Quality Control and Realiability - All in One

MAN- 302 Quality and Reliability Management
Text Book: Introduction to Statistical Quality Control by Douglas C. Montgomery.
B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM
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Definition of Quality Dimensions of quality Quality control - Seven statistical tools of quality, Control charts for variables and attributes, New seven management tools, Process capability concepts, Concept of six sigma, Concept of Product Life cycle, Basic concept of ISO 9000 and other quality systems Reliability Introduction Definitions Reliability evaluation - Failure data analysis Mean Time to Failure, Maintainability & Availability concepts Reliability improvement techniques Design for reliability
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Engineering
Steps for Producing Products 1. Planning and forecasting 2. Conceptualization 3. Feasibility Assessment 4. Establishing the Design Requirements 5. Preliminary Design (Embodiment Design) 6. Detailed Design 7. Process planning 8. Production Planning and Tool Design 9. Prototyping 10. Production 11. Testing and Inspection
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Introduction
The production processes are not perfect!
Which means that the output of these processes will not be perfect.
(non identical and non-deterministic)
Successive runs of the same production process will produce non-
identical parts.
Alternately, similar runs of the production process will vary, by some
degree, and impart the variation into the some product characteristics.
Because of these variations in the products, we need probabilistic models
and robust statistical techniques to analyze quality of such products.
As quality measurements will vary from item to item, and there will
be a probability distribution associated with the population of such measurements.
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Objective of Quality control

Objective of quality control is
To develop a scheme for sampling a process, Making a quality measurement of interest on sample items
and
Making a decision whether the process is in control or not.
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QUALITY CONTROL
OFF-LINE QUALITY CONTROL
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLANS
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This is a traditional definition
This is a modern definition of quality

Meaning of Quality
1. 2. 3.
FITTNESS FOR PURPOSE (JURAN) CONFORMANCE TO REQUIREMENTS or SPECIFICATIONS (Philip Crosby ) QUALITY is a measure of how closely a good or service conforms to specified standard.
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Two Different Approaches
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An equivalent definition is that quality improvement is the elimination of waste. This is useful in service or transactional businesses.
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Statistics is a way to get information from data
Data
Statistics Information
Data: Facts, especially numerical facts, collected together for reference or information.
Information: Knowledge communicated concerning some particular fact.
Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

Statistical Concepts
Population A population is the group of all items that possess a certain characteristic of interest. Size: very large; sometimes infinite. Sample A sample is a set of data drawn from the population. Size: Small (sometimes large but less than the population)
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Parameter A descriptive measure of a population. A parameter is a characteristic of a population, something that describes it.
Statistic A descriptive measure of a sample.
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Population
Sample
Subset
Parameter
Populations have Parameters Samples have Statistics
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Statistic
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Statistical Methods
Statistical Methods
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Estimation
Hypothesis Testing
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Descriptive Statistics describe the data set that is being analyzed, but doesnt
allow us to draw any conclusions or make any interferences about the data.
Hence we need another branch of statistics: inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics is also a set of methods, but it is used to draw conclusions or
inferences about characteristics of populations, based on data from a sample.
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Descriptive Measures
Measures of central tendency
Mean, median, mode, etc.
Quartile Measure of variation

Range, interquartile range, variance and standard deviation,
coefficient of variation
Shape
Symmetric, skewed, using box-and-whisker plots
Coefficient of correlation
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Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is the process of making an estimate, prediction, or decision
about a population based on a sample.
Population Sample
Inference
Statistic Parameter
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Inference Process
Estimates Population
Sample Statistics Sample

Confidence Interval Estimation Process

Population
Mean, , is unknown
Random Sample
Mean X = 50
I am 95% confident that is between 40 & 60.
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Summary Measures
Central Tendency Mean Median Mode
Quartile Range Variance
Variation Coefficient of Variation
Standard Deviation
Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

Mean (arithmetic mean) of data values
Sample mean
= X
Sample Size
i
X
i =1
Population mean
= n
X1 + X 2 + + X n n
Population Size
=
23
X
i =1
= N
X1 + X 2 + + X N N
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Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

The most common measure of central tendency Acts as Balance Point Affected by extreme values (outliers)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Mean = 5
Mean = 6
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Median
Robust measure of central tendency Not affected by extreme values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Median = 5 Property:
Median = 5
The value of Middle when the observations are ranked.
50% of the values are Less than or equal to it.

Mode
A measure of central tendency Value that occurs most often Not affected by extreme values Used for either numerical or categorical data There may be no mode or several modes
Mode = 9
No Mode
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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Engineering example for Mode

A hardware store wants to determine what size of circular saws it should stock. From the past sales data, a random sample of 30 pieces are below (In mm) 80 80 120 120 120 120 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 120 120 150 120 120 120 150 150 80 80 120 150 120 100 120 100 120
Mode 120
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Range
Measure of variation Difference between the largest and the smallest observations:
Ignore the way in which data are distributed
Range X Largest X Smallest =

Range = 12 - 7 = 5
Range = 12 - 7 = 5
7
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10
11
12
10
11
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Quartiles
Q1, the first quartile, is the value such that 25% of the observations are smaller, corresponding to (n+1)/4 ordered observation Q2, the second quartile, is the median, 50% of the observations are smaller, corresponding to 2(n+1)/4 = (n+1)/2 ordered observation Q3, the third quartile, is the value such that 75% of the observations are smaller, corresponding to 3(n+1)/4 ordered observation
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Example
Youre a financial analyst for Prudential-Bache Securities. You have collected the following closing stock prices of new stock issues: 17, 16, 21, 18, 13, 16, 12, 11, 17. Measure central tendency and variation using quartiles.
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Quartiles
Split Ordered Data into 4 Quarters
25%
25%
( Q1 )
25%
25%
( Q3 )
( Q2 )
1( 9 + 1) Position of Q1 = 2.5 = = Q1 4
(12 + 13) =
2
12.5
i ( n + 1) ( Qi ) = 4
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21
Q2 = Median = 16, Q3 = 17.5

Interquartile Range (IQR)

Measure of variation Also known as mid-spread
Spread in the middle 50%

Difference between the first and third quartiles
Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21
Interquartile Range = Q3 Q1 = 17.5 12.5 = 5

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B. ShahulaffectedIIITDM Not Hamid Khan, by extreme values
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Box-and-Whisker Plot
Graphical Display of Data Using 5-Number Summary.
Xsmallest Q1 Median Q3
Xlargest
4
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10
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Measures of Variation
Variation Variance Range
Population Variance Sample Variance Interquartile Range
Standard Deviation
Population Standard Deviation Sample Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation
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Variance
Important measure of variation Shows variation about the mean
Sample variance:
S =
2
( X
i =1
X)
Population variance:
N
n 1
2 =
( X
i =1
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Standard Deviation
Most important measure of variation Shows variation about the mean Has the same units as the original data
Sample standard deviation: Population standard deviation: S =
( X
i =1
X)
n 1
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( X
i =1
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Data Collection
To control or improve a process we need information or Data. Data on quality characteristics is described by a random variable Random variable 1. Discrete variable 2. Continuous variable Discrete variable No of defective rivets in assembly No of satisfied customers in a retail shop
Continuous variable Thickness of a plate Viscosity of an oil Diameter of a shaft
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Probability Distributions
Discrete Distributions 2. Continuous Distributions
1.
Discrete Distributions a. Binomial Distribution b. Hyper geometric Distribution c. Poisson Distribution Continuous Distributions 1. Normal Distribution (quality control) 2. Exponential Distribution (to model the failure rate during life cycle of product) 3. Weibull Distribution (failure rate in mech and electrical components)
The following data represent the heights (in inches) of a random sample of 50 two-year old males. 36.0 34.7 34.4 33.2 35.1 38.3 37.2 36.2 33.4 35.7 36.1 35.2 33.6 39.3 34.8 37.4 37.9 35.2 34.4 39.8 36.0 38.2 39.3 35.6 36.7 37.0 34.6 31.5 34.0 33.0 36.0 37.2 38.4 37.7 36.9 36.8 36.0 34.8 35.4 36.9 35.1 33.5 35.7 35.7 36.8 34.0 37.0 35.0 35.7 38.9
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Comparing Standard Deviations

Data A Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Data B
s = 3.338
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Data C
s = .9258
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
s = 4.57
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Central Limit Theorem

The central limit theorem is: Sampling distributions can be
assumed to be normally distributed even though the population (lot) distributions are not normal.
The theorem allows use of the normal distribution to easily set
limits for control charts and acceptance plans for both attributes and variables.
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Sampling Distributions
The sampling distribution can be assumed to be normally distributed
unless sample size (n) is extremely small.
= The mean of the sampling distribution ( x ) is equal to the population mean ().
The standard error of the sampling distribution (- ) is smaller than x
the population standard deviation (x ) by a factor of 1/ n x x = n

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Mean of Sampling Distribution X

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean 3.55 3.59 3.48 3.51 3.49 3.46 3.48 3.52 3.51 3.49
The sampling distribution of sample mean is approximately normal
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Population and Sampling Distributions

f(x) Population Distribution Mean = Std. Dev. = x x
f(x)
Sampling Distribution of Sample Means

=
x x = n
x
The difference between specification limits and control limits Specification limits ---- the voice of the customer Control limits ----- the voice of the process.
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Confidence interval for the Average

What is the 90% confidence interval__ the average, where sample size n for = 15, S= 1.2 and Sample average X = 25. (Note: When sample size is less than 30; use t- distribution. If greater than or equal to 30; use normal distribution)
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- Risk B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM
(1 )
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
23 28 30 30 20 26 29 21 26 24 24 24 22 30 22
Average value = 25
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Confidence Interval for the variance

Chi-square distribution Confidence Interval for the Ratio of two variances
F distribution
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Quartiles
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Quartiles
A random sample of 20 observations on welding time is given (in mins). Find IQR for these data 2.2 2.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.6 1.8 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.6 1.9 2.0 1.8 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.2 Location of Q1 = 0.25 (n+1) = 0.25 (21) = 5.25 Location of Q3 = 0.75 (n+1) = 0.75 (21) = 15.75 Q1 = 1.825 Q2 = 2.275 IQR =Q3-Q1= 0.45
Measurement of Kurtosis and Skewness

Skewness coefficient
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Kurtosis coefficient
Kurtosis is a measure of Peakedness of data set
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Graphical Methods of Data Representation and Quality Improvement tools

Check sheet and Histogram Pareto diagram Run chart Box plot Scatter diagram Control charts Cause and effect diagram
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Histogram
Histograms or frequency histograms are a graphical representation of data The shape of the histogram can give insight to the nature of distribution of data. Common steps 1. Collection of data (50 or more) 2. Find number of class intervals 3. Find the class width 4. B. Shahulthe frequency in each class and draw the histogram 4/19/2012 5:28 PM Find Hamid Khan, IIITDM 63
Histogram..
Determining number of class intervals K
K = 1.5 ln N + 0.5 (N- number of observations or data)

Determine class interval width
Interval width = largest value smallest value/ K * Begin with first interval : The first interval will be (smallest value Interval width)
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Example
33.2 46.4 40.4 45.7 29.9 37.9 31.7 29.8 35.9 30.5 43.2 38.1 47.1 41.1 33.8 29.7 38 39.6 33.1 39.4 35.9 43.5 38.6 44.2 47.3 41.6 30.8 39.3 43.1 38.3 35 36.4 29.9 33.2 34.7 38.7 29.7 39 41.2 46.3 33.9 42.9 39.3 41.5 37.1 29.6 42.3 41.7 38.3 42.8
Number of Observations are 50 K = 1.5 * ln 50 +0.5 = 1.5 (3.912) + 0.5 = 6.368 = 7 (Approx)
Interval width = largest value smallest value/ K = (47.3 29.6) / 7 = 2.58 = 2.5 say First interval = 29.6 (2.5) = 29.6 1.25 = 28.3 Check sheet 28.3 - 30.8 30.8 - 33.3 33.3 - 35.8 35.8 - 38.3 38.3 - 40.8 40.8 43.3 43.3 45.8 45.8 48.3
33.2 46.4 40.4 45.7 29.9 37.9 31.7 29.8 35.9 30.5 43.2 38.1 47.1 41.1 33.8 29.7 38 39.6 33.1 39.4 35.9 43.5 38.6 44.2 47.3 41.6 30.8 39.3 43.1 38.3 35 36.4 29.9 33.2 34.7 38.7 29.7 39 41.2 46.3 33.9 42.9 39.3 41.5 37.1 29.6 42.3 41.7 38.3 42.8
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Normal Distribution data

29 54 35 68 55 49 49 40 55 36 39 47 42 29 51 61 59 40 61 35 56 75 56 60 41 54 41 55 53 52 50 39 44 41 72 44 40 51 36 55 48 29 42 41 34 55 50 52 49 59
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Cause and Effect Diagram (Ishikawa Diagram)
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Box-Whisker plot
Steps
1. Determine first quartile Q1. This value determines the lower edge of the box 2. Determine Third quartile Q3. This value determines the upper edge of the box 3. Find IQR 4. Find median of the set Q2. Draw a line at median to divide the box 5. Two lines known as whiskers, are drawn outward from the box. one end extended from Q3 -- to either a Maximum data value (or) Q3+1.5 (IQR) (whichever is lower)
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Other end extended downward from Q1 -- to either a Minimum data value (or) Q1-1.5 (IQR) (whichever is greater)
6. The values falls outside the plot are represented by asterisks (*)
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Box-Whisker plot
The Rockwell hardness value of metal wheel Nuts are found for randomly chosen sample of 20 parts. The values are below.
After ranking all the data, we get,
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i ( n + 1) ( Qi ) = 4
Q1 = 21/4 = 5.25 i.e 5th position Q1 = 33.0 ; Q3 = (21) = 15.75 IQR = 4 Top edge -- Maximum point = 49.2; Q3+1.5 (IQR) = 37 + 1.5(4) = 43 (whichever is lower) Choose 43 Bottom edge - Minimum point is 30.1 ; Q1-1.5 (IQR) = 33 1.5*4 = 27 (whichever is greater) Choose 30.1
16th position Q3 = 37.0
Rockwell hardness
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Box and Whisker Plot Example Suppose you wanted to compare the performance of three lathes responsible for the rough turning of a shaft. The design specification is 18.85 +/- 0.1 mm. Diameter measurements from a sample of shafts taken from each roughing lathe are displayed in a box and whisker plot.
Applications
Lathe 1 appears to be making good parts, and is centered in the tolerance. Lathe 2 appears to have excess variation, and is making shafts below the minimum diameter. Lathe 3 appears to be performing comparably to Lathe 1. However, it is targeted low in the tolerance, and is making shafts below specification.
Data Set # 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 18.883 18.847 18.855 18.844 18.845 18.868 18.863 18.856 18.847 18.869 18.823 18.849 18.821 18.843 18.875 18.81 18.781 18.867 18.848 18.849 18.876 18.839 18.861 18.859 18.803 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 18.832 18.847 18.841 18.81 18.854 18.9 18.818 18.871 18.864 18.843 18.816 18.878 18.875 18.877 18.794 18.792 18.796 18.909 18.831 18.824 18.858 18.924 18.826 18.824 18.866 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 18.839 18.849 18.824 18.819 18.842 18.833 18.855 18.894 18.849 18.869 18.828 18.874 18.844 18.831 18.848 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Data Set # 1 Lower Quartile Minimum Median Maximum Upper Quartile
18.828 18.781 18.847 18.924 18.866
Data Set # 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 18.802 18.814 18.798 18.831 18.734 18.734 18.843 18.807 18.786 18.754 18.782 18.782 18.886 18.796 18.792 18.78 18.779 18.868 18.843 18.798 18.854 18.779 18.783 18.838 18.744 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 18.794 18.82 18.821 18.735 18.751 18.834 18.727 18.835 18.773 18.844 18.764 18.809 18.845 18.799 18.863 18.784 18.808 18.774 18.778 18.857 18.77 18.738 18.796 18.803 18.793 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 18.81 18.826 18.775 18.785 18.789 18.781 18.796 18.888 18.817 18.783 18.768 18.831 18.831 18.834 18.78 18.823 18.878 18.841 18.779 18.828 18.841 18.851 18.765 18.81 18.845 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 18.801 18.798 18.834 18.765 18.767 18.895 18.857 18.804 18.858 18.772 Data Set # 2 Lower Quartile 18.779 Minimum 18.727 Median Maximum Upper Quartile 18.799 18.895 18.834
18.95 18.9 18.85 Lower Quartile 18.8 18.75 18.7 18.65 18.6 Data Set # 1 Data Set # 2 Minimum Median Maximum Upper Quartile
Scatter Plots
The Scatter plot is another problem analysis tool. Scatter plots are also called correlation charts. A Scatter plot is used to uncover possible cause-and-effect relationships. It is constructed by plotting two variables against one another on a pair of axes. A Scatter plot cannot prove that one variable causes another, but it does show how a pair of variables is related and the strength of that relationship.
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Scatter plot of tool wear Vs Depth of cut
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Scatter Diagram
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Pareto Analysis
The Pareto Principle, or 80-20 Rule, is a general guideline that says
that 80% of the effects stem from 20% of the causes. Vilfredo Pareto originally observed that in Italy, 80% of the land was owned by 20% of the people.
Pareto Principle is a guiding principle used in business for

Customer Complaints (e.g. 80% of the complaints come from 20%
of the customers) Management (e.g. 80% of the results come from 20% of the group) Sales (e.g. 80% of the profits come from 20% of the products) Quality Management for identifying the most important causes for defects (e.g. 80% of the problems come from 20% of the causes)
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Pareto Diagrams
Pareto Analysis is used to assist in prioritizing or focusing activities.
Procedure Decide the objectives of Pareto analysis Develop list of the responses to be classified Collect data Rank the categories Compute cumulative frequency Plot the diagram
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Pareto Diagrams
Nonconformities in a textile Mill
A B C D E F G
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RUN CHART
A line graph of data points plotted in chronological order that helps detect special causes of variation
Number of defects
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A run chart is a graph that shows the changes in a process measurement over time. It can help us to Recognize patterns of performance in a process Document changes over time
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Introduction to Control Charts

Dr. Shahul Hamid Khan
Introduction to Control chart

Symbols
parameter - estimator - probability of type I error - probability of type II error
- process standard deviation - standard deviation of sample mean
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A control chart is a graphical tool for monitoring the activity of an ongoing process. Sometimes referred as Shewharts control chart Control charts for variables Control charts for Attributes
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Benefits of Control chart

1. When to take corrective actions 2. Type of remedial action necessary 3. To find Process capability 4. Possible means of quality improvement
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Causes of variation
Special Causes Common causes
Special causes or Assignable causes 15% of all problems are due to Special cause. Wrong tool Improper raw materials
Methods People Equipments Materials Policies
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Common causes
Inherent to a process Inherent part of process design Cannot be totally eliminated
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Type I Error
o Inferring that a process is out of control when it is actually in
control o The probability of this error is denoted by

o For 3
Type II Error
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Tolerance Limits vs. Process Capability

Specification Width
Actual Process Width Specification Width
Actual Process Width
Control chart makes it very easy for you to identify visually points and processes that are out of control without using complicated statistical tests.
Analysis of patterns in Control Charts
Rule 1 A process is assumed to be out of control if a single point plots outside the control limits.
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Warning limits
Construct two lines at two sigma deviations above and below center line
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Rule 2 A process is assumed to be out of control if two out of three consecutive points falls outside the two sigma warning limits on the same side of the center line.
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Rule 3 A process is assumed to be out of control if four out of five consecutive points falls beyond 1 sigma limit on the same side of the center line.
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Rule 4 A process is assumed to be out of control if nine or more consecutive points fall to one side of the center line.
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Rule 5 A process is assumed to be out of control if there is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily increasing or decreasing .
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Control Charts for Variables

Control Charts for Mean and Range (Constant Sample size)
X bar chart R chart
Control Charts for Mean and Range

Average Range
g No of Samples
x Chart Control Limits UCL = x + 3 X LCL = x - 3 X
x Chart Control Limits UCL = x + 3 X LCL = x - 3 X
x Chart Control Limits UCL = x + A 2 R LCL = x - A 2 R
where
R Chart Control Limits UCL = D 4 R LCL = D 3 R
Trial Control Limits
Example
Revised Control Limits
x Chart Control Limits UCL = x + A 2 R LCL = x - A 2 R
X- bar chart
=0
CONTROL CHARTS FOR ATTRIBUTES

Attribute
The term Attribute refers to those quality characteristics that conform to specifications or do not conform to specifications. Attribute are used:
1. Where measurements are not possible. 2. Where measurements can be made but are not
made because of time, cost, or need.
Charts for Attributes

Proportion of Nonconforming items (P- Chart) No of Nonconforming items (np- Chart) These above two charts are based on Binomial Distribution
Dr. SHAHUL HAMID KHAN 4/19/2012 5:30 PM
Total Number of nonconformities (c- chart) Nonconformities per unit (u - chart) Based on poisson distribution
Dr. SHAHUL HAMID KHAN
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Confidence interval for the proportion

5
Let us consider the parameter p the proportion of success in a binomial distribution In SQC this is corresponds to the proportion of nonconforming items in a process or in a lot.
^ A point estimator of p is p
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Terms used
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n Sample size g - No of samples p - Population proportion nonconforming

^ p
- Sample proportion nonconforming

^ - Standard deviation of p
^ E (p) = p
^ p
^ Var (p) =
Attribute
Defect is appropriate for use when evaluation is in terms of usage. Nonconformity is appropriate for conformance to specifications. The term Nonconforming Unit is used to describe a unit of product or service containing at least one nonconformity.
Attribute
Types of Attribute Charts:
1.
Nonconforming Units (based on the Binomial distribution): p chart, np chart. Nonconformities (based on the Poisson distribution): c chart, u chart.
2.
The P Chart
The fraction nonconforming, p, is usually small, say, 0.10 or less. Because the fraction nonconforming is very small, the subgroup sizes must be quite large to produce a meaningful chart.
The P Chart
It can be used to control one quality characteristic, as is done with X bar and R chart, Or to control a group of quality characteristics of the same type or of the same part, Or to control the entire product. It can be established to measure the quality produced by a work center, by a department, by a shift, or by an entire plant.
The P Chart
It is frequently used to report the performance of an operator or management as a means of evaluating their quality performance. The subgroup size of the P chart can be either variable or constant.
The P Chart
Objectives of the P Chart:
1.
Determine the average quality level: This information provides the process capability in terms of attributes. Bring to the attention of management any changes in the average. Improve the product quality: Ideas for quality improvement.
2.
3.
P Chart
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The sample proportion nonconforming
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14
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15
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Revised Control limits

17
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P- chart for the Standard Specified

18
The standard or Target value
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Problem
19
Management has decided to set a standard of 3 % for the proportion of nonconforming products in plant. Data collected from 20 samples of each 100 are shown. Construct p-chart.
Given:
- 0.03
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20
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The Actual average proportion of Nonconforming items is
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P Chart (Variable Sample Size)

24
1) 2)
Control Limits for Individual Samples Control Limits based on Average sample size
Control Limits for Individual Samples
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Control Limits based on Average sample size
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Example - Problem
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Control Limits for Individual Samples
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For Instance, the calculations for sample 1 are as follows
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Control Limits based on Average sample size

= 4860/ 20 = 243
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Standardized p-Chart
Another approach for Variable sample size is to Construct a chart of Normalized or Standardized value of proportion non-conforming Expression: Deviation of sample p value from the average p value in the unit of Std deviation
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The Standardized value of proportion nonconforming for the ith sample may be expressed as
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Special considerations for p-chart

32
Necessary assumptions
1.
Each items are assumed to be independent of each other with respect to meet the specifications
This assumption may not be valid if products are manufactured in batches

Observations below LCL for p-chart Comparison with specified Standard (Po) Impact of Design Specifications
Average P value may be High, even if the process is stable and in control. Only some change in Design Specifications may reduce p value. Tolerances can be loosen without changing Specification limits.
It gives Information about overall Quality Level
33
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Chart for Number of Nonconforming (np Chart)

34
The control limits for np chart are
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Data for the number of dissatisfied customers in a big departmental store observed for 20 samples of size 300 is shown below. Construct np chart for the dissatisfied customers
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Sample Size taken is 4. Find out the control Limits for X bar chart
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39
A random Sample of 50 pieces is selected and the quality characteristic is recorded. The sample average value is 118 and the sample standard deviation is 10. Find a 95% confidence interval for the mean value.
The percentage of total area within 1.47 is ------
The length of a machined part is known to have a normal distribution with a mean of 100 mm and standard deviation of 2 mm. what proportion of the parts will be above 103.3 mm
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The c-Chart
40
Nonconformity is defined as a quality characteristic that does not meet some specifications
It is possible for a product to have one or more nonconformities and still acceptable C chart is used to track the Total No of non-conformities in a sample of constant size.
Poisson Distribution
41
Probability of observing x nonconformities are
The mean and variance of poisson distribution are given below
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The c-Chart
42
Since E (Ci ) = and Var (Ci ) = , the control limits are :
3 .
If n items are inspected, then the estimator of is : 1 n C = Ci . n i =1 The estimated control limits then become : C 3 C .
Poisson distribution Example

43
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189
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47
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Revised control limits are
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Type I error in C- Chart

50
C chart is based on Poisson distribution Type I error - concluding that a process is out of control when it is in control
As it is not symmetrical, the observations falling outside either control limits may not be equal
Suppose the process mean is Co and symmetrical control limits are desired for Type I error of , then
51
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Example
1-/2 = 1 0.01/2 = 1 0.005 = 0.995
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53
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Chart for No of Nonconformities per Unit (u - Chart)

55
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For sample 1, the control limits are
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For sample 1, the Revised control limits are

UCL / LCL = 4.410 3 = 8.864 / -0.044 (0)
60
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Example for Continuous production

THE PANELS ARE WELDED TOGETHER FORMING A CAR BODY STEEL INGOTS I BEAM etc EXTRUDED COMPONENTS
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Control Charts for Mean and Std Deviation

62
S- Chart
S chart is preferable when the sample size is greater than 10

63
(1) (2)
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S- Chart (With no Given Standard)
By Eqn (1)
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Unstable and Stable Processes
Illustration of processes that are (a) unstable or out of control and (b) stable or in control. Note in sketch (b) that all distributions have lower standard deviations and have means closer to the desired value.
Operating Characteristic curve

2
OC curve plots the probability of incorrectly concluding that the process is in control as a function of process parameter An OC curve is a measure of the Sensitivity of a control chart in detecting small changes in process parameters
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Operating Characteristic Function for X-bar chart

3
The ability of x bar and R chart to detect shift in the process quality is described by their OC curves The probability of not detecting the shift on first sample or the (beta) risk is
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X-/
L = 3 here
For K= 2; n=5 the value of is
The probability that such shift will be detected on first sample is

0.9292
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Problem (Breaking strength of fibres)

Sample size is 5, the process mean and value is 120 kg and 8 kg respectively. If the process mean shifts to 125 kg, what is the probability of concluding that the process is in control and hence making a Type II error on the first sample plotted after the shift. ?
Z= 3 = UCL 120 3.58 LCL = 109.26
UCL = 130.74
The area under the curve is

The probability of Detecting the shift on sample 1 = 0.0548
b)
The probability of Detecting the shift on second sample = P of Detecting the shift on sample 1 + P of Not Detecting the shift on sample 1 and Detecting in sample 2 = 0.0548 + {(1- 0.0548) * 0.0548} = 0.0548 + 0.0518 = 0.1066 There is 10.66 % of chance of detecting a shift by second sample
Construct OC curve for increase in process mean from 120 kg (take the same problem)
Z = 130.74 123.578 3.58
UCL
UCL = 130.74 LCL = 109.26 130.733 130.733 130.733 130.733 130.733 130.733
Mean
123.578 127.156 130.733 134.311 137.888 141.466
Z
1.998603352 0.999162011 0 -0.999441341 -1.998603352 -2.998044693
Z
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
109.26 109.26 109.26 109.26 109.26 109.26
123.578 127.156 130.733 134.311 137.888 141.466
-3.999441341 -4.998882682 -5.998044693 -6.997486034 -7.996648045 -8.996089385
-4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9
Average Run Length
Denotes - Number of samples (on average) required to detect an out-of-control signal Pd Probability of detecting a point outside the control limits Probability of Detecting the shift on sample 1 = Pd Probability of Detecting the shift on sample 2 = (1- Pd ) Pd Probability of Detecting the shift on sample 3 = (1- Pd )2 Pd for Infinite series, The Average Run Length is given by,
ARL =
= 1/ Pd
If the process is in control, then Pd is equal to ARL = 1/ 0.0026 = 385

1-0.9974
If the process is out of control then, Pd is equal to 1- ARL = 1/ (1-)
Average Run Length
The Average Run Length (ARL) is the average number of points that most be plotted before a point indicates an out-of-control condition.
For chart this can be calculated as ARL=1/p where p is the probability that any one point exceeds the control limit.
OC Curve for p- Chart
Where, n sample size

^ - sample proportion nonconforming p
X No of nonconforming items
Ability to detect a shift in the process fraction nonconforming from a nominal value p to some other value p
Example Plastic Injection Molding process

Given: Sample size (n) = 50 No of samples (g) = 25 Total no of nonconforming items = 90
Construct OC Curve for this example problem
de
P 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.28 0.4
np 4 4.5 5 7.5 10 14 20
Average p = 0.067 Average np = 0.067 *50 = 3 UCL = 8
0.23 * 50 = 11.5 = 11
10
OC curve for C chart
189
Revised control limits are
P (Type II Error)
Problem to solve
Consider fraction nonconforming (p -chart) Sample size n = 100 UCL = 0.075 LCL = 0.005 CL = 0.04 Draw OC curve Solution
Control Charts for Individual Units

Moving Range found from two successive observations
For No Given Standard: = MR/ d2 For g individual observations, there will be g-1 moving ranges. n=2 here
For n=2 ,
For Given Standard
If the standard values specified are
Example
Table1shows the Brinell hardness numbers of 20 individual steel fasteners and its moving ranges. The testing process dents the parts so that they cannot be used for their intended purpose. Construct the X-chart and the MR-chart based on two successive observations. Specification limits are 32 7.
MR chart
X bar Chart
PROCESS CAPABILITY ANALYSIS

Dr. B. SHAHUL HAMID KHAN
SPECIFICATION LIMIT
A limit that defines the conformance boundaries for an individual unit of a manufacturing or service operation
Specifications and Process capability

Case 1: process spread less than specification spread Case 2: process spread equal to specification spread Case 3: process spread greater than specification spread
Case 1
Case 2: Process spread equal to specification spread
Case 3: Process spread greater than specification spread
PROCESS CAPABILITY INDEX Process capability index is an easily understood aggregate measure of the Goodness of the process performance
For practical applications is unknown, so use estimator of Use S or R/ d2
Example
Percentage of specification band
When Cp = 1, the process spread equals the specification spread and the process is said to be barely capable
Process capability ratio for an off-center process
The relative humidity in a greenhouse is expected to be between 65% and 85%. Random samples taken over a span of one week yield the following values: 60, 78, 70, 84, 81, 80,85,60,88,75. Find and interpret the process capability index
The specification limits are LSL = 65% and USL = 85%. Assume that the process is in control. Using the sample of observations, the sample standard deviation s is
This value of Cp, which is less than 1, indicates that the process is not capable of meeting the specifications
Capability ratio
CR = 1/ Cp
Percentage of specification band
A process in control has an estimated standard deviation of 3 mm. The specification limits for the corresponding product are 100 7 mm. Estimate the capability ratio of the process and comment on the process potential.
The percent of the specification range used by the process is 128.6%, which is 28.6% more than what is permissible. Even if the process were centered at the target value of 100, which is the most favorable situation, it would still not meet the specifications
Taguchi Capability Index, Cpm
Where
Cp measures process potential Cpk measures the actual process yield. When the process is exactly centered between the specification limits then Cp =Cpk.
where denotes the standard normal cumulative distribution function
Recall that Cpk measures actual rather than potential process capability.
Let's consider Figure 1.0, where USL =62 mm, LSL = 38 mm, and T =50 three processes, A, B, and C, with different means and standard deviations
Effect of Measurement Error on Capability Indices Whenever measurements are involved, the variability of the observations is depends on the variability of the product characteristic. AIM To study the effect of measurement error on the process potential as it impacts the Cp index and the capability ratio CR.
Xm - measured value from a process

Xm is the sum of the "true" value X plus the measurement error If the measurement error can be estimated, then we can obtain an estimate of the true process Variability
Measurement errors are usually normally distributed An estimate of measurement error is obtained through an index known as the Precision- to Tolerance ratio (r)
Observed Cp
where CR* represents the capability ratio as calculated from the measured observations
Assumptions in Process capability Ratio

The Quality Characteristic has a normal distribution Process is in statistical control In case of two sided specifications, the process mean is centered between the lower and upper specification limits
1)
2)
3)
Use confidence Intervals for Process capability Ratio
Confidence Intervals for Process capability Ratio (Cp)
Use S instead of R/d2
NOTE
Confidence Intervals for Process capability Index (Cpk)
n sample size
Example Problem
Sample size n = 20 Cpk = 1.33 Determine 95 % confidence interval on Cpk value.
Accuracy The predicted difference on average between the measurement and the true value. Accuracy is also known as bias
Repeatability The variation that occurs among measurements made by the same operator. Repeatability is a form of random variation. Repeatability is also known as Equipment variation (EV).
Reproducibility The difference in the average of groups of repeated measurements made by different operators. Reproducibility is also known as appraiser variation (AV). Variation between operators.
Example of Repeatability
Operator 1 measures the diameter of steel shaft (5 different measurements on same part) 10. 015 10. 009 10. 012 10. 021 10. 011
Example of Reproducibility
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3 Operator 4
Calculate
Standard deviation for operator 1 Standard deviation for all operators
5 samples are chosen for measurement. Two operators are chosen. Each of 5 parts is measured two times.
Traditionally, the Repeatability (EV) as well as reproducibility (AV) is reported as 5.15 times
value to reflect a 99 % level of confidence

EV = 5.15 * ev
Here we are taking one sample; two operators m - No of Operators g - No of samples m=2 g=1
Operator A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average 0.889 0.855 0.868 0.888 0.867 0.886 0.859 0.87 0.89 0.87 0.8742
Confidence Interval for Repeatability, Reproducibility and Combined R&R
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
B. Shahul Hamid Khan
QUALITY CONTROL
Acceptance Sampling
3
Lot received for inspection
Sample selected and analyzed
Results compared with acceptance criteria
Accept the lot
Reject the lot
Send to production or to customer
Decide on disposition
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

ADVANTAGES 1. If inspection is destructive, 100% inspection is not feasible. 2. Sampling is more economical and causes less damage due to handling 3. Sampling reduces inspection error DISADVANTAGES 1. There is a risk of rejecting "good" lots or accepting "poor" lots, identified as the producer's risk and consumer's risk, respectively. 2. There is less information about the product, compared to that obtained from 100% inspection 3. The selection and adoption of a sampling plan require more time and effort in planning and documentation.
Acceptance Sampling
Acceptance sampling is a method used to accept or reject product based on a random sample of the product.
The purpose of acceptance sampling is to make decision on lots (accept or reject) rather than to estimate the quality of a lot.
Acceptance sampling plans do not improve quality
P AOQ ATI AOQL N c ASN AQL
Proportion nonconforming, or Lot Quality Average outgoing quality Average total inspection Average outgoing quality limit Lot size Acceptance number for a single sampling plan Average sample number Acceptable quality level
LTPD
Lot Tolerance Percent Defective
Producers and Consumers Risk

AQL or acceptable quality level
proportion defect the customer will accept a given lot
LTPD or lot tolerance percent defective
limit on the number of defectives the customer will accept
or producers risk
probability of rejecting a good lot
or consumers risk
probability of accepting a bad lot
Types of sampling plan

Single sampling plan Double sampling plan Multiple sampling plan
Lot formation
Lots should be homogeneous Larger lots are preferred over smaller ones Lots should be conformable to the material handling systems used in both vendor and customer facilities
Operating Characteristic Curve

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1
AQL
= 0.05 (producers risk) n = 99 c=4 =0.10 (consumers risk)
Probability of acceptance
LTPD
10 11 12
Percent defective
Acceptable quality level lot tolerance percent defective
Single sampling plan for Attributes

Example Lot size Sample size Acceptance No N = 10000 n = 89 c=2
d - No of defective or nonconforming items
OC Curve
The Ideal OC Curve
Effect of n and c on OC Curves
Type A and Type B OC Curve
Accept Good Lot
Reject
No Error
Type I Error Producer Risk
Bad Lot
Type II Error Consumers Risk
No Error
AQL (Acceptable Quality Level)
Poorest level of quality for vendors process that the customer would consider to be acceptable .
AQL property of vendors Mfg process Not a property of sampling plan Based on AQL we can design the sampling plan
Design a sampling plan, such that OC curve gives a higher probability of acceptance at AQL
Pa = 95 %
Producers risk refers to the probability of rejecting a good lot. In order to calculate this probability there must be a numerical definition as to what constitutes good AQL (Acceptable Quality Level) - the numerical definition of a good lot. The ANSI/ASQC standard describes AQL as the maximum percentage or proportion of nonconforming items or number of nonconformities in a batch that can be considered satisfactory as a process average
Consumers Risk refers to the probability of accepting a bad lot where: LTPD (Lot Tolerance Percent Defective) - the numerical definition of a bad lot described by the ANSI/ASQC standard as the percentage or proportion of
nonconforming items or nonconformities in a batch for which the customer wishes the probability of acceptance to be a specified low value.
LTPD Poorest level of quality that the customer is willing to accept in an individual lot
Low probability of acceptance (10 %)
Evaluating sampling plans

OC curve is the measure of performance of a sampling plan. We use other measures to evaluate the goodness of a sampling plan.
Rectifying Inspection
Rejected lots go through 100 % inspection where non conforming items are replaced with conforming items.
Non conforming items found in the sample are also replaced
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
B. Shahul Hamid Khan
QUALITY CONTROL
Acceptance Sampling
3
Lot received for inspection
Sample selected and analyzed
Results compared with acceptance criteria
Accept the lot
Reject the lot
Send to production or to customer
Decide on disposition
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

ADVANTAGES 1. If inspection is destructive, 100% inspection is not feasible. 2. Sampling is more economical and causes less damage due to handling 3. Sampling reduces inspection error DISADVANTAGES 1. There is a risk of rejecting "good" lots or accepting "poor" lots, identified as the producer's risk and consumer's risk, respectively. 2. There is less information about the product, compared to that obtained from 100% inspection 3. The selection and adoption of a sampling plan require more time and effort in planning and documentation.
Acceptance Sampling
Acceptance sampling is a method used to accept or reject product based on a random sample of the product.
The purpose of acceptance sampling is to make decision on lots (accept or reject) rather than to estimate the quality of a lot.
Acceptance sampling plans do not improve quality
P AOQ ATI AOQL N c ASN AQL
Proportion nonconforming, or Lot Quality Average outgoing quality Average total inspection Average outgoing quality limit Lot size Acceptance number for a single sampling plan Average sample number Acceptable quality level
LTPD
Lot Tolerance Percent Defective

AQL or acceptable quality level
proportion defect the customer will accept a given lot
LTPD or lot tolerance percent defective
limit on the number of defectives the customer will accept
or producers risk
probability of rejecting a good lot
or consumers risk
probability of accepting a bad lot
Types of sampling plan

Single sampling plan Double sampling plan Multiple sampling plan
Lot formation
Lots should be homogeneous Larger lots are preferred over smaller ones Lots should be conformable to the material handling systems used in both vendor and customer facilities
Operating Characteristic Curve

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1
AQL
= 0.05 (producers risk) n = 99 c=4 =0.10 (consumers risk)
Probability of acceptance
LTPD
10 11 12
Percent defective
Acceptable quality level lot tolerance percent defective
Single sampling plan for Attributes

Example Lot size Sample size Acceptance No N = 10000 n = 89 c=2
d - No of defective or nonconforming items
OC Curve
The Ideal OC Curve
Effect of n and c on OC Curves
Type A and Type B OC Curve
Accept Good Lot
Reject
No Error
Type I Error Producer Risk
Bad Lot
Type II Error Consumers Risk
No Error
AQL (Acceptable Quality Level)
Poorest level of quality for vendors process that the customer would consider to be acceptable .
AQL property of vendors Mfg process Not a property of sampling plan Based on AQL we can design the sampling plan
Design a sampling plan, such that OC curve gives a higher probability of acceptance at AQL
Pa = 95 %
Producers risk refers to the probability of rejecting a good lot. In order to calculate this probability there must be a numerical definition as to what constitutes good AQL (Acceptable Quality Level) - the numerical definition of a good lot. The ANSI/ASQC standard describes AQL as the maximum percentage or proportion of nonconforming items or number of nonconformities in a batch that can be considered satisfactory as a process average
Consumers Risk refers to the probability of accepting a bad lot where: LTPD (Lot Tolerance Percent Defective) - the numerical definition of a bad lot described by the ANSI/ASQC standard as the percentage or proportion of
nonconforming items or nonconformities in a batch for which the customer wishes the probability of acceptance to be a specified low value.
LTPD Poorest level of quality that the customer is willing to accept in an individual lot
Low probability of acceptance (10 %)
Evaluating sampling plans

OC curve is the measure of performance of a sampling plan. We use other measures to evaluate the goodness of a sampling plan.
Rectifying Inspection
Rejected lots go through 100 % inspection where non conforming items are replaced with conforming items.
Non conforming items found in the sample are also replaced
Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ)
Average Outgoing Quality is the average quality level of a series of batches that leaves the inspection station.
4. p - Incoming lot quality
Average Total Inspection
--- For single sampling plan --- For Double sampling plan
EXAMPLE
AVERAGE SAMPLE NUMBER
For single sampling plan ASN is n
P Chart
36
The sample proportion nonconforming
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Example Plastic Injection Molding process

Given: Sample size (n) = 50 No of samples (g) = 25 Total no of nonconforming items = 90
Construct OC Curve for this example problem
de
P 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.28 0.4
np 4 4.5 5 7.5 10 14 20
Find the Average Sample Number ASN for the following p values 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.1, 0.12, 0.15, 0.17, 0.2
Inequality
Table value
Design of Sampling Plan

MILITARY STANDARD 105 E Types of Inspection Normal Inspection Tightened Inspection Reduced Inspection
Normal Inspection is used initially. Tightened Inspection is instituted when the vendors recent quality history has worsen Reduced Inspection is instituted when the vendors quality history has been exceptionally good
General Inspection Levels
Level I Level II Level III
RELIABILITY
Reliability
Generally defined as the ability of a product to perform as expected over time.
Formally defined as the probability that a product, piece of equipment, or system will perform its intended function for a stated period of time under specified operating conditions.
Quality over the long run. A product that works for a long period of time is a reliable one. Since all units of a product will fail at different times, reliability is a probability.
LIFE CYCLE CURVE (Bath tub Curve)
F A I L U R E R A T E
Time
Mean time between failures (MTBF)

Mean time between failures (MTBF) is the predicted elapsed time between inherent failures of a system during operation. MTBF can be calculated as the arithmetic mean (average) time between failures of a system. The MTBF is typically part of a model that assumes the failed system is immediately repaired (zero elapsed time), as a part of a renewal process.
This is in contrast to the mean time to failure (MTTF), which measures average time between failures with the modeling assumption that the failed system is not repaired.
Mean Time to Failure: MTTF

8
= MTTF
tf (t )dt =
0
R (t )dt
1 n MTTF = ti n i =1
1
2 2 is better than 1?
R(t)
Time t
Mean Time Between Failure: MTBF

9
Exponential Distribution
Definition
Mean and Variance
EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION
APPLICATIONS
Exponential Distribution can be used to describe the time to failure of the product of maturity phase, where the failure rate is constant Probability density Function
Weibull Distribution
SYSTEM RELIABILITY

System with components in series System with components in parallel System with components in series and in parallel
System with components in series
Use of exponential model
System with components in parallel

The probability of system failure
Use of exponential model
If all components have the same failure rate, then
System with components in series and in parallel
One standby component
For two standby components

Quality Control and Realiability - All in One

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MAN- 302 Quality and Reliability Management

Text Book: Introduction to Statistical Quality Control by Douglas C. Montgomery.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

(non identical and non-deterministic)

Successive runs of the same production process will produce non-

Alternately, similar runs of the production process will vary, by some

Because of these variations in the products, we need probabilistic models

and robust statistical techniques to analyze quality of such products.

be a probability distribution associated with the population of such measurements.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Objective of Quality control

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

OFF-LINE QUALITY CONTROL

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLANS

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

This is a traditional definition

This is a modern definition of quality

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Two Different Approaches

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Statistics is a way to get information from data

Information: Knowledge communicated concerning some particular fact.

Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Statistic A descriptive measure of a sample.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Hence we need another branch of statistics: inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics is also a set of methods, but it is used to draw conclusions or

inferences about characteristics of populations, based on data from a sample.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Quartile Measure of variation

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

about a population based on a sample.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Sample Statistics Sample

Confidence Interval Estimation Process

I am 95% confident that is between 40 & 60.

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Central Tendency Mean Median Mode

Quartile Range Variance

Variation Coefficient of Variation

Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Mean (Arithmetic Mean)

The value of Middle when the observations are ranked.

50% of the values are Less than or equal to it.

Engineering example for Mode

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Ignore the way in which data are distributed

Range X Largest X Smallest =

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

B. Shahul Hamid Khan, IIITDM

Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21

Q2 = Median = 16, Q3 = 17.5

Interquartile Range (IQR)

Spread in the middle 50%

Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 17 18 21