTORS NYS DOT uses three types of methods to bring the inductance loop wire to the junction box located behind the curb line or on the grass shoulder. The first is to bring a liquid tight conduit from the pavement to the junction box (see Figure 26).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS The second type is to use aluminum splice boxes to connect the loop inductance wire to the Lead-In-Cable. An aluminum splice box is placed in the center of the lane between the two detector sensing units. The Lead-In-Cable is then pulled through a conduit to a splice box located on the shoulder of the road, and thence to the controller cabinet (Figure 27).

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VEHICLE DETECTORS New Jersey State DOT: NJ DOT requires two drawings for each traffic signal intersection. One shows signal configuration, signing, and detection areas. The second drawing requires detailed electrical wiring diagrams, signal hardware for both above and below ground, phasing, signal layout, and signal configuration. The second plan must contain the actual design and layout of each loop detector, which must conform to the detection area on the first drawing. Table 2 shows the standard design of the loop detectors and Figures 24 & 25 show the loop detector placement within the detection area. NJDOT may have changed the way they compute the detector units.
TABLE 2 NJDOT APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF TURNS FOR DIAMOND LOOPS RECTANGULAR LOOPS
1.8 m x 1.8 m (6' x 6') - 7 Turns 1.8 m x 2.4 m (6' x 8') - 6 Turns 1.8 m x 3.0 m (6' x 10') - 6 Turns 1.8 m x 3.7 m (6' x 12') - 6 Turns 1.8 m x 4.3 m (6' x 14') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 4.9 m (6' x 16') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 5.5 m (6' x 18') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 6.1 m (6' x 20') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 1.8 m (6' x 6') - 6 Turns 1.8 m x 2.4 m (6' x 8') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 3.0 m (6' x 10') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 3.7 m (6' x 12') - 5 Turns 1.8 m x 4.3 m (6' x 14') - 4 Turns 1.8 m x 4.3 m (6' x 16') - 4 Turns 1.8 m x 5.5 m (6' x 18') - 4 Turns 1.8 m x 6.1 m (6' x 20') - 4 Turns

Notes: Depth of saw cut trench shall be a minimum of 38 mm (1.5 inches) below top course of pavement or of sufficient size to accommodate the number of conductors. "Diamond" Loops are based on Rectangle measurements given in the loop detection schedule on plan sheets for each location. Source: NJ DOT Bureau of Electrical Engineering, Standard Detail Sheet #T-2090.

Commonwealth of Massachusetts DOT: MA DOT requires the use of only 1.8 m x 1.8 m (6 ft x 6 ft) loop detectors, 3 turns, with 2 m (10 foot) spacing between each loop detector within the presence detection area. The signal plan requires a detector schedule list, which contains the following items: Detector Number; Size; Number of Turns; Phase Number; Type of Operations (Presence or Calling); and Time Delay setting, as shown in Table 3.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

TABLE 3 MA DOT DETECTOR SCHEDULE

DETECTOR NO 1A, 1C 1B, 1D 2A, 2B 4A, 4C 4B, 4D 5A, 5C 5B, 5D 3A, 3B, 3C 6A, 6B SIZE 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 6 # OF TURNS 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 PHASE 1 1 2 4 4 5 5 3 6 OPERATIONS Presence Presence Calling Presence Presence Presence Presence Presence Calling DELAY TIME N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 7 sec. 7 sec. 7 sec. N/A

MA DOT also requires an attached work sheet that determines the total inductance for each detector amplifier channel using the following formulas 22: Loop Lead-In-Cable: LLIC = ILoop + Dist. LIC *LI /100 LLIC = Induction in Lead-In-Cable Iloop = Inductance of Loop [i.e. 1.8 m x 1.8 m (6' x 6') = 74uh] Dist.LIC = Distance of Lead-In-Cable from Loop to controller LI/100 = Inductance of Lead-In-Cable = 22uh/100 feet (30 m) Single Loop Connection: For a single loop connection with a 1.8 m x 1.8 m (6' x 6') loop and a Lead-In-Cable of 60 m (200 feet), the inductance would be: LLIC = 74uh + 200 x (22uh/100) = 74uh + 44uh = 118uh Three Loops in a Series Connection: LL = L1 + L2 +Ln + LLIC For 3 loops in a series LL = 74uh + 74uh + 74uh = 222uh Total Inductance = LT = LL + LLIC = 44uh + 222uh = 266uh Three Loops in a Parallel Connection: LT = LL + LLIC
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 L L = L 1 + L 2 + LN = 74 + 74 + 74 = 74

3LL = 74; LL = 25uh LT = 25uh + 44uh = 69uh

22

ITE, Traffic Detector Handbook, Second Edition, pages 15 & 16.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS NEMA STANDARDS: The National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA) specifies an inductance range of 50 to 700uh for each detector loop with each Lead-In-Cable. MA DOT requires a separate 500 volts DC resistance test for each detector loop and for each Lead-In-Cable, with a resistance of at least 100 mega-ohms. In addition, MA DOT requires a maximum of 3 ohms per 305 m (1000 feet) for the entire connection at the terminal board in the controller cabinet. In designing a Detection Area and its loop detectors, one should consult the location jurisdiction to determine its design requirements.

CURB AND SHOULDER INSTALLATION:

Each loop detector must be connected to the Lead-In-Cable within the splice box adjacent to the travel lane. This is accomplished by providing a saw cut trench from the loop sensing unit to a liquid-tight flexible plastic conduit which leads into the nearest splice box. The path of the loop wire is from the splice box to the connecting saw cut trench, which leads to the loop detector saw cut trench, around the loop detector saw cut a number of times, and then back into the connecting saw cut leading to the splice box, continuously without a splice. The splice box entrance is located between 460 and 610 mm (18 and 24 inches) below the ground. A 25.4 mm (1 inch) liquid-tight flexible conduit is placed between the splice box and the connecting saw cut trench. A square is saw cut near the edge of pavement to provide an entrance way for the loop wire to be pulled into the conduit, which is then sealed with epoxy. The flexible liquid-tight conduit is placed in a hole about 38 mm (1.5 inches) in diameter drilled through the pavement. If a curb is adjacent to the travel lane, the conduit is placed under the curb section (see Figure 26). If there is no curb, then a hole is drilled through the pavement into the subbase to the splice box.

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VEHICLE DETECTORS

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VEHICLE DETECTORS Each loop wire lead must be twisted around itself to reduce cross talk between adjacent loop wires. The inductance loop has to be twisted 16 turns per meter (5 turns per foot) (see Figures 28). When using a number of small loop detectors in a single lane detection area, the loop wires can be connected in parallel or they can be connected in series (see Figure 29). The inductance loops can be connected to the Lead-In Cable in a number of different locations:
1. at the edge of the travel way, 2. in the splice box, or 3. in the controller cabinet.

At the Edge of the Travel Way: All loop wires are spliced together at the beginning of the liquid-tight conduit to a single Shielded-Lead-In-Cable (see Figure 28), and then sealed with exopy. This presents problems when one detector loop fails or is cut. Because all the wire connections are sealed together with exopy into one block, every loop detector sensing unit then has to be replaced. In the Splice Box: Each set of inductance loop wires are drawn through the liquid-tight conduit and then connected to the Shielded-Loop-In-Cable within the Junction Box. Starting at the liquid-tight conduit, each pair of inductance loop wires is twisted around itself, at a rate of 16 turns per meter (5 turns per foot), to reduce cross talk from other wires in the same conduit. A separate liquid-tight conduit can be used and placed at a distance from one another, to provide for easier future maintenance in case one inductance loop wire fails or is cut. In the Controller Cabinet: Each pair of twisted inductance loop wires are connected directly to the controller cabinet. The preferred method is to provide a separate
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VEHICLE DETECTORS Shielded-Loop-In-Cable from each loop detector to the controller cabinet. This presents problems because of the limited capacity of each conduit, thus requiring additional conduit, and increasing the total cost of the project. Replacement of the Shielded-Loop-In-Cable in a conduit reduces future maintenance costs.

TIMINGS FOR DELAY DETECTORS:

Many lane detector amplifiers are equipped with a time delay feature. A time delay circuit is used to delay the signal from being transmitted to the controller. The time delay feature requires that a vehicle must remain within the detection area or over a particular detector loop for a preset period of time upon actuation, after which a signal is sent from the amplifier to the controller showing that a vehicle is being detected. Time Delay Amplifiers are used in three types of detection areas: Queuing Detection Areas, Right Turn On Red Movement Detection Areas, and Left Turn Movement Detection Areas. Queuing Detection Areas: The queuing detection areas are located back from the intersection to detect the length of queue from the Stop Line. The time delay feature is used to detect a vehicle standing within the detection area for a preset period of time, usually 2 to 3 cycle lengths or 1 to 3 minutes. This type of queuing detector is used on exit ramps which have a very heavy traffic volume during certain shopping or peak highway hours. Its main objective is to reduce traffic backup, and/or to prevent blocking a lane of traffic on an expressway or parkway. Another place that this type of queuing detector is used is at the exit ramps from stadiums or convention centers. Right Turn On Red Movement Detection Areas: On side streets where Right Turns On Red are permitted, a time delay detector amplifier would be useful, since it can delay the detection call from 5 to 30 seconds. This permits vehicles to make the Right Turn On Red without forcing the traffic signal to change phases. A time delay added to the presence detection for a right lane control will reduce the number of side street calls, especially during off peak hours.
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VEHICLE DETECTORS Left Turn Movement Detection Areas: Time delay detector units are used in left turn lanes when the protected left turn movement follows the through movement phases, which is known as a Lagging Green Phase. The left turn detection area usually extends into the intersection, and the time delay is used to permit vehicles to make a left turn under the permissive Green phase (Green Ball Indication) before registering the call with the controller. It should be noted that the time delay can be either in the detector amplifier or it can be part of the microcomputer controller, depending on manufacturer. The use of vehicle detection units at a intersection are essential for the safe and efficient operation of a traffic signal. There are a variety of such units, and their type, placement, and size is based upon the standards promulgated by the States and local agencies having jurisdiction.

END

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