Unit 1: DC Circuits

Summary and Learning Outcomes

This unit should remind you of some of the basic principles of electricity and electronics that you met in your pre-university education. After completing this unit you should be able to: Calculate the equivalent resistance of a DC circuit and determine the power and energy dissipation. Compute changes in strain and temperature from measurements taken with a Wheatstone Bridge. Calculate the energy stored in inductors and capacitors. Contents 1.1 Resistive Circuits 1.2 Kirchoffs Laws 1.3 Circuit Analysis 1.4 Power and Energy Dissipation 1.5 Bridge Measurements 1.6 Inductance 1.7 Capacitance 1.8 Problems

1.1

Resistive Circuits

1.1.1 Ohms Law

Fig 1.1.1

V = IR
Conductor resistance =
resistivity x conductorl ength conductor area

(1.1.1a)

R=

l
A

(1.1.1b)

1.1.2 Series Circuits

Fig 1.1.2

V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3 V = V1 + V2 + V3 V = I (R1 + R2 + R3 ) Total resistance, Req = V = R1 + R2 + R3 I (1.1.2)

1.1.3 Parallel Circuits

Fig 1.1.3a

I1 =

V R1

I2 =

V R2

I3 =

V R3

I = I1 + I 2 + I 3

 1 1 1 I =V + R R + R 2 3 1 Total Resistance, Req =

1 1 1 1 = + + Req R1 R2 R3

V I (1.1.3a)

Note V = I 1 R1 = I 2 R2 = I 3 R3

(1.1.3b)

1.1.4 Series / Parallel Circuits

The resistance may be calculated by systematic reduction of the network

Fig 1.1.3b

1.

Replace parallel section of R3 and R4 by equivalent resistance R6

Fig 1.1.3c

Where

1 1 1 = + R6 R3 R4

R6 =

R3 R4 R3 + R4

2.

Replace resistors in series R5 and R6 with equivalent resistance.

Try to complete the process and prove that Total resistance = R1 +

R2 (R5 + R6 ) R2 + (R5 + R6 )

1.2

Kirchoffs Laws

1.2.1 Kirchhoffs Current Law

The algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a node (junction) is zero

i = 0
1.2.2 Kirchhoffs Voltage law
The algebraic sum of potential differences (voltages) around a closed loop is zero

v = 0
1.3 Circuit Analysis

The current flow and voltage distribution in any electrical or electronic circuit may be determined using either Mesh Analysis or Nodal Analysis. Although it is not essential for you to know these methods for this module you might find them useful if you take optional modules in electricity and electronics. The two techniques are explained on the Module Web site in Appendix A1.3

1.4

Power and Energy Dissipation

In a d.c. resistive circuit Power = Voltage Current

P = VI watts

(1.4.1) (1.4.2)

Power dissipated in a resistor = I 2 R watts

Energy = Power time

W = Pt joules

(1.4.3)

1.5

Bridge Measurements

1.5.1 Wheatstone Bridge

Fig 1.5.1

When the bridge is balanced, no current flows through the voltmeter, the voltages of nodes and are equal. R A RB = (1.5.1) RC RD

1.5.2 Strain and Temperature Measurement

To measure strain the resistor RB would be replaced by a strain gauge. To monitor temperature it would be changed for a thermistor. Before measurements begin RD would be adjusted to balance the bridge. As the tests start the resistance of the strain gauge (or thermistor) begin to change, unbalancing the bridge and creating a voltage difference between nodes and . If RB is the change in resistance then Voltmeter reading =
V RB 4 RB

(1.5.2)

This equation is derived on the web site in Appendix A1.5

for strain measurements:

Change in strain gauge resistance . RB = strain, strain gauge factor, G = Unstrained resistance of strain gauge RB
R B = G RB

Substitution for

R B in equation 1.5.2 RB

voltmeter reading, v =
4v 1 V G

V G 4

strain, =

(1.5.3)

similarly, for temperature measurements:

Change in the thermistor resistance . R B = = Thermistor resistance at base temperature RB
R B = RB

Temperature Temperature Coefficient Change

Substitution in equation 1.5.2 voltmeter reading, v =

V 4
4v 1 V (1.5.4)

temperature change, =

1.5.3 Compensation Techniques

Changes in resistance might be very small (eg for a bonded foil strain gauge 0.25m per microstrain). To minimise errors due to changes in ambient conditions compensation techniques can be used. For example a strain gauge which is sensitive to thermal changes would be compensated by incorporating in the bridge circuit an unstrained dummy gauge which is subjected to the same temperature variations as the measuring device.

Fig 1.5.3

1.5.4 Two active gauges

Sensitivity can be increased by using two active gauges as in the example of strain measurements on a cantilever

Gauge 1

Force

Gauge 2

Fig 1.5.4

1.6

Inductance

Fig 1.6

A coil of N turns is wrapped around a toroid. When a current i flows in the coil a magnetomotive force (mmf) equal to iN ampere-turns* is produced, establishing a magnetic flux . *Strictly magnetomotive force has the units of amperes (as turns have no units), however, as the magnitude of the flux is dependent on the (current number of turns) it is often easier to consider the units of mmf to be ampere-turns. By analogy with Ohms Law [V = IR ] for resistive circuits mmf = flux reluctance
iN = S

(1.6.1)

1.6.1 Faradays Law

Faradays Law, which is one of the most fundamental laws of electromagnetic systems, states that the

voltage induced in a circuit = rate of change of magnetic flux linkage

written mathematically,
e=N d dt d iN dt S

(1.6.2)

e=N

e=

N 2 di S dt
N2 equals the inductance, L, of the coil in henries S

where

e=L

di dt

(1.6.3)

1.6.2 Energy stored in an inductor

Fig 1.6.2

When the switch is closed current starts to flow in the inductor establishing a voltage, e, across the coil which opposes the current. Instantaneous power = instantaneous voltage instantaneous current

p = ei = L

di i dt
di i dt dt = Li di

Energy supplied in dt = L

Total energy supplied = =

Li di
0

1 2 LI joules 2

(1.6.4)

We will examine inductive circuits more comprehensively in Unit 6 Electromagnetism.

1.7

Capacitance

1.7.1 The capacitor

Fig 1.7

When a voltage, V is applied to the plates they will eventually became charged at equal magnitude |Q|, but with opposite sign, such that total charge, Q = CV where C = capacitance in Farads. and C = (1.7.1)

A
l

= electrostatic field characteristic known as the permittivity.

For free space (or vacuum):

= 0 which has a value

10 9 = 8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1 36

for other dielectric materials:

= r 0
where r = relative permittivity Values of r for the more common dielectrics are Air Paper Porcelain Mica 1 2 6 3

2.5 7 7

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1.7.2 Energy Stored in a capacitor

Fig 1.7.2

Assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged. When the switch is closed a current will flow until the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the voltage source. The charging process consists of transferring electrons from the upper plate through the external wiring to the lower plate, leaving a positive charge on the upper plate and a negative charge on the lower one. Instantaneous current, i =
i=C dv dt

dq dt
(1.7.2)

where v = instantaneous voltage instantaneous power = instantaneous voltage instantaneous current p = iv dv p=C v dt Energy supplied in dt = p dt dv = vC dt dt = vCdv

Total energy supplied = Cv dv

0

1 = CV 2 joules 2

(1.7.3)

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Problem Sheet 1
Q1.1. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Fig Q1.1 and hence find the current and power supplied by the battery. (Answer: 10mA 0.2W)
R1 = 800 R4 = 250 R6 = 1000 R3 = 1500 R2 = 600 R5 = 750

I 20V

R7 = 500

Figure Q1.1

Q1.2. A strain bridge comprises two 150 resistors, one active gauge and one unstrained gauge for temperature compensation. The two gauges have unstrained resistances of 150 and a strain gauge factor of 2.5. The bridge supply voltage is 5V. Calculate the strain when the voltmeter reading is 2mV. (Answer: = 640 microstrain) Q1.3. A toroid wound with a coil of 400 turns has a reluctance of 500 000 H-1. Calculate its inductance.A steady current of 2A flows through the coil. Find the flux and stored energy. (Answer: 0.32H, 1.6mWb, 0.64J)

Q1.4. A capacitor comprises two strips of aluminium 30cm x 15cm separated by a strip of mica 2mm thick. The relative permittivity of mica is 6.0. Calculate the capacitance. A voltage of 250V is applied across the capacitor. Calculate the stored energy.

(Answer: 1195pF, 37.3J)

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