Version

1 - Part One

Contents

1 - Quotes
A and B

A or B

Inventions reached their limit long ago, and I see no hope for further development. - Julius Frontinus, 1st century A.D.

Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible!

- Physicist, Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society, [ENGLAND] 1885. Only time is wanted to make cars disappear Scientific American Editorial, 1895 All attempts at artificial aviation are not only dangerous to life but doomed to failure from an engineering standpoint. editor of 'The Times' of London, 1905 Airplanes are interesting toys but of no military value. Marshal Ferdinand Foch, professor of strategy, Ecole Superiure de Guerre, 1911 We do not consider that aeroplanes will be of any possible use for war purposes - Richard Haldane, British Secretary of State for War, 1910

Deregulation will be the greatest thing to happen to the airlines since the jet engine.--Richard Ferris, CEO United Airlines, 1976
Airbus will never launch the A380 airliner, and we will built the Sonic Cruiser Phil Condit, former Boeing Co. CEO
Aviation Quotes

Man must rise above the Earth, to the top of the atmosphere and beyond, for only thus will he fully understand the world in which he lives. Socrates "Once you have tasted flight, you will forever walk the earth with your eyes turned skyward, for there you have been and there you will always long to return." -- Leonardo da Vinci It's only the beginning but the implications are terrific. Gerald Sayer, first flight in the Gloster-Whittle E28 jet, 1941.

A mile of road will take you a mile, but a mile of runway will take you anywhere. -- Anonymous
Aviation Quotes

The English, a haughty nation, arrogate to themselves the empire of the sea; the French, a buoyant nation, make themselves masters of the air. The Count of Provence (afterward Louis XVIII of France), Impromptu on the first successful balloon ascension by the brothers Montgolfier, 1783. In original French, "Les Anglais, nation trop fire, S'arrogent l'empire des mers; Les Franais, nation lgre, S'emparent de celui des airs."

Aviation Quotes

Arthur C. Clarke
The only way to test the limits of the possible is by going beyond them into the impossible When an elderly but distinguished scientist says something is possible, he is probably right. When he says something is impossible, he is very likely wrong

Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic

Aviation Quotes

2 - Great Inventions

Great Inventions

Aviation Quotes

Ancient World
1,000,000 B.C. Patterned tools 360,000 B.C. Camp fire 20,000 B.C. Arrow and Bow 9,000 B.C. Agriculture 6500 B.C. Wheel 6000 B.C. Beer (Sumerians) 5000 B.C. Irrigation 3500 B.C. Fixed Wheels on Carts (Chariots) (first wheeled vehicles in history) Riverboats 2800 B.C. Egyptians devise the 12-month, 365-day calendar. 2600 B.C. Abacus Literature 1800 B.C. Mathematics and Astronomy 2000 B.C Horses are domesticated (and used for transportation)

1700 B.C. Windmills 1450 B.C. Sundial 700 B.C. Musical notation Gunpowder 640 B.C. First Library

400 B.C.
Two Greeks invent the catapult, the first artillery weapon 100 B.C. Astronomical calculator

Great Inventions

100100-1700 A.D.
105 A.D. Paper invented in China by Ts'ai Lun 180 A.D. Wheelbarrow 700 A.D. Block printing 770 A.D. Iron Horseshoe 1023 First paper money printed in China 1025 Optics 1249 Roger Bacon gives earliest European recipe for gunpowder 1335 First public clock 1455 First Gutenberg Bible 1485 Leonardo DaVinci designs the first parachute 1494 Whiskey 1500 Flush Toilets 1514 First bullet 1590 Compound microscope 1609 Galileo's Telescope 1621 First blast furnace 1650 First air pump 1656 Pendulum clock 1663 Reflecting telescope 1676 Universal joint (Robert Hooke)

Great Inventions

17001700-1900
1700 Steam boilers 1760 Benjamin Franklin invents the bifocal lens 1765 Steam engine 1796 Inoculation/vaccination 1800 First suspension bridge 1801 First electric arc lamp 1804 Steam-powered locomotive 1809 Aerodynamics (George Cayley) 1816 Stethoscope 1820 Electromagnetism 1831 Electric generator 1837 Telegraph 1839 Daguerreotype camera Vulcanized Rubber

1846 Sewing Machine 1860 Pasteurization 1867 Dynamite (Alfred Nobel) 1876 Thomas Edison 's incandescent bulb Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone 1877 Edison 's gramophone and phonograph 1885 Benz's automobile 1886 Coca Cola 1888 Eastman's camera 1893 Edison's "movies" 1895 X-Rays 1899 Tape recorder Practical airship (Santos Dumont)

Great Inventions

19001900-1949
1900 Escalator 1901
Vacuum Cleaner Assembly Line

Radio 1903 1904

Electrocardiogram Remote Control (Leonardo Quevedo)

Ice Cream Cone

1905
Theory of Relativity (Einstein)

Popsicle 1906
Airplane (Santos Dumont)

1907
Paper Towels

1910
Neon Light (Georges Claude)

1912
Shopping Bag

1920 Band-Aid Hair Drier 1922 Radar 1923 Hearing aid Traffic lights 1924 Liquid fueled rocket 1926 Quantum Mechanics Galactic Rotation 1927 Television 1928 First differential analyzing computer Bubble Gum Yo-yo 1932 Electron Microscope Remote-controlled model airplane 1935 Ballpoint Pen 1938 Monopoly Nylon Stockings Teflon (Roy Plunkett)

1913
Bra (Mary Phelps Jacob) Auto Mass Production (Henry Ford)

1917
Sonar

1940 Modern Helicopters Color Television 1942 Nuclear Reactor Duct Tape 1943 Synthetic rubber 1944 Blood Banks 1945 Microwave Oven Tupperware Atomic Bomb 1946 Disposable Diapers The Bikini 1947 Transistor Holography Instant Photography First Supersonic Flight Kitty Litter 1948 Scrabble Velcro 1949 LEGO

Great Inventions

19501950-1970
1950 Credit Card (Diners) Frisbee 1951 Business Calculator Liquid Paper Superglue 1952 Mr. Potato Head Diet Soft Drink Hydrogen Bomb Tranquilizer 1953 Black Box (airplanes) Radial Tires 1954 Milk Carton Oral Contraceptives Non Stick Pan Solar Cell Genetic Code 1955 Fiber optics TV Remote Control 1956 Computer Hard Disk Scotch Guard 1957 Soviets send Sputnik to Space Fortran Aluminum Cans for Soft Drinks 1958 Integrated Circuit Hula Hoop Modem 1959 Microchip Internal Pacemaker Barbie Doll 1960 Laser Halogen Lamp 1961 Valium 1962 Audiocassette Silicon Breast Implants SpaceWar (first computer game) 1963 Videodisc 1964 Acrylic Paint BASIC 1965 Hand Held Calculator Astroturf Soft Contact Lenses 1966 Electronic Fuel Injection 1968 Computer Mouse Microprocessor RAM (Random Access Memory) 1969 First Man on Moon (Apollo XI) Arpaned (first internet) Artificial Heart ATM Concorde Boeing 747 1970 Bar Code Scanners Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Floppy Disk

Great Inventions

19711971-1985
1971 Kevlar Dot matrix printer food processor VCR Compact disc Word Processor 1973 Ethernet network Lighter (BIC) Gene Splicing 1974 Post It Notes Rubiks Cube Liposuction 1975 Betamax and VHS Laser Printer 1976 Ink Jet Printer 1977 Apple personal computer PC Modem Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 1972 1978 VisiCalc (First Spreadsheet) Jarvik-7 (artificial heart) 1979 Cellular Phones Cray Supercomputer Walkman Roller Blades Disposable 1980 Hepatitis-B vaccine 1981 MS-DOS IBM-Personal Computer Space Shuttle 1982 Human Growth Hormone genetically Engineered 1983 Soft Bifocal Lenses Cabbage Patch Kids Virtual Reality Compact Disc 1984 Apple Macintosh 1985 Microsoft Windows

Great Inventions

19861986-2005
1986 High Temperature Superconductor Synthetic Skin Disposable Camera (Fuji) 1987 3-D video games Disposable Contact Lenses 1988 Digital Cellular Phones Dopple Radar Prozac RU-486 (abortion pill) 1989 High Definition TV 1990 HTML and HTTP Protocol (WWW) 1991 Digital Answering Machines 1992 Smart Pill 1993 Pentium 1994 HIV Inhibitors 1995 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) JAVA (Just Another Vain Acronym) 1996 Web TV 1997 Gas Powered Fuel Cells Teletubbies 1998 Viagra 2000 Dolly the cloned sheep Honda presents its Asimo robot 2001 Near Shoemaker, first spacecraft to land on asteroid First complete genetic map of laboratory mouse Human Geonome 2003 The worlds first digital camera with a organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is launched by Kodak 2004 SpaceShipOne is the first private craft to reach an altitude of 100 km 2005 Probe Huygens of the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturns is the first one to land on Titan as well as the first on a moon outside of moon-earth system
2004 - SpaceShipOne

Great Inventions

Growth of World Population and Technology Evolution

Great Inventions

3 - Flight Physics

Earths Atmosphere
Aircraft fly within the Earth's atmosphere, the gaseous envelope that surrounds the planet. The atmosphere's weather, temperature, and properties all affect aircraft flight, as does the way in which air, the fluid of interest to aerodynamicists, moves around and over the parts of an aircraft. The primary ingredients in the Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent). The remaining one percent consists of argon, carbon dioxide, several trace gases (extremely small amounts), and water vapor. Above about 90 kilometers from the Earth's surface, the different gases begin to settle or separate out according to their respective densities. In ascending order one would find high concentrations of oxygen, helium, and then hydrogen, which is the lightest of all the gases. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into different levels or regions primarily by temperature. The lowest region of the atmosphere is the troposphere, which begins at the Earth's surface and extends to an altitude of approximately 18 kilometers. Around the North and South Poles, the troposphere is only a little more than 8 kilometers deep. The temperature of the troposphere decreases about 2 degrees Celsius, or 6.5 degrees Celsius per 1000 m. Humans live in the troposphere and most weather phenomena occur here. The tropopause is the dividing line between the troposphere and the next region, the stratosphere, which is found between approximately 18 and 50 kilometers above sea level. The temperature throughout the tropopause is constant. The stratosphere contains a type of oxygen called ozone (O3) that absorbs sunlight, resulting in temperatures similar to those found near the Earth's surface. The ozone layer absorbs harmful solar ultraviolet radiation and protects the Earth. The temperature in the stratosphere rises with altitude, reaching about -40 degrees C at 48 kilometers up. Almost all aircraft flight occurs in the troposphere and stratosphere. Between altitudes of approximately 50 and 90 kilometers is the mesosphere. In this region, the temperature first increases to about 10 degrees C, then decreases until about 80 kilometers altitude to as low as -90 degrees C. In the he mesopause, a sub-layer contained in the mesosphere, the temperature remains constant. The ionosphere, sometimes called thermosphere, begins at approximately 90 kilometers above sea level and extends to 9,656 kilometers. Temperature in the thermosphere increases to about 1,204 degrees C. The exact temperature depends on solar activity. The region beyond the Earth's atmosphere is referred to as space, or outer space. The regions of the atmosphere can also be characterized by the distribution of various chemical processes that happen within them, by their molecular composition, and also by the dynamic and kinetic processes that occur within each region. Weather conditions that occur within the troposphere affect flight and are carefully studied partly for that reason. Conditions such as wind, temperature, water in the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure, and turbulence all affect the way an aircraft flies. Winds are a natural motion of the air parallel to the Earth's surface caused by the uneven heating and cooling of the Earth and atmosphere. Air that is heated rises because the heat applied to air decreases the air's density to the point where it is lighter in weight than the surrounding cooler air. Air at higher altitudes also exerts less atmospheric pressure because fewer air molecules are present and because of the lesser effect of gravity. (Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the air over a specified area.) When less dense air rises, it displaces the cooler, denser air, which moves horizontally to fill the lower pressure area created. This horizontal motion is wind. Motion in a vertical or nearly vertical direction is called a current.

Flight Physics

Earths Atmosphere
Pilots have to compensate for the direction and velocity of winds to stay on course. Although statistical averages of wind speed as a function of altitude have been calculated, real wind velocity at any particular time and place varies considerably from the statistical average. To avoid drift as a result of wind, pilots should consult local airports for wind conditions and forecasts along their intended flight path. Differences in temperature and pressure within an airflow result in turbulence, or small-scale motion of the atmosphere. An aircraft experiences turbulence because small currents of wind are moving in a different direction from the main flow of wind. Turbulence also occurs because of winds blowing over irregular terrain. In passenger aircraft, turbulence may cause minor problems such as spilled coffee and in extreme cases, injuries if seat belts are not fastened. Excessive shaking or vibration may render the pilot unable to read instruments. In cases of precision flying such as for air-to-air refueling, bombing and gunnery, or aerial photography, turbulence-induced motions of the aircraft are a nuisance. Turbulence-induced stresses and strains over a long period may cause fatigue in the airframe and particularly heavy turbulence may cause the loss of control of an aircraft or even immediate structural failure. A thunderstorm is the most violent of all turbulences. In a thunderstorm strong updrafts and downdrafts exist side by side. The severity of the aircraft motion caused by the turbulence will depend upon the magnitude of the updrafts and downdrafts and their directions. Many private aircraft have been lost to thunderstorm turbulence because of structural failure or loss of control. Commercial airliners generally fly around such storms for the comfort and safety of their passengers. The atmosphere contains moisture in the form of water vapor. Water vapor is less dense than dry air and consequently, humid air (air containing more water vapor) is less dense than dry air. Because of this, a plane's takeoff roll will be longer, its rate of climb slower, and its landing speed higher in humid air than in denser dry air. Further, forms of precipitation such as icing on aircraft wings, zero visibility in fog or snow, and physical damage caused by hail all affect aircraft performance. Air density is a very important factor in the lift, drag, and engine power output of an aircraft and depends upon the local temperature and pressure. Since the standard atmosphere does not indicate true conditions at a particular time and place, it is important for a pilot to contact a local airport for local atmospheric conditions. From these local temperature and pressure readings, density may be obtained and, hence, takeoff distance and engine power output may be determined. The water vapor also poses danger for the air transportation system. Water droplets are instable usually spherical nucleation of water in the atmosphere. Their diameter varies ranging from 15 m to 200 m and they are found in altitudes below 6,700 m. When those particles hits aircraft parts like wing and tail surfaces leading edges, they instantaneously change their state becoming ice if the outside air temperature is below zero. Ice building up on control and lifting surfaces will alter their aerodynamic shape leading to loss of control and lift. For this reason, aircraft are equipped with anti-ice or deice systems. Advanced systems contain probes for ice detection that automatically activate the anti-ice devices in the event ice poses a danger for the flight safety.

Flight Physics

Earths Atmosphere

Flight Physics

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics, a complex word originating from the Greek words air and power, literally it meaning air in motion, is the branch of the larger field of mechanics the science of motion of bodies in general. Aerodynamics studies the laws of motion concerning the forces that fluids, and particularly air, exert on bodies moving through it. The word aerodynamics itself was not officially documented until 1837. However, the observation of fluids and their effect on objects can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 B.C. Aristotle conceived the notion that air has weight and observed that a body moving through a fluid encounters resistance. Archimedes, another Greek philosopher, also has a place in the history of aerodynamics. A hundred years later, in 250 B.C., he presented his law of floating bodies that formed a basic principle of lighter-than-air vehicles. He stated that a fluid - either in a liquid or a gaseous form - is continuous, basically restating Aristotle's theory of a hundred years earlier. He comprehended that every point on the surface of a body immersed in a fluid was subject to some force due to the fluid. He stated that, in a fluid, each part is always pressed by the whole weight of the column perpendicularly above it. He observed that the pressure exerted on an object immersed in a fluid is directly proportional to its depth in the fluid. In other words, the deeper the object is in the fluid, the greater the pressure on it. Deep-sea divers, who have to accustom themselves to changes in pressure both on the way down into the sea and again on the way up to the surface, directly experience this phenomenon. Fluid Mechanics studies the motion of fluids at low speeds, where a gas behaves practically like an incompressible liquid. In these conditions, the enthalpy of a gas is large in comparison with its kinetic energy, and one does not have to take into account the variation of enthalpy with the speed of flow. The mechanics of a gas differs from that of a liquid when the relative velocity between the gas and the body under consideration is high.

Flight Physics

Mathematics
Isaac Newton (1643 1727)
Laid the foundation (along with Leibniz) for differential and integral calculus It has been claimed that the Principia is the greatest work in the history of the physical sciences. Book I: general dynamics from a mathematical standpoint Book II: treatise on fluid mechanics Book III: devoted to astronomical and physical problems. Newton addressed and resolved a number of issues including the motions of comets and the influence of gravitation. For the first time, he demonstrated that the same laws of motion and gravitation ruled everywhere under a single mathematical law.

Aerodynamics

Flight Physics

Vortex and Lift

Helicopter

Trapezoidal Wing
Flight Physics

Delta Wing

Shape and Drag

Flight Physics

Flow Control
Flaps

Suitable shape

Enhanced wingtip

Flight Physics

Nacelle chin

Vortex generators

Flow Control - Wingtips

Flight Physics

Flow Control Formation Flight

The NASAs Air Vehicles Directorate is currently studying a novel form of formation flight. For centuries, flocks of migratory birds have flown in large formations. One reason for this is the drag reduction obtained by flying in close proximity to wakes generated by other birds. Photographic studies of Canadian Geese indicate the average spacing between adjacent birds is very close to the optimum predicted by simple aerodynamic theory. Small heart monitors implanted in White Pelicans show reduced heart rates while flying in formation compared to individual flight. Recent advances in automatic control theory, combined with the ability to accurately determine the location of aircraft, may now make this practical for aircraft.

Right. NASAs Autonomous Flight Formation

Flight Physics

Flow Control

Flow at high angle of attack Slotted wing

Handley Page H.P.17 (1920)

Flight Physics

Insect Flight

FRUIT FLY USES three different aerodynamic mechanisms to support its weight in the air. During much of the wing stroke (1), a leading-edge vortex forms and increases lift, a process called delayed stall because the vortex does not have time to detach, which is what happens when an aircraft stalls. At the end of a stroke (2, 3, 4), the wing rotates, which produces rotational lift analogous to a tennis ball hit with backspin. At the start of the upstroke (5), the wing passes back through the wake of the downstroke. The wing is oriented so that this increased airflow adds further lift, a process called wake capture.

Flight Physics

4 Animal Flight

Pangea

Above. During the Late Permian, tectonic movement of the plates led to the formation of one huge land mass called PANGEA. Animal Flight

The separate continents of the Paleozoic, after having drifted apart through the fragmentation of the supercontinent of Rodinia, around 650 million years ago (Vendian period) eventually drifted together again during the Paleozoic, colliding to form the supercontinent of Pangea during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, some 350 million years ago. More specifically Pangea was assembled by the collisions of three main blocks, Gondwanaland, Euramerica, and Siberia, during the Permo-Carboniferous time, around 350 to 260 million years ago. Various smaller blocks, especially in southeastern Asia, were late arrivals. In the initial collision between Gondwanaland and the northern continents, South America butted central Euramerica. Modern Spain and central France are former pieces of Venezuela. Pangea was essentially complete by the Kungurian epoch (late early Permian). A sliding motion then carried Gondwanaland 3500 kilometers westward, relative to the northern landmasses, until Africa was abutting North America by the Norian epoch (Late Triassic), producing the classic Pangea configuration. Pangea was to remain intact for some 250-300 million years, finally breaking up in the early to MidCretaceous, some 130-100 million years ago. However, for much of its long history the supercontinent was actually a series of large islands, separated from each other by shallow continental sea.

The Future in 250 million Years?

Is this what will become of the Earth's surface? The surface of the Earth is broken up into several large plates that are slowly shifting. About 250 million years ago, the plates on which the present-day continents rest were positioned quite differently, so that all the landmasses were clustered together in one supercontinent now dubbed Pangea. About 250 million years from now, the plates are again projected to reposition themselves so that a single landmass dominates. The above simulation from the PALEAOMAP Project shows this giant landmass: Pangea Ultima. At that time, the Atlantic Ocean will be just a distant memory, and whatever beings inhabit Earth will be able to walk from North America to Africa.

Animal Flight

The Pioneers of Flight

Insects: Insects: 350 million years. Protoavis: 215 million years, more birdlike than Archeopteryx Pterosaurs: Pterosaurs: 200 million years, launched themselves from cliffs. Wings were of skin between fingers. Archeopteryx: Archeopteryx: this creatured had feathers. Transformation of the skin to feathers (150 million years ago). Birds: Birds: Several families of birds were established 50 million

years ago. No big jaws or teeth.

Animal Flight

Insects
The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, estimated at 396-407 million years old. This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles, a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period. The subclass Apterygota (wingless insects) is now considered artificial as the silverfish (order Thysanura) are more closely related to Pterygota (winged insects) than to bristletails (order Archaeognatha). For instance, just like flying insects, Thysanura have socalled dicondylic mandibles, while Archaeognatha have monocondylic mandibles. The reason for their resemblance is not due to a particularly close relationship, but rather because they both have kept a primitive and original anatomy in a much higher degree than the winged insects. The most primitive order of flying insects, the mayflies (Ephemeroptera), are also those who are most morphologically and physiologically similar to these wingless insects. Some mayfly nymphs resemble aquatic thysanurans. Modern Archaeognatha and Thysanura still have rudimentary appendages on their abdomen called styli, while more primitive and extinct insects known as Monura had much more developed abdominal appendages, as seen here. The abdominal and thoracic segments in the earliest terrestrial ancestor of the insects would have been more similar to each others than they are today, and the head had well developed compound eyes and long antennae. Their body size is not known yet. As the most primitive group today, Archaeognatha, is most abundant near the coasts, it could mean that this was the kind of habitat where the insect ancestors became terrestrial. But this specialization to coastal niches could also have a secondary origin, just as could their jumping locomotion, as it is the crawling Thysanura who are considered to be most original (plesiomorphic). By looking at how primitive cheliceratan book gills (still seen in horseshoe crabs) evolved into book lungs in primitive spiders and finally into tracheae in more advanced spiders (most of them still have a pair of book lungs intact as well), it is possible the trachea of insects was formed in a similar way, modifying gills at the base of their appendages. So far there is nothing that suggests the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they got their wings.

Animal Flight

Insects

The following records relate to the flight of insects:

Migration distance => Painted Lady Butterfly, from North Africa to Iceland, a distance of 4,000 miles. Fastest flight in insects => Sphinx Moths, speed of 33 mph. Fastest wingbeat => Midge, at 62,760 beats per minute. Slowest wingbeat => Swallowtail butterfly -- 300 beats/minute. Highest altitude => Some butterflies have been observed flying at altitudes up to 20,000 feet. Largest wings, modern => Wingspans of some butterflies and moths are the largest of all modern insects. Largest wings, extinct => The wingspans of fossil dragonflies, existing millions of years ago, were more than two feet.

Animal Flight

Sharovipteryx mirabilis Early Triassic, 245 million years ago

Wings of birds and bats are actually front legs that were transformed for flying. Wings of pterodactyles also originated from front legs. But Sharovipterix had wings on its hind legs! Bone structure indicates that Sharovipterix could not be an active flyer. But it could be a glider. Dr. Allan Edward Munro thinks that its front legs are too small for climbing trees. It is also possible that Sharovipterix jumped as a grasshopper and used the membrane for maneuvering in the air and for extending the jump. The membrane could be used also for display.

Animal Flight

Protoavis and Archaeopteryx

Protoavis - 215 millions years

"Just as the 150-million-year-old Archaeopteryx fossil is being reinstated as the earliest known bird after considerable controversy, along come two crowsize skeletons that are not only 75 million years older than Archaeopteryx but also more birdlike, according to the paleontologists who discovered them. The Washington, D.C.-based National Geographic Society, which funded the work, announced this week that Sankar Chatterjee and his colleagues at Texas Tech University in Lubbock found the 225-million-year-old fossils near Post, Tex." Chatterjee has named the new fossil Protoavis. (Weisburd, S.; "Oldest Bird and Longest Dinosaur," Science News, 130:103, 1986.)

Archaeopteryx - 150 million years

In southern Germany, 150 million years ago, countless sea lilies were imbedded in fine lime-muds between drowned coral reefs on the floor of a moderately deep sea. However, the most famous fossils from these strata are five specimens of archaeopteryx, generally considered to be the oldest known bird, and certainly the focus of continuing debate. Archaeopteryx was small, with a wingspan of 0.5 m and weighed about 325 g. Its feathers were similar to those of flying birds, but its skeleton closely resembled that of a small carnivorous dinosaur. The brain was relatively large for an animal of that epoch. Was archaeopteryx a feathered dinosaur, an ancestral bird, or neither, or both? They lived during the late Jurassic period, 140 million years ago.

Animal Flight

Pterosaurus

The largest pterosaur (Quetzalcoatlus, wonderfully named for the Aztec winged serpent god) had a wing span from eleven to twelve meters long. Despite its huge size, the skeleton was lightly built and the whole animal probably weighed no more than 100 kilograms. Its neck was extremely long, its slender jaws were toothless and its head was topped by a long, bony crest. Unlike most other pterosaur fossils the Quetzalcoatlus remains have not been found in marine strata but in the sand and silt of a large river's flood plain and this has raised questions about how it lived. Pterosaur wing's main support was an amazingly elongated fourth digit in the hand. Fibers in the wing membrane added structural support and stiffness. At least some pterosaurs may have had some sort of hair-like body covering, which could very well mean that they were endothermic. Pterosaurs had a diverse range of head types, as you can tell from the pictures above. Their ability to fly probably allowed them to evolve into many niches, taking advantage of many different food sources, which would explain the range of skull morphology seen.

Animal Flight

Pterosaurus

12-m wingspan (EMB-110: 15.3 m)

Ornithocheirus
Animal Flight

Brazilian Coast 127 million years ago

Rahona Ostroni

For more than 100 years, paleontologists have debated which came first: dinosaur eggs or prehistoric chickens. Based on such primitive birds as Archaeopteryx most have come to accept that birds evolved from small, terrestrial dinosaurs Archaeopteryx, known as theropods. But a vocal minority of researchers has held out, arguing--among other things--that birds are too old to have therapod ancestry. They note that the most bird-like therapods date to about 115 million years ago, whereas Archaeopteryx specimens appear in the fossil record no sooner than 150 million years ago. Compared to Archaeopteryx though, Rahona ostromi is a spring chicken, dating to only 65 to 70 million years ago. Archaeopteryx, And R. ostromi is in many ways even more dino-like. The skeleton of Rahona exhibits a striking mosaic of therapod and derived avian features. Perhaps most dramatic new finding is that the raven-sized bird bears a sickle-shaped claw on the second toe of its hind foot--a trait it shares only with fast, predaceous therapods called maniraptorans. This group includes Deinonychus and Velociraptors. In addition, this toe is much thicker on R. ostromi than on other birds, as is also true of meniraptorans. And like Archaeopteryx R. ostromi has a long, saurian tail. Archaeopteryx, R. ostromi is perhaps most bird-like in terms of its hips and legs, some researchers presume that it fits in at the base of the bird family tree, alongside Archaeopteryx The seeming age difference between the two may mean that R. ostromi Archaeopteryx. - having been isolated on Madagascar -- represents an evolutionary holdover. Whatever the case, R. ostromi is clearly one of the most primitive birds ever discovered. As for the theory that birds have dinosaur origins, these researchers say, "it clinches it for us."

Animal Flight

How Flying Creatures Appeared?

Two models of the evolution of flight have been proposed: in the "treesproposed: down" model, birds evolved from ancestors that lived in trees and could glide down, analogous to today's flying squirrels. In the "ground-up" model, the ancestors of birds lived on the ground and made long leaps.

Pterosaurus: gliders? Feathered Dinos: takeoff run?

Animal Flight

How Good is Half a Wing?

Powered Flight Insects Birds Bats Pterosaurs? Gliders Squirrels Lemurs Marsupials Fish Frogs Snakes Lizards

Animal Flight

What happened to the first feathered flying dinos? Was the breaking up of Pangea or a sudden climate change the reason for a possible end of the Protoavis Dynasty? However, the Evolutionary trend to produce flying dinosaurs continued later.

Animal Flight

Feathered Dinosaurs Found in China

(fossils were dated between 125 and 145 million years old)

A model of what the Caudipteryx may have looked like. The fossils are considered theropod dinosaurs rather than true birds because they lack a number of features seen in Archaeopteryx and more advanced birds, says Norell, a researcher of the American Museum of Natural History . He and his colleagues doubt that the creatures could fly because they had relatively short forelimbs, short feathers, and a body twice the size of Archaeopteryx. Whats more, Archaeopteryx. their feathers had a symmetrical shape like that seen in flightless birds today.

Animal Flight

Feather Evolution Path

Source: Source Scientific American

Rear wings with asymmetrical feathers

Animal Flight

Gigantoraptor
Gigantoraptor erlianensis stood more than 16 feet (five meters) tall and weighed a ton and a half, or roughly 1,400 kilograms. Featuring a toothless beak on its head and a short tail for balance, the enormous birdlike dinosaur measured more than 26 feet (eight meters) in length. Living more than 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, this big bird precursor has complicated the seemingly shrinking descent from Archaeopteryx to the modern sparrow. Paleontologist Xing Xu of Beijing's Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology and colleagues discovered the animal while prospecting for fossils in the Erlian Basin of the Gobi Desert in north-central China in 2007. Based on its size, the paleontologists initially classified it as member of the tyrannosaur lineage, but bits of beak, leg and other bones revealed that it more properly belonged to the oviraptorosauria group, heretofore a grouping of small, feathered creatures weighing only a few pounds. "It is the largest known beaked dinosaur," Xu says. Adds paleontologist Mark Norell of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City: "I was just flabbergasted when I saw it because it was so big."

Animal Flight

Source: Source Scientific American

Microraptor Gui
Microraptor ("small thief") is a genus of small, dromaeosaurid dinosaur known from well-preserved fossil remains recovered from Liaoning, China, and dating from the early Cretaceous Period (Barremian stage), 130-125.5 million years ago. Like Archaeopteryx, it demonstrates the close evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs, for it had long pennaceous feathers on its limbs and tail. Two species have been named, M. zhaoianus and M. gui. It has recently been suggested that all of the specimens belong to a single species, which is properly called M. zhaoianus. Cryptovolans, another four-winged dromaeosaur, may also be a species of Microraptor.

Animal Flight

Microraptor Gui
Wings
Like its close relative Cryptovolans (possibly a junior synonym of Microraptor), Microraptor had two sets of wings, on both its fore- and hind legs (close studies of the Berlin specimen of the primitive bird Archaeopteryx show that it too, had flight feathers on its hind legs, albeit shortened). The long feathers on the legs of Microraptor were true flight feathers as seen in modern birds, with asymetrical vanes on the arm, leg, and tail feathers. As in bird wings, Microraptor had both primary (anchored to the hand) and secondary (anchored to the arm) flight feathers. This standard wing pattern was mirrored on the hind legs, with flight feathers anchored to the upper foot bones as well as the upper and lower leg. It had been proposed by Chinese scientists that the animal glided, and probably lived in trees, pointing to the fact that wings anchored to the feet of Microraptor would have hindered their ability to run on the ground, and suggest that all primitive dromaeosaurids may have been arboreal.

Animal Flight

After the Big Extinction that took place 65 million years ago

This creature lived 50 million years ago on earth. It was an adult persons height and ate the predecessor of todays horse.

Animal Flight

Predatory Dinosaurs Had Bird-like Pulmonary System Bird-

The pulmonary air-sac systems of dinosaurs and birds exhibit striking similarities, including predicted regions air of sac integration into the skeleton. The air sacs act like bellows to move air through the rigid lungs. (Credit: Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation)

Flight is in the air

Paul MacCreadys Quetzalcoatlus 1987 Quetzalcoatlus,

Animal Flight

Birds

Maneuverability

Speed (top right) and maneuverability (bottom right) of birds depend on size (and Weight) and von wing planform. Mid-sized, sharp-wingtip birds like common swift or falcon peregrine are top-speed fliers. The speed spectrum (black line) goes thinner when the weight increases. Small birds and those with shorter, wide wings and large tail are able to perform rapid acceleration and stop.

Speed Velocity

Weight

Animal Flight

Falcon Peregrine
The relationship between Peregrine Falcons and humans goes back thousands of years. Once highly prolific and widespread throughout the world, Peregrine Falcons were commonly used throughout Europe, Asia and the Middle East in the practice of Falconry. Peregrines are naturally docile and easily lent themselves to taming by humans who saw the Falcon's hunting prowess as an asset in hunting for food. The Peregrines magnificent speed and power also made it the favorite bird for falconers in the Middle Ages. The female, which is slightly larger and more powerful than the male, was preferred, and only she is given the title of falcon. A male Peregrine is referred to as a tiercel meaning third. Although falconry has fallen out of favor, there are still those who practice it today.

The peregrine is the fastest bird on record reaching horizontal cruising speeds of 65-90 km/h ( 40-55 mph) and not exceeding speeds of 105-110 km/h (65-68 mph). When stooping, the peregrine flies at much greater speeds however, varying from 160-440 km/h (99-273 mph)! Animal Flight

Gannet

Source: Daryll Stinton,,the design of the airplane.

Animal Flight

5 - Human Flight

The history of civilization dates back a few thousand years, but the history of aviation is quite recent, only about a century old. The camera film was created in 1825. In 1895, a motion picture was shown for the first time before an audience in Berlin. Likewise, early developments in aviation are well recorded. Because the history of the aerostat started long before that of the airplane, it is less known. Ancient inscriptions and texts indicate that the Chinese used hot air balloons and gigantic kites before the Christian era in order to survey the battlefield. The Mongols used lighted kites to communicate during the Battle of Legnica against the Poles in 1241 A.D. Much later, Brazilian Jesuit Bartholomeu de Gusmo, born to Portuguese parents, rediscovered the principle of the hot air balloon. In 1709, Gusmo built a small and unmanned balloon and performed a demonstration at the court of King Dom Joo V. In France, Jean Piltre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes made the first recorded flight in history in 1783, on board a balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers. From then on, ballooning became a rage. In 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries departed from England on a balloon and crossed the English Channel. In 1794, France opened a ballooning school. France used two balloon corps in the battles of Maubeuge and Fleurus and in the Mainz siege in the following year. In July of 1849 Austrian troops used balloons for the first time to drop bombs on Venice. As of the mid 19th century, two new trends emerged based on the steam engine: the race to fly a lighter-than-air airship with engines and directional control, and the development of fixed-wing aircraft. In 1852, the Frenchman Henri Giffard was the first to fly a lighter-than-air craft with engines and steam propellers. From then on, numerous crafts followed, including Paul Haelein's craft in 1872 and Charles Ritchel's in 1878. Paul Haelein from Germany was the first to use internal combustion engines on an airship. Hydrogen, used as fuel to lift the airship, was stored in only one tank. In the United States, Charles Ritchel made demonstrations of a lighter-than-air craft built with impermeable fabric and a tubular structure with room for the pilot and an engine, and managed to sell five units of his flying machine. Several other airships produced significant innovations before the turn of the century. Over time, the airplane began to take on a familiar shape. In 1799, the English George Cayley correctly outlined the lift, drag, and thrust forces that act on the airplane when flying. He pointed out the importance of using cambered airfoils to produce a suitable lift, as well as designed gliders with control surfaces. These gliders were built and made successful flights in the mid 19th century. As of 1891, the German Otto Lilienthal performed about 2000 glider flights. Both Lilienthal and Cayley wrote books and articles about light theory that influenced the work of the pioneers that followed. Several attempts were made at flying with steam engine aircrafts, but these flights were not successful owing o their high weight-power ratio. Only after the internal combustion engine was improved did flying with a heavier than air aircraft become possible. In December 1903, the Wright brothers took to the air on the Flyer biplane, recognized by many historians as the first manned flight. In October 1906, Santos Dumont made the first historical manned flight on the 14Bis at the Bagatelle field, publicly witnessed by thousands of people and certified by an official entity, the Aero Club of France. The Wright brothers were the first to carry passengers on their flights in Europe in 1908; the English Channel was crossed for the first time by Louis Blriot in 1909. The First World War greatly stepped up aviation growth. Shortly after the War, the first airlines were founded and started operating with retrofitted bomber planes. German manufacturer, Junkers, designed and produced the world's first all-metal planes, as some were used in combat in the later stages of the First World War. The Junkers F.13 was the first airplane intended for passenger transportation, having made its maiden flight in 1919. Experimental development was performed side-by-side with theoretical work carried out by scientists and researchers. Thus, fluid mechanics had been evolving a long time. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published his findings on the relationship between pressure and gas velocity. Bernoulli's assistant, Leonard Euler, published some articles in 1750 containing his famous equations on the behavior of compressible fluids. Italian mathematician Joseph Lagrange and French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace studied Euler's findings and tried to solve his equations. In 1788, Lagrange introduced a new model for fluid flow as well as new equations for calculating velocity and pressure. In 1789, Laplace developed an equation that would help solve Euler's equations. It is still used in modern aerodynamics and physics. Laplace also successfully calculated the speed of sound. In addition to these theoretical advancements, experiments in aerodynamics were also producing more practical results. In 1732, the French chemist Henri Pitot invented the Pitot tube, a device that enables the calculation of velocity at a point in a flowing fluid. This would help explain the behavior of fluid flow. The English engineer Benjamin Robins performed experiments in 1746 using a whirling arm device and a pendulum to measure drag at low and high speeds. In 1759, the English engineer John Smeaton also used a whirling arm device to measure the drag exerted on a surface by moving air. He proposed the equation D = kSV2, where D is the drag, S is the surface area, V is the air velocity, and k is a constant, which Smeaton claimed was necessary in the equation. This constant became known as Smeaton's coefficient, and the value of this constant was debated for years. Those making the first attempts at flight, including the Wright brothers, used this coefficient. The French scientist Jean-Charles Borda published the results of his own whirling arm experiments in 1763. Borda verified and proposed modifications to current aerodynamic theories and was able to show the effect that the movement of one object had on another nearby object. The Navier-Stokes equations, considered the most complete mathematical model of fluid flow, were written in the beginning of the 19th century. However, this system of equations was solved only halfway through the 20th century. For this reason, aviation pioneers largely used experimentation and employed less complex theoretical models in order to achieve their goals.

First Thoughts
Around 2300 BC Representation of aviation with king Etana on top of an eagle in the ruins of Ninive (above) 750 BC emergence of the legend of Daedalus and Icarus around 400 BC the often-scribed pigeon of the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarant could have been a kite 200 BC emergence of the legend of Alexander, in which Alexander of Macedonia flies in company of some half-starved griffins to the end of the world. This motive turns up frequently. 220 BC records indicate that the Chinese used kites as rangefinders 2. cent. BC - 5. cent. Out of the Nazca-culture there are kept large "earth drawings" up to several km in the desert of Peru. A new hypothesis explains them as prehistoric starting places for kites or hanggliders. 10 cent. The glider kite is presumed to have gained currency around the Pacific. It was probably manned and used for military, religious and ceremonial reasons. 1247 The Mongolian army uses lighted kites in the battle at Liegnitz 60

First Thoughts
1282 Marco Polo reports on manned and ritual kite ascents. 1316 - 1390 Albert of Saxony, Bishop of Halberstadt, holds the opinion that air could carry a reasonably constructed machine as water can carry a ship (Archimedes principle). 1496 the Italian Mathematician Giambattista Danti is supposed to have flown from a tower. There are many descriptions of supposed flights and attempts to fly in many countries. In the Middle Ages the ability to fly was attributed by popular belief to saints and witches. About 1500 Flight-technical studies of Leonardo da Vinci In his notes designs for a parachute, a helicopter and a Ornithopter were found as well as notes of studies of airflows. About 1500 Hironymus Bosch shows at his triptych "The temptation of the holy Antonius" among other things two fighting airships above a burning town. 1558 Giambattista della Porta publishes a theory and a construction manual for a kite. 1644 The Italian physicist Evangelista Toricelli manages to give proof of the atmospheric pressure; he also produces a vacuum.
1654

The physicist and mayor of Magdeburg Otto von Guericke measures the weight of air and demonstrates his famous "Magdeburger Halbkugeln" (hemispheres of Magdeburg): 16 horses are unable to pull two completely airless hemispheres, whichstick to each other only because of the external air pressure, apart from each other (above).

1678 Supposed flight of the French locksmith Besnier with a flapping wing machine. 1680 The Italian physicist Alphonso Borelli shows in his treatise "movements of animals" that the flapping of wings with the muscle power of the human arm cannot be successful. 61

The Quest for Flight

By 17th Century, ancient ideas inspired scientific theories and experiments Characteristics of the atmosphere and the discovery of gasses and properties led to lighter-than-air balloon experiments Airships needed power and direction control Glider flying increased understanding of flight forces, wing geometry & controls

62

Aeronautical Science

63

Fluid Mechanics
Faces of Fluid Mechanics : some of the greatest minds of history helped to establish the science of fluid mechanics

Archimedes (287-212 BC)

Da Vinci (1452-1519)

Newton (1643-1727)

Leibniz (1646-1716)

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)

Daniel Bernoulli Claude Navier

(1700-1782)

(1785-1836)

GeorgeStokes (1819-1903)

Osborne Reynolds Ludwig Prandtl (1842-1912) (1875-1953)

Aeronautical Science
NavierNavier-Stokes Equations The Navier-Stokes equations are the basic governing equations for a viscous, heat conducting fluid. It is a vector equation obtained by applying Newton's Law of Motion to a fluid element and is also called the momentum equation. It is supplemented by the mass conservation equation, also called continuity equation and the energy equation. Usually, the term Navier-Stokes equations is used to refer to all of these equations. Claude Louis Marie Henri Naviers name is associated with the famous Navier-Stokes equations that govern motion of a viscous fluid. He derived the Navier-Stokes equations in a paper in 1822. His derivation was however based on a molecular theory of attraction and repulsion between neighbouring molecules. Euler had already derived the equations for an ideal fluid in 1755 which did not include the effects of viscosity. Navier did not recognize the physical significance of viscosity and attributed the viscosity coefficient to be a function of molecular spacing. The equations of motion were rederived by Cauchy in 1828 and by Poisson in 1829. In 1843 Barre de Saint-Venant published a derivation of the equations that applied to both laminar and turbulent flows. However the other person whose name is attached with Navier is the Irish mathematicianphysicist George Gabriel Stokes. In 1845 he published a derivation of the equations in a manner that is currently understood.
65

Aeronautical Engineering

Leonardo da Vinci
Variable speed drive

Another theoretical gear system that anticipates a number of modern applications. By meshing the three cogged wheels of different diameters to the same lantern wheel, three different speeds of rotation result, a principle used in the transmission of the modern automobile.

67

Leonardo da Vinci
Spring Driven Car

It is doubtful that any such vehicle was ever constructed. Though springs had been known since ancient times, their use to supply power first appeared in clocks and watches made after Leonardo's time. He recognized their potential usefulness in such theoretical designs as this, and in a drawing for a flying machine in which springs were intended to provide an aid to manpower. 68

Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci, the most versatile genius of the Renaissance, is best remembered as the painter of the Mona Lisa (c. 1503) and The Last Supper (c. 1495). But he is almost equally famous for his astonishing multiplicity of talents: architecture, sculpture, music, engineering, geology, hydraulics and the military arts, all with success, and in his spare time doodled sketches for working parachutes and flying machines like helicopters that resembled inventions of the 19th and 20th centuries. He made detailed drawings of human anatomy which are still highly regarded today. Was also known for his engineering of canal locks, cathedrals, and engines of war. Leonardo also was quirky enough to write notebook entries in mirror (backwards) script, a trick which kept many of his observations from being widely known until decades after his death.
69

Leonardo da Vinci
Parachute

In June 2000, a British man, Adrian Nicholas built a parachute based on Leonardos ideas. He dropped himself from a hot air balloon 3,000 metres above the ground, after ignoring expert advice that the canvas and wood contraption would not fly. Mr Nicholas said he thought da Vinci would have been pleased, even if the vindication of his idea came70 five centuries late.

Francesco Lana -1650

On November 11, 1647 a sixteen year old Italian boy became a novice in the Society of Jesus in Rome. That in itself was not extraordinary. It was the mind of the young man that was extraordinary. He was one of the Jesuits who shone in the world of scientific ideas. Francesco Lana was the first person known to have systematically applied mathematics to solving the problems of lighter-than-air flight. You may have seen sketches of a gondola-like ship upheld by four globes and steered by a sail. Francesco's concept was that if one were to eliminate all the air from a sphere of thin metal, it would become lighter than air and able to rise. So far, his reasoning was based on sound principles. Blaise Pascal had shown that air pressure decreases with altitude. Two scientists at Magdeburg later showed that it would take a team of eight horses to overcome outside air pressure and pull apart two halves of a heavy sphere that had been emptied of air using such a vacuum pump. Then Robert Boyle wrote a treatise on vacuum, based on experiments conducted with the vacuum pump that Robert Hooke built for him. Francesco knew of their work. However, technology only works when all natural factors that affect it are taken into account. Francesco thought that the spherical shape of the globes would hold them rigid. He was wrong. He did not realize that the same outside air pressure which made it so hard for the horses to separate the experimental sphere in Magdeburg would squash his flimsy globes. To keep them from being flattened, a lighter gas of equal pressure was needed inside. 71

Bartholomeu de Gusmo (1685-1724) (16851709

72 Passarola

Benjamin Robins Whirling Arm Device 1746

Benjamin Robins, the British mathematician, proved that air resistance was a critical factor in the flight of projectiles in 1746. His apparatus consisted of a whirling arm device in which weight (M) turned a drum and rotated the test object . 73

Montgolfier Brothers (1783)

Two brothers, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, made manned, lighter-than-air flight possible. These two papermakers living in France, although not scientists, were highly educated and Interested in science and flight. They had read the works of the English scientist Joseph Priestly who, In 1774, had discovered oxygen and had written scientific papers on the properties of air. In 1782, while watching a fire in his fireplace, Joseph became interested in the "force" that caused the sparks and smoke to rise. He made a small bag out of silk and lighted a fire under the opening at the bottom causing it to rise. The brothers thought the burning created a gas which they called "Montgolfier gas." They didn't realize that their balloons rose because the heated air inside was lighter than the surrounding air. In June 1783, the brothers put on their first public demonstration using a paper-lined linen bag 38-feet in diameter. The balloon rose to an altitude of 6,000 feet and traveled over a mile before landing. After a demonstration before the Academy of Science in Paris, in which the brothers sent aloft a sheep, rooster, and duck, man was ready to fly. In Paris, on November 21, 1783, two men flew for the first time in a lighter-thanair craft. They were Pilatre de Rozier, who later became the first man killed in an aircraft accident, and Marquis d'Arlandes, an infantry officer. The flight lasted 25 minutes and covered a little more than five miles.

74

Balonismo torna-se uma febre na Europa torna-

Por ocasio da ascenso de 1785, o aeronauta Vicenzo Lunardi, com uma fleuma perfeitamente britnica, agita Union Jack. Lunardi efetuou um primeiro vo prolongado atravs da Inglaterra em 1784; mais tarde, percorreu igualmente a Esccia. Apesar das asa e dos remos, no lhe foi possvel dirigir o seu balo.

Em 1798, um cavaleiro sobe em um balo. As exibies aeronuticas tornaram-se cada vez mais comuns.

75

Charles Green Flights between 1821 and 1852

Lithograph depicting the Royal Nassau balloon containing Green, Jerrad, Moss, Spinney, Brunsdon and Hughes, ascending from the rotunda at Montpellier Gardens in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. English aeronaut Charles Green (1785-1870) used this coal gas-filled balloon (formerly known as the Royal Vauxhall) for his most famous flight from London to Nassau in Germany in 1836. It was on this voyage, along with passengers Robert Holland MP and Thomas Monck Mason, that Green successfully completed the world's longest flight, covering an estimated 480 miles (770 km) in 18 hours. After achieving this feat, Green had an endless supply of patrons eager to make an ascent in the famous balloon. 76

Balloon @ War

The French were the first to use balloons for aerial reconnaissance in 1794, during their conflict with Austria. This reconnaissance contributed to the French victory by providing a way for the French to observe the makeup and activities of their enemies. After the French Revolution had ended, one of the first acts of the Committee of Public Safety was to appoint an advisory commission that recommended using observation balloons to help France's armies. They set aside an area in the Paris suburbs for conducting secret balloon experiments. There, the world's first military observation balloon, L'Entrepremant," was constructed in 1793 under the guidance of the scientist Charles Coutelle and assisted by N.J. Cont. 77

Henri Giffard - 1852

Giffard's first flight took place on September 24, 1852. He traveled almost 17 miles (27 kilometers) from the Paris racecourse to Trappes moving approximately 6 miles per hour (10 kilometers/hour). However, Giffard's airship could be steered only in calm or nearly calm weather. With any more wind, the airship could fly only in slow circles. A lightweight engine powerful enough to overcome more than light breezes had not yet been invented. Using current technology, an engine with enough power to operate an airship in windy conditions would have been prohibitively heavy. Not until the development of light, efficient internal combustion engines at the end of the nineteenth century would airships become practical. Realizing that the engine was too heavy for his balloon, on his next flight Giffard suspended it beneath a second, large bag of 113,000 cubic feet (3,200 cubic meters) capacity. On a trial trip, gas escaped and the balloon became misshapen. The nose tilted up and some of the lines that held the car in place broke. The balloon escaped from the net and burst. Surprisingly, Giffard and his passenger were only slightly injured. For Giffard's third and final attempt, he planned an even larger balloon1,970 feet (600 meters) long, 98 feet (30 meters) in diameter at the middle, and with a capacity of 7,800,000 cubic feet (220,871 cubic meters). He designed a steam engine that weighed 30 tons (27,216 kilograms) which he thought would move the ship at 45 miles per hour (72.4 kilometers per hour) in still air. However, because of its cost, this huge airship was never built. 78

Tissandier Brothers - 1883

The brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier of France designed and constructed the first airship powered by electricity. The current was supplied by 24 bichromate of potash cells to a Siemens 1.5 horsepower (1.1 kilowatts) at 180 revolutions per minute. The engine drove a large two-bladed pusher propeller through reduction gearing. The speed achieved in calm air was still only 3 miles per hour (4.8 kilometers per hour) since the ratio of power to weight was no better than Giffard's had been. It can be clearly observed the influence of Tissandier airship configuration on the design of Santos-Dumont no. 3.

Santos-Dumont No. 3

79

La France - 1884

In 1884, Charles Renard and Arthur C. Krebs, inventors and military officers in the French Army Corps of Engineers, built an elongated balloon, La France, which was a vast improvement over earlier models. La France was the first airship that could return to its starting point in a light wind. It was 165 feet (50.3 meters) long, its maximum diameter was 27 feet (8.2 meters), and it had a capacity of 66,000 cubic feet (1,869 cubic meters). Like the Tissandiers' airship, an electric, battery-powered motor propelled La France, but this one produced 7.5 horsepower (5.6 kilowatts). This motor was later replaced with one that produced 8.5 horsepower (6.3 kilowatts). A long and slender car consisting of a silk-covered bamboo framework lined with canvas hung below the balloon. The car, which was 108 feet long (33 meters), 4.5 feet (1.4 meters) wide, and 6 feet (1.8 meters) deep, housed the lightweight batteries and the motor. The motor drove a four-bladed wooden tractor propeller that was 23 feet (7 meters) in diameter but which could be inclined upwards when landing to avoid damage to the blades. Renard also provided a rudder and elevator, ballonnets, a sliding weight to compensate for any shift in the center of gravity, and a heavy guide rope to assist in landing. The first flight of La France took place on August 9, 1884. Renard and Krebs landed successfully at the parade ground where they had begun - a flight of only 5 miles (8 kilometers) and 23 minutes but one where they had been in control throughout. During 1884 and 1885, La France made seven flights. Although her batteries limited her flying range, she demonstrated 80 that controlled flight was possible if the airship had a sufficiently powerful lightweight motor.

81

Zeppelin LZ 1

82

Zeppelin LZ 2

83

I got Lost: Minerva - 1864

The Minerva, a fanciful aerial exploration balloon engraved at the Ordnance Survey Office in England in 1864, having been conceived by Prof. Robertson as a floating garrison with detachable small balloon, steerable parachute, cannon armament and much more.

84

Balloons @ War
Balloons had been used degrees of success when first used in the French Revolution. The United States first used balloons for military purposes during the Civil War. While balloonists for both the North and South accomplished many military missions, the use of balloons stopped in 1863 when the Union disbanded its balloon corps. The failure was a result of many factors, such as commanders playing down the importance of balloons, rivalries between balloonists, and the South's lack of materials to build balloons. After the Civil War ended, many of the military balloonists became barnstormers. These men, and later women, would travel around the country charging for rides, shooting off fireworks, dropping animals with parachutes, and performing aerial trapeze acts. In the 1880s and 1890s, people began jumping with parachutes from balloons.

Federal observation balloon Intrepid being inflated. Battle of Fair Oaks, Va., May 1862. (NARA 111-B-680)

85

Remote piloted dirigible c. 1900

Well before the race for wireless telegraphy and as far back as 1893 in St. Nikola Tesla demonstrated remote control of objects by wireless. This was two full years before Marconi began his experiments. His demonstrations of remote control climaxed in an exhibition in 1898 at Madison Square Garden in which Tesla caused a small boat (right) to obey commands from the audience. Of course, it was Tesla interpreting the verbal requests and sending appropriate frequencies to tuned circuits in the miniature ship, but to the audience it was magic. To the press, Tesla prophesied a future in which telautomatons (robots) did man's bidding, perhaps some day exceeding mankind. Tesla had already decided that men were "meat machines", responding only to stimuli and incapable of free will, so to him the succession of man by machine seemed less preposterous. He also chose to join others in the race to use America's newfound technological superiority to devastate the Spanish in the the Spanish-American War. He offered his remote controlled boat to the military as a new kind of "smart-torpedo" that would make war so terrible nations would cease to wage it. 86

Crossing the English Channel - 1910

Ernest Thompson Willows (1886 - 1926) baute im Alter von 19 Jahren schon sein erstes Luftschiff. Sein erster groer Erfolg war die Fahrt von Cardiff nach London in der Nacht vom 6.-7. August 1910. Am 4. November des gleichen Jahres startete er zusammen mit seinem Mechaniker Frank Godden zu einer Fahrt nach Paris. Sie starteten in Wormwood Scrubs, in der Nhe von London. Nach der berquerung des rmelkanals muten sie in Frankreich, in der Nhe von Douai, landen, da die Luftzufuhr ins Ballonett gestrt war. Damit waren Willows und Godden die ersten, die den rmelkanal von England nach Frankreich berquert hatten, nachdem einen Monat zuvor das Clement-Bayard-Luftschiff Nr. 2 von Frankreich nach England gefahren war.

Willows Nr. 3 hatte eine Lnge von 36,5 m einen maximalen Durchmesser von 12,2 m und ein Volumen von 900 m3. Der Motor leistete 35 PS. 87

Severo Maranho

Another Brazilian, Severo Augusto de Albuquerque Maranho, born in Macaba, Rio Grande do Norte State in the northeast of Brazil, designed and flew the dirigible Bartolomeu de Gusmo in Rio de Janeiro in1894. He also developed and constructed a second machine, the PAX. Two four-cylinder Buchet engines with 16 and 24 hp powered the PAX. Two pusher propellers set at 50 rpm drove the aircraft. The forward and aft propeller diameters were 5 and 6m, respectively. In addition, two other propellers were placed normal to the machines longitudinal axis for lateral control only. A further propeller was placed below the deck and was employed to control the pitch movement of the 30-m-long aircraft. Maranho had some insights in designing the PAX, which were not taken into account by his predecessors. One of them was the placement of the traction line coincident with the drag one to better control and handle the airship. However, he unfortunately died during his flight on the PAX on Mai 12th, 1902 in Paris.

88

Severo Maranho Navy Rebellion

Revolt of the Armada, September 6, 1893. The Revolta da Armada begins in Rio de Janeiro when a group high officials in the Navy demand new elections, stating that they are called for by the Constitution since Deodoro da Fonseca resigned from the presidency after less then two years. The rebels threaten to bomb Rio de Janeiro city. They move to the south in seek of support, but President Floriano Peixoto acquires new ships and puts down the revolt in March of 1894.

Above. Encouraado Aquidaban no dique seco do Arsenal de Marinha, 1894. Uma das principais unidades da esquadra brasileira, tornou-se, durante a Revolta da Armada, capitnia dos revoltosos. Em dezembro de 1893, junto com outras unidades sediciosas, rompeu a barra do Rio de Janeiro e dirigiu-se para o sul do pais. Na noite de 10 de junho de 1894, estava fundeado junto ilha de Araatuba (SC), quando recebeu um impacto de torpedo pela proa, que o fez afundar. Posto a flutuar novamente, foi trazido de volta ao Rio de Janeiro, e visto, nesta fotografia, em fase de reparos.

Above. Damaged rebel ship, 1894. An unidentified vessel can also been seen careened on its port side. Right. Trenched Armstrong cannons, 1894.

89

Severo Maranho Navy Rebellion

The Bartholomeu de Gusmo airship at Campo do Realengo, no Rio de Janeiro, in 1894. The aircraft was designed by Augusto Severo and built by the Parisian Lachambre establishment and also by a team led by Severo in Brazil. Source: Muse de L`Air Le Bourget . 90

Severo Maranho - 1902

91 Above. The PAX airship.

Severo Maranho - 1902

92

Severo Maranho - 1902

93

Augusto Severo Airport Airport @ Natal, RN

94

5 - Human Flight Heavier than Air

95

Vittorio Sarti - 1828

Surviving design of the "Aereo Veliero" (aerial sailing ship) by Vittorio Sarti, a Florentine cobbler settled in Bologna, were remark-able for the period. The aircraft possessed two contra-rotating co-axial rotors, each formed, as it were, of three sails on to which were forced jets of steam issuing from a large number of nozzles cut into the mast.

96

Sir George Cayley

I am apt to think that the more concave the wing to a certain extent, the more it gives support, and that for slow flights a long thin wing is necessary, whereas for short quick flights a short broad wing is better adapted.

97

Sir George Cayley

Sir George Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight. His built his first aerial device in 1796, a model helicopter with contra-rotating propellers. Three years later, Cayley inscribed a silver medallion (above) which clearly depicted the forces that apply in flight. On the other side of the medallion Cayley sketched his design for a monoplane gliding machine. In 1804 Cayley designed and built a model monoplane glider of strikingly modern appearance. The model featured an adjustable cruciform tail, a kite-shaped wing mounted at a high angle of incidence and a moveable weight to alter the center of gravity. It was probably the first gliding device to make significant flights. 98

Sir George Cayley

A drawing of an airfoil (streamlined body) based on the contour of a trout. This idea failed to influence later scientists, until aerodynamic theories in the early 20th century evidenced the benefits of thick airfoil sections. (It is easy to observe that this shape is not too different from a symmetrical NACA airfoil).

99

Cayleys VTOL Aircraft

Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey

Cayley made these drawings for a vertical take-off and landing aircraft in 1843. Although the design looks fanciful by modern standards, it has features that have appeared in successful helicopters (the wide fanlike rotors resemble those used on the de Bothezat machine flown by the U.S. Army in 1922; the lateral side- by-side arrangement of the rotors is similar to the recordbreaking Focke helicopters built in Germany in the late 1930's). One especially interesting feature is the design of the blades: they flatten down to form a solid disc and act as a wing in forward flight. The bird's- head bowsprit may have been a deliberately humorous touch. 100

Samuel Henson - 1840

British inventors John Stringfellow and William Samuel Henson, collaborated to create the first model of an airliner in the 1840's. They called this model the Aerial Steam Carriage. This model was powered from a steam engine and launched from a wire. This model had propellers, fuselage, wheeled landing gear, and flight control by means of a rear elevator and rudder. The model was unsuccessful because it failed to climb. However, this model was the first to closely resemble modern day aircraft.

101

Samuel Henson - 1840

Left. The Aerial Transit Company's Aerial Steam Carriage Depicted In India. Note The Launching Ramp On The Left And The Tower To Permit Passengers To Board.

Right. Right. Patent Drawing Of The Aerial Steam Carriage - 1842

102

Lawrence Hargrave
Lawrence Hargrave was firmly committed to sharing the fruits of his research, even though he conducted his experiments in Australia, far from the bustle of European and American aeronautics. He regularly communicated with the Royal Society of New South Wales and through that group (of which he was a member) to the rest of the world. He didn't patent the ground-breaking results of his research, believing that whatever he could do to promote the development of flying machines would be reward enough. Hargrave was also an historian, and remarked that the inventor of a new mode of transportation had never been made rich by that invention, patented or not. Octave Chanute certainly knew of Hargrave and appreciated the importance of what Hargrave was then doing. One of Hargrave's earliest achievements was to demonstrate that for a wing to lift and move through air efficiently, the center of pressure ought to be located at about 25% of the chord length of the wing section. This was an understanding of great significance and to ensure that it would find application by any aerial experimenters so interested, Hargrave published his discovery. It seems quite likely that Chanute had a hand in Hargrave's donation of his No. 14 to the Field Columbian Museum in Chicago, Illinois, during 1894. No. 14 performed a flight of 312 feet in 19 seconds, powered by compressed air driving flappingwing-type propellers which he termed Trochoided planes. Hargrave's experiments with a series of powered experimental model flying machines were of great interest to people then involved with aeronautics and aerial research. Chanute's now-classic 1894 book Progress In Flying Machine devoted more than thirteen pages to Hargrave's work. 103

Above. Hargrave celular kites, 1893.

Otto Lilienthal

Above. The work with gliders in Germany by the Lilienthal brothers, Otto and Gustav, was, arguably, the most important aerial effort prior to that of the Wright brothers and Santos Dumont. Otto Lilienthal's numerous flights, over 2,000 in number, demonstrated beyond question that unpowered human flight was possible, and that total control of an aerial device while aloft was within reach.

Left - Lilienthal taking off from the building atop his artificial hill - ca. 1895. Above. The Lilienthal brothers were the first in known history to employ drag polar graphs.

104

Lilienthal Vorflgelapparat 1895

Lilienthal called this big monoplane a "device for experiments". Different control mechanisms were tested on this monoplane glider. The conspicuous front wing tip controller (Vorflgel) was intended to prevent crashes, which happened frequently in the case of a negative angle of incidence. A wingwarping control and turnable drag surfaces were also tested.

105

Lilienthal USA

Reconstruction of a Lilienthal glider in the United States, 1894 by A. Herring picture out of Lilienthal's estate 106

Lilienthal Wing Flapping

In the last 20 years of his live Gustav Lilienthal started intensive research on thick wing profiles an wing flapping. The "groer Vogel" (big bird), Altwarp, (Stettiner Haff, [1915 ?]); Parts of the apparatus are kept in the Otto Lilienthal museum in Anklam, Germany.

107

Clement Ader - 1890

Clement Ader was, by all accounts, a brilliant man who taught himself engineering. His interest in aeronautical matters began in earnest in 1870 when he constructed a gas balloon, and later he invented a number of electrical communications devices. He is most well-known, however, for his two remarkable flying machines, the Ader Eole and the Ader Avion No. 3. Clement Ader claimed that while he was aboard the Ader Eole he made a steam-engine powered low-level flight of approximately 160 feet on October 9, 1890, in the suburbs of Paris, from a level field on the estate of a friend. However, according to Armys reports and testimony from some people he failed to achieve flying.

108

Hiram Stevens Maxim - 1894

Hiram Maxim made a fortune from his invention of the Maxim machine gun, and he used a good bit of that fortune to explore heavier-than-air flight. Maxim began his aerial experiments at Baldwyns Park, England, in the late 1880's, leading to the construction in 1893 of his enormous biplane Test-Rig, which weighed about 7,000 pounds. The 3.5-ton machine was equipped with two steam engines each produced 180 hp, and turned two propellers each 17-1/2 feet in diameter. Since the device was intended to be a test vehicle, it was held to a track, preventing it from rising from more than a couple of feet.

The Maxim Pentaplane Test-Rig With All Lifting And Control Surfaces Attached - ca. 1894

The Maxim Biplane Test-Rig, Track and Building - ca. 1894

Overall lifting surface area = 300 m2

109

Samuel Langley (1896)

Langley built his "aerodrome number 5" and achieved some success. On May 6th 1896, his apparatus flew (without a pilot) for over a minute, and came back to earth without damages. This experiment was repeated on several occasions, under the watchful eyes of Graham Bell, who invented the telephone. Graham bell was extremely impressed with Langley's machine. The "arodrome 5" had a wingspan of 4.10 meters, weighing about 145 kilograms, tandem wing configuration, and a one horsepower steam engine driving two propellers located between the wings.
110

Samuel P. Langley (1903)

A 5-cylinder 52-hp radial engine equipped the Langley`s flying machine In 1914 the machine regained flight status under a contract of the Smithsonian-Instituts with the aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss

111

First Hops - Karl Jatho - 1903

Between August and November of 1903, Karl Jatho tested his large flying machine near Hannover, Germany. Reportedly, at first the machine had three lifting surfaces, which were soon reduced to two. He had patterned the unusual wing design of his aeroplane after the Zanonia seed, which was known for its ability to glide in a stable fashion. Jatho managed to make a few short hops into the air, the best of which was just under 200 feet at an altitude of about 10 feet. However, he was not satisfied with the results as he tried to extend his hops, for the single-cylinder 10-hp Buchet engine driving a two-bladed pusher propeller was simply inadequate. In addition, the wings of Jatho's machine were essentially flat, apparently having no curve in section, so lift was limited. The control system also appears to have been very limited in its effectiveness. Even so, it is generally conceded that Karl Jatho did manage to go aloft in a powered heavier-than-air machine. Within another six years Jatho had designed, built and flown a more 112 robust aeroplane.

First Hops -Traian Vuia - 1906

In February 1903, the work of the Romanian Traian Vuia (1872-1950), Projet d'Aeroplane-automobile, was published. On this original aircraft, designed and built by Vuia and containing only the third aircraft engine made to that date, Vuia performed the first flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft (according to the Rumanian) in the history of aviation. It took off at Montesson, near Paris, on 18 March 1906, flying by the power of its engine with no auxiliary equipment. He accelerated and after about 50 meters, the plane left the soil and flew at about one meter in height for about 12 meters then the propeller stopped and the aircraft landed.
113

First Hops -Christian Ellehammer - 1906

Born at Bakkebolle, Denmark, June 14, 1871, Jacob Christian Ellehammer was apprenticed as a youth to a watchmaker. He developed his skills in miniature devices and later taught himself the principles of electricity and the internal combustion engine. His early commercial success with a motorcycle design permitted him to indulge his pursuit of powered flight.

His studies of birds enabled him to calculate the horsepower required to fly and to translate these calculations into his own design of a radial engine. Incredibly, Ellehammer continued to experiment unaware of the Wright's first flight in December of 1903, and, on September 12, 1906 performed a hop with his 9-hp airplane. His feat was accomplished on the tiny Danish island of Lindholm and consisted of a flight of 42 meters at an height of 50 centimeters. Between that date and 1908 he performed some 200 flights on his monoplane, 18-hp tractor biplane and 36-hp triplane. The rapid aviation success of other Europeans led Ellehammer to shift his focus to vertical flight craft and in 1912 he succeeded in making a helicopter rise from the ground. Ellehammers flight on September 12, 1906. 114

5 - Human Flight Santos Dumont

115

Short Biography
Childhood in Brazil
Santos-Dumont was born in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, the youngest of 11 children. He grew up in a coffee plantation owned by his family in the state of So Paulo. His father was an engineer, and made extensive use of the latest labor-saving inventions in his vast property. So successful were these innovations that Santos-Dumont's father gathered a large fortune and became known as the "Coffee King of Brazil." Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a young child he learned to drive the steam tractors and locomotive used on his family's plantation. He was also a fan of Jules Verne and had read all his books before his tenth birthday. He wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil in the long, sunny afternoons at the plantation.

Move to France
In 1891, Alberto's father had an accident while inspecting some machinery. He fell from his horse and became a paraplegic. He decided then to sell the plantation and move to Europe with his wife and his youngest son. At seventeen, Santos-Dumont left the prestigious School of Mines in Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, for the city Paris in France. The first thing he did there was to buy an automobile. Later, he pursued studies in physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity, with the help of a private tutor.

Return to Brazil
Santos Dumont continued to build and fly airplanes until he fell ill and subsequently returned to Brazil. He lived first in Petrpolis, in the mountains near Rio de Janeiro, in a house he designed, called A Encantada, then in Guaruj in So Paulo state until his death, by suicide, in July 23, 1932. He was thought to be in despair over the use of airplanes as weapons of war. 116

Dumonts Aircraft

Santos-Dumont hired an experienced balloon pilot and took his first balloon rides as a passenger. Eventually he piloted them himself, and soon was designing his own balloons. In 1898, Santos-Dumont went up in his first balloon design, the Brsil. After numerous balloon flights, he turned to the design of steerable balloons or dirigible type balloons that could be propelled through the air rather than drifting along with the breeze. Between 1898 and 1905 he built and flew 11 dirigibles. He was the first person in the history to perform a controlled flight. He achieved this milestone with his no.3 airship in 1899. Another great achievement of his lighter-than-air career came on October 19, 1901 when he won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize of 100,000 francs for flying his dirigible Number 6 from the Parc Saint Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back under thirty minutes. In a charitable gesture, he donated half of the prize money to the poor of Paris. The other half was given to his workmen as a bonus. Santos Dumont also made the first fully public flight of an airplane, in Paris in October of 1906 (In comparison, the secretive Wright brothers did not make any public flights until 1908.) That aircraft, designated 14 Bis or Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"), is considered by many to be the first to take off, fly, and land without the use of catapults, high winds, or other external assistance. Thus, Brazilians, as well as many other admirers of Santos-Dumont, consider him to be the "Father of Aviation" as well as the inventor of the airplane. 117

Brsil Balloon

118

Brsil Balloon
Maiden flight on July 4, 1898 taking off from Jardin dAcclimation Smaller than any previous balloons

Brsil Balloon - Specifications

tem Dimensions Invlucro Varnish Net Guide-rope Anchor Instrumentation Barquinha de Vime Total Ballast Pilot Piano stringers 100 m Arpu de ferro Specifications 113 m3, diameter of 6 m Japanese Silk 3,5 10,5 1,8 6,0 3,0 4,7 6,0 35,5 30 50 30 kg 50 kg Weight (kg) Typical Balloon 500 m3 to 2000 m3 Chinese silk

Santos Dumont # 1
O N. 1 tinha forma cilndrica, com a proa e a popa em forma de cone, 25 metros de comprimento e trs e meio de dimetro. Um invlucro de seda japonesa continha seus 80 metros cbicos de hidrognio. Uma grande distncia separava a barquinha do invlucro, para minimizar os riscos decorrentes da introduo, na navegao area, de uma importante inovao: o motor a vapor. Convencido de que o fracasso das experincias de Giffard, em 1852 e dos irmos Tissandier em 1883 e de Renard e Krebs em 1884, devia-se ao peso excessivo dos propulsores em relao ao empuxo, mquina a vapor no primeiro caso e motor eltrico no segundo e terceiro, Dumont resolveu experimentar o novo motor a exploso, que apresentava uma relao peso/empuxo muito superior dos outros propulsores. O N. 1 dispunha de um motor de trs e meio cavalos de fora, que pesava cerca de 30 quilos. Para cada cavalo de fora, um peso de cerca de 11 quilos.

121

Santos Dumont First Airships

No. 1
No. 2

No. 4

No. 3
122

Deutsche de Le Merthe Contest No. 5 No. 6

Go around of the Eiffel Tower with the dirigible No. 6 on October, 19 1901

123

No 9 Balladeuse (Aerial Carriage)

After all inventions are the result of persistent work with no place for discouragement. Finally I was successful in constructing the No. 9 airship.

Technical Specs for No 9

Length: 15 m Gas capacity: 230 m (three times smaller than the n 6 airship) Engine: 3 hp Clment weighting 12 kg (4 kg/hp) Top speed: 15 mph
125

Configuration Details of Baladeuse

126

No.9 at Champs-lisees

Stop for a coffee break on June 23,1903

A parada para o cafezinho "Levantei-me s duas horas... Pude erguer o vo, franquear o muro e transpor o rio antes que o dia clareasse... Quando encontrava rvores, 'saltava' sobre elas... ... A isto eu chamo de navegao prtica...

No estou fazendo nada de mais. Respeitei todas as regras de trnsito, vim pela mo certa, fiz o balo contornar o Arco de Triunfo e entrei na Rua Washington, onde moro.

O convite ao desfile Para as comemoraes do dia da Queda da Bastilha, Santos Dumont desfila com seu balo sobre as tropas e ao fim da solenidade o aviador felicita o presidente da Frana com uma salva de 21 tiros de festim.

Santos Dumont assina o acordo mas declara no aceitar a utilizao contra qualquer dos pases das duas amricas, j que era americano, e que em um confronto entre Frana e Brasil, este teria que servir a patria que lhe viu nascer.

Military Applications for Aircraft

Pus disposio do Governo da Repblica, em caso de hostilidade com um pas qualquer que no fosse das duas Amricas

Foi na Frana que encontrei todos os encorajamentos; foi na Frana, e com material francs, que realizei todas as minhas experincias, e a maior parte dos meus amigos so franceses.

Ajuntei que, no caso impossvel duma guerra entre a Frana e o Brasil, eu me julgava obrigado a oferecer os meus servios ao pas que me viu nascer e do qual sou cidado.

131

Santos Dumont # 9 Airship

132

Santos Dumont # 10 Omnibus

Above. The November 7, 1903 issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN magazine performed an wide coverage of the Santos-Dumont # 10 airship.

133

No. 11 (1905)

Source: Alberto Santos-Dumont, The Father of Aviation

Source: Lins de Barros 134

No. 12 (1905)

Picture of a model for a coaxial double rotor helicopter taken in 1905. The aircraft should be powered by a 24-hp Levavasseur engine weighting 77 kg.

135

Voisins Glider

Archadeacon-Voisin glider ca. 1904

136

Voisins Glider

Archdeacon-Voisin glider at Berck Beach ca. 1904. They were not able to get the Wrights glider configuration airborne.

Voisins Glider

SantosSantos-Dumont

138

Voisin Syndicat dAviation

Blriot II

This machine was built by Gabriel Voison for Louis Blriot from Blriot's designs in 1906. It began as a glider and was later fitted with an engine and propellers. When Voison test flew it, it sank in the Seine River. Contrary to Voisins conceptual ideas, who favoured the use of rectangular wing configuration, Blriot believed in the superiority of elliptical wings for better flight performance.

139

Materials

Covering: Japanese silk Primary structure: pines, bamboo Structural joints and propeller: aluminum Control cables: steel

14Bis Biplane Testing before Flight

141

14Bis - September, 13rd 1906

Le premier vol de l'aroplane de M. Santos-Dumont interrompu par une avarie le 13 septembre 1906.

142

14Bis - October, 23th 1906

143

14Bis - October, 23th 1906

Dumont performed a 60-m long successful flight at a height of 2 to 3 m. My flight did not lasted longer because I lost directional control. It was not due to any engine failure, Declared Santos-Dumont in 1918. 144

November, 12th 1906

Competition at that day: Bleriots craft

Ailerons

Improved 14Bis

145

November, 12th 1906

Wing bumper to protect against hitting the ground

The Last Flight with 14Bis

Took place on April 4, 1907. After a 50-m long flight path the aircraft hit the ground and was heavily damaged.

14Bis Reloaded
On October, 23 2006 a replica built by Alan Calassa successfully flew in Brasilia

Santos Dumont Engine-Start Device Engine-

149

Santos Dumonts Later Designs

No. 16
No. 15 (never got airborne)

150

Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

The Demoiselle was a small high-wing monoplane had a wingspan of 5.10 m and an overall length of 8 m. Its weight was little more than 110 kg with Santos Dumont at the controls. The pilot was seated below the fuselage-wing junction, just behind the wheels, and commanded the tail surfaces using a steering wheel. The cables of sustentation of the wing were made of piano ropes. Initially, Santos Dumont employed a liquid-cooled Dutheil & Chalmers engine with 20 hp. Later, the great inventor repositioned the engine to a lower location, placing it in front of the pilot. Santos Dumont also replaced the former 20-hp engine by a 24-hp Antoniette and carried out some wing reinforcements. This version received the designation no. 20. Due to structural problems and continuing lack of power Santos Dumont introduced additional modifications in Demoiselles design: a triangular and shortened fuselage made of bamboo; the engine was moved back to its original position, in front of the wing; and increased wingspan. Thus, the no. 21 was born. The design of no. 22 was basically similar to no. 21. Santos Dumont tested opposed-cylinder (his patent) and cooled-water engines, with power settings ranging from 20 to 40 hp, in the two variants. The Demoiselle airplane could be constructed in only fifteen days. With excellent performance, easily covering 200 m of ground during the initial flights and flying at speeds of more than 100 km/h, the Demoiselle was the last aircraft built by Santos Dumont. He used to perform flights with the airplane in Paris and some small trips to nearby places. Flights were continued at various times through 1909, including the first cross-country flight with steps of about 8 km, from St. Cyr to Buc on September 13, returning the following day, and another on the 17th, of 18 km in 16 min. The Demoiselle, fitted with two-cylinder engine, became rather popular. Roland Garros flew it at the Belmont Park, New York, in 1910. American companies sold drawings and parts of Demoiselle for several years thereafter. Santos Dumont was so enthusiastic about the aviation that he released the drawings of Demoiselle for free, thinking that the aviation would be the mainstream of a new prosperous era for mankind. Clment Bayard, an automotive maker, constructed several units of Demoiselle, which was sold for 50,000 Francs. The design of Demoiselle clearly influenced that of the Blriot XI airplane, which was used for the British Channel crossing in 1909.

151

Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

152

Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

153

Demoiselle and Blriots Airshow in Texas in January 1911

154

5 - Human Flight The Wright Brothers

155

The Flyer Machine

1903 Flyer-1 was driven a home-made 12-hp engine, which had a weight of 80 kg 1904 A 21-hp engine equipped the Flyer-2 flying machine 1909 Flyer-B was powered by a 36-hp engine 156

The Wright Brothers Flights in Europe in 1908

157

The Wright Brothers Flight with Passengers

In late 1908, Madame Hart O. Berg became the first woman to fly when she flew with Wilbur Wright in Le Mans, France. On May 14, 1908 the Wright Brothers made what is accepted to be the first two-person aircraft flight with Charlie Furnas as a passenger.

158

Life After SantosSantosDumont

159

5 - Human Flight Life After Santos Dumont

160

Marquis d'Ecquevilly - 1908

Hardly Dumont had flown in Europe, it began to spread the fever of aviation, innumerable people started to design apparatuses to get airborne. But it is in France in where many designers invent machines heavier than the air, most of these they would never fly already were more product of the imagination that of the practice. If a wing or two is sufficient to make fly it airplane, with many wings it will fly far better. Perhaps this went the theory that moved to Marquis d'Ecquevilly, a rich patron pawned on constructing a multiplane. It is not possible never to be denied the originality and inventiveness of this designer, but not even that was sufficient so that its apparatus flew.

161

Henry Farman in 1908

This photograph shows of Henri Farman winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize for the first closed circuit kilometre flight in Europe, 13th January 1908. The competing aircraft, carrying its pilot and engine, was required to leave the ground under its own power, then pass in flight two pylons 82ft (25 meters) apart, to turn around a third pylon situated at 1,640ft (500 meters) from the starting pylons, to pass once again in flight between these two pylonsand, finally, to land without accident." Gabriel Voisin
162

Some Dumonts Friends

Bellow. On the 20th Anniversary of the first one-kilometer circuit flown by Henry Farman in a Voisin Biplane, Jan.13, 1908.

1928

Henri Farman

Santos Dumont Gabriel Voisin

163

Henry Farman - May 29, 1908

On May 29, 1908 Henry Farman carried aviation supporter Ernest Archdeacon aloft for more than one kilometer in the first airplane passenger flight in Europe.

164

The Helicopter

Since around 400 BC the Chinese had a flying top that was used as a children's toy. This toy eventually made its way to Europe via trade and has been depicted in a 1463 European painting. Incidentally, the Wright brothers as children were given a rubber-band-powered version of this toy invented by Alphonse Penaud and were very much fascinated by it and built their own copies. "Pao Phu Tau" was a 4th century book in China that described some of the ideas in a rotary wing aircraft. The first somewhat practical idea of a human carrying helicopter was first conceived by Leonardo da Vinci around 1490, but it was not until after the invention of the powered aeroplane in the 20th century that actual models were produced. Developers such as Jan Bahyl, Oszkr Asbth, Louis Breguet, Paul Cornu, Emile Berliner, Ogneslav Kostovic Stepanovic and Igor Sikorsky pioneered this type of aircraft, with Juan de la Cierva introducing the first practical autogiro in 1923 that was to be the basis for the modern helicopter. A flight of the first fully controllable helicopter was demonstrated by Ral Pateras de Pescara 1916 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The German Focke-Wulf Fw 61 was the first practical helicopter. It first flew in 1934. The Bell 47 designed by Arthur Young was the first helicopter to be licensed (in March 1946) for use in the United States. Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover flight were developed decades after fixed wing aircraft. This is largely due to higher engine power density requirements when compared with fixed wing aircraft. Igor Sikorsky is reported to have delayed his own helicopter research until suitable engines were commercially available. Improvements in fuels and engines during the first half of the 20th century were a critical factor in helicopter development. The availability of lightweight turboshaft engines in the second half of the 20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and higher performance helicopters. Turboshaft engines are the preferred powerplant for all but the smallest and least expensive helicopters today. 165

BreguetBreguet-Richet Helicopter - 1907

When it rose vertically from the ground with its pilot in the late summer of 1907, the Gyroplane No.1 built by Louis and Jacques Breguet in association with Professor Charles Richet had to be steadied by a man stationed at the extremity of each of the four arms supporting the rotors. It cannot, therefore, take the credit for being the first helicopter to make a free flight, even though the ground helpers contributed nothing towards the lifting power of the rotors; but it was the first machine to raise itself, with a pilot, vertically off the ground by means of a rotating-wing system of lift. Basically, the Breguet machine consisted of a rectangular central chassis of steel tubing supporting the powerplant and the pilot; from each corner of this chassis there radiated an arm, also of steel tube construction, at the extremity of which was mounted a fabric-covered 4-blade biplane rotor, making a total of 32 small lifting surfaces. One pair of diagonally opposed rotors rotated in a clockwise direction, the other pair moving anti-clockwise.

166

Paul Cornu - 1907

The Breguets were not alone, however, in that their record was challenged by Paul Cornu, a bicycle maker from Lisieux, whose machine, powered by a small 24 hp engine, could only have been called the "flying bicycle," consisting as it did of two large, spoked wheels on to which short, paddle-shaped wings were splined to form twin two-blade rotors about 6m in diameter. The rotors were belt-driven and contra-rotating. The central frame supported the engine, pilot seat and fuel tank, and the whole contraption weighed just over 250kg. Various flights were made, including the notable occasion when Cornu succeeded in remaining airborne for about 20 seconds at a height of 30cm on 13 November 1907. Thus it was he who was officially recognised as having made the first free flight. 167

168

Glenn Curtiss - USA

Left. October, 1904: The first aeronautical use of Curtiss motors was with Tom Baldwin's "California Arrow," shown above, at St. Louis' Lousiana Purchase Exposition ("Take Me Out To The Fair..."), where it was the only "Air Ship" to successfully fly.

Above. January 28, 1904: In his improved two-cylinder motorcycle, he set a 7-year world record of 67.36 mph for the ten miles at Ormond Beach, Florida.

Left. The first "publicly-announced flight in the Western Hemisphere;" it also won the first leg of The Scientific American Trophy: Curtiss flying June Bug in July 4, 1908. In the eighth time Curtiss had been in the air in an airplane, a distance of 3,420 feet (1 km) was covered in a slightly-curved course in exactly one minute. This is a rate of speed of 38.86 miles an hour.

Louis Blriot - 1909

Bleriot XI Specifications: span 25 ft. 7 in.; length 26 Specifications: ft. 3 in.; takeoff weight 663 lb; engine 25 hp. Anzani three-cylinder air-cooled fan-type (original); Salmson nine-cylinder air-cooled radial (representation); speed 47 mph. Louis Bleriot's Type XI incorporated many innovations including the monoplane wing, tractor engine, rear rudder, enclosed cockpit, horizontal stabilizer and swiveling landing gear to permit crosswind takeoffs. In 1909 Bleriot, in a Type XI, became the first to fly across the English Channel, flying from Calais, France to Dover, England on July 25th. Both a designer and a pilot, pioneer French aviator Bleriot was still on crutches from a previous crash when he made this flight of 21 miles in 38 minutes- through fog and mist, without a compass. This airplane was powered by an Anzani engine, similar to that on the Bellanca. Anzanis were known to have problems with overheating, and had Bleriot not flown through a passing rain shower, thus cooling his engine, he might not have completed his historic flight. Like almost all planes of this early era, bank was controlled by warping the wings. In 1913 a Bleriot piloted by Adolphe Pegoud was the first aircraft to be flown in sustained inverted flight. Landing gear consists of simple bicycle wheels and rubber bungee cord shocks. 170

Some Dumonts Friends

I don't do anything but follow and imitate you, Your name is like a flag to us. You are our us. commander. commander. Blriot to Santos Dumont, close after the Channel Crossing. Crossing. Louis Blriot
171

Louis Blriot Blriot XI

172

First Seaplane

First Seaplane circa 1910 After the futile experiments of Voisin and Bleriot on the river Seine in 1905 and 1906, French aviation developed literally from the ground up, instead of from the water. Henri Fabre, however, an inventive marine engineer and navigator, persisted in his original research on the problem of achieving powered flight from a water base. On March 28, 1910, Fabre succeeded with his dreams when he took-off from water at Martinque, France. A fifty-horsepower rotary engine powered the first flight, a 1650-foot distance over water. The Fabres plane flew was nicknamed "Le Canard", meaning the duck. On Jan. 26, 1911, Glenn H. Curtiss made the first successful seaplane flight in America. Curtiss fitted floats to a biplane, then took off and landed from water. Curtiss' contributions to seaplane innovation included: flying boats and airplanes, which could take-off and land on a carrier ship. On March 27, 1919, a U.S. Navy seaplane completed the first transatlantic flight. 173

Etrich Rumpler Taube - 1910

The plane was developed by Igo Etrich from Austria in 1909, with the first flight in 1910, and was called the Etrich Taube. The design was licensed for serial production by Lohner in Austria and Rumpler in Germany, and called the Etrich-Rumpler-Taube. However, Rumpler soon changed the name to Rumpler-Taube, and stopped paying royalties to 174 Etrich. Etrich subsequently abandoned his patent.

First Flight from a Ship

Eugene Ely flies the Curtiss's Hudson Flyer taking off from the light cruiser USS Birmingham, Hampton Roads, VA, on Nov 14, 1910.

175

Wright 1909 Military Flyer

The 1909 Wright Military Flyer is the world's first military airplane. In 1908, the U.S. Army Signal Corps advertised for bids for a two-seat observation aircraft. The general requirements were as follows: that it be designed to be easily assembled and disassembled so that an army wagon could transport it; that it would be able to carry two people with a combined weight of 160 kg (350 lb), and sufficient fuel for 200 km (125 mi); that it would be able to reach a speed of at least 64 kph (40 mph) in still air. This speed performance would be calculated during a two-lap test flight over a five-mile course, with and against the wind. It must demonstrate the ability to remain in the air for at least one hour without landing, and then land without causing any damage that would prevent it from immediately starting another flight. It should be able to ascend in any sort of country in which the Signal Corps might need it in field service and be able to land without requiring a specially prepared spot; be able to land safely in case of accident to the propelling machinery; and be simple enough to permit someone to become proficient in its operation within a reasonable amount of time. The purchase price was set at $25,000 with ten percent added for each full mile per hour of speed over the required 40 mph and ten percent deducted for each full mile per hour under 40 mph. The Wright brothers constructed a two-place, wire-braced biplane with a 30-40 horsepower Wright vertical four-cylinder engine driving two wooden propellers, similar to the aircraft Wilbur had been demonstrating in Europe in 1908. This airplane made its first flight at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 3, 1908. Several days of very successful and increasingly ambitious flights followed. Orville set new duration records day after day, including a 70-minute flight on September 11. He also made two flights with a passenger. On September 17, however, tragedy occurred. At 5:14 p.m., Orville took off with Lt. Thomas 0. Selfridge, the Army's observer, as his passenger. The airplane had circled the field four and a half times when a propeller blade split. The aircraft, then at 46 m (150 ft), safely glided to 23 m (75 ft), when it then plunged to earth. Orville was severely injured, including a broken hip, but Lieutenant Selfridge was killed and the aircraft was destroyed. Selfridge was the first person to die in a powered airplane accident. On June 3, 1909, the Wrights returned to Fort Myer with a new machine to complete the trials begun in 1908. (Wilbur had been flying in Europe the previous year and had thus been absent from Fort Myer in 1908.) The engine was the same as in the earlier aircraft, but the 1909 model had a smaller wing area and modifications to the rudder and the wire bracing. Lt. Frank P. Lahm and Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois, future Army pilots, were the Wrights' passengers. On July 27, with Lahm, Orville made a record flight of 1 hour, 12 minutes, and 40 seconds, covering approximately 64 km (40 mi). This satisfied the Army's endurance and passenger carrying requirements. To establish the speed of the airplane, a course was set up from Fort Myer to Shooter's Hill in Alexandria, Virginia, a distance of 8 km (5 mi). After waiting several days for optimum wind conditions, Orville and Foulois made the ten-mile round trip on July 30. The out lap speed was 37.7 mph and the return lap was 47.4 mph, giving an average speed of 42.5 mph. For the 2 mph over the required 40, the Wrights earned an additional $5,000, making the final sale price of the airplane $30,000. Upon taking possession of the Military Flyer, referred to as the Signal Corps No. 1 by the War Department, the Army conducted flight training at nearby College Park, Maryland, and at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, in 1910. Various modifications were made to the Military Flyer during this period. The most significant was the addition of wheels to the landing gear. Early in 1911, the Signal Corps placed an order with the Wrights for two of their new Wright Model B airplanes. In addition, the War Department proposed shipment of the original 1909 Army airplane to the Wright Company factory in Dayton, Ohio, to have it rebuilt with Model B controls and other improvements. The Wright Company quoted a price of $2,000 for the upgrade, but advised against it because of the many design improvements that had been made during the intervening two years. The manager of the Wright Company, Frank Russell, learned that the Smithsonian Institution was interested in the first Army airplane and would welcome its donation to the national museum. The War Department agreed and approved the transfer on May 4, 1911. The aircraft was restored close to its original 1909 configuration, but a few non-original braces added for the wheeled landing gear in 1910 remained on the airplane when it was turned over to the Smithsonian. Apart from a few minor repairs over the years, the airplane has not been restored since its acquisition in 1911. Of the three Wright airplanes in the NASM collection, the 1909 Military Flyer retains the largest percentage of its original material and components.

176

Wright 1909 Military Flyer

The Wright Military Flyer above Fort Myers, Virginia.

177

Wright Brothers Flight with Passengers

Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge was the world's first aircraft fatality. He was twenty six years old when he died in 1908. Selfridge Air Base is a memorial to him.

Orville was preparing to demonstrate at Fort Myer. Once again, Lt. Selfridge was a member of the official test board. By September 9, the press was reporting that Orville was making solo flights exceeding one-hour duration. He was then asked to take passengers. Thomas Selfridge was to be the passenger on September 17. Selfridge planned on traveling to Missouri the next day for further airship demonstrations with Tom Baldwin. He was eager to experience flight in the mysterious Wright Flyer before leaving. Orville was uncomfortable. Selfridge was a member of the Bell and Curtiss competition and now was a judge. Selfridge was also asking questions and trying to get information that Orville considered proprietary. The extra weight would require additional load on the remarkably efficient propellers. They were long and slender, crafted of laminated wood. Two new and slightly longer 9-foot-diameter propellers were installed. Orville made four graceful circles around the parade grounds at 150 feet, while Selfridge smiled and waved to the gathered crowd of 2,500 people. Suddenly. the left propeller split. There was a thump followed by vibration, loss of control, and a dive to the ground. Orville suffered broken bones and an injured back. Selfridge died at age 26 of a fractured skull. The Army's aviation expert and only pilot was also first to die in a powered flying machine. He was buried with honors at Arlington Cemetery in a plot near the accident site.

178

United States: Zerbes Machine (1910)

179

First Passenger Airplanes

Blriot Arobus (1911)

Wright brothers Flyer Avro Type F (1912)

Etrich Luftlimousine (1912)

180

First Passenger Airplanes

The Avro Enclosed Cockpit Monoplane was designed by Roy Chadwick in April 1912. This was the world's world's first enclosed cabin machine, It had a 35 hp engine and flew to 1,000 ft on 17 May 1912. Roy Chadwick stayed with Avro, becoming a world famous designer. His designs included both the WW2 Avro Lancaster, and Avro Vulcan bombers.
181

DELAG: the first airline

Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei - D.Z.R. - was officially formed as a German national airline by the German Air Minister - Hermann Goering - in March 1935. DZR would use two Zeppelin airships across the North and South Atlantic. The airship airline was formed with the intention of flying the German Nazi flag - the Swastika logo - around the world in a propaganda excercise. Deutsche Luft Hansa was already flying mail and passenger seaplane flights across the South Atlantic using mid-Atlantic catapult ships that re-supplied the seaplanes on their journey. The new airships were to give DLH competition. DZR had a precedent airline called DELAG - Deutsche Luftschiffahrt Aktien Gesellschaft - which was formed by Count Zeppelin (inventor of the rigid airship) and the Hamburg-Amerika shipping line (HAPAG) on 16 October 1909 with four rigid Zeppelin airships flying passengers from Germany. DELAG carried 19,000 passengers on almost 900 flights until the start of the first world war. DELAG has been credited as the world's first sustained and scheduled passenger airline although much of its business was reputed to have more to do with airship joyride flights. However, DELAG was Count Zeppelin's first attempt at an airship airline operation and as it flew point to point scheduled routes it probably does not matter what purpose it's passengers had in flying them. It can be thought of as the first airline.
182

Caproni Failed Attempt to Build a Cruiser

183

World War I

184

Technology Evolution in WWI

Dirigibles - Fighters against airships - Strategic bombing Airplane Bombs and machine guns Reconnaissance Metal structure Cantilever monoplane Liquid-cooled engine Thick airfoil Strategic bombing Air to Air combat Bombers against Fighters Led to night attacks, poor accuracy Machine gun/prop problem Sea Planes Anti-aircraft guns, machine guns on high angle platforms

185

WWI Fighters

186

Morane Saulnier N Bullet (1914)

Due to the shape of its nose, the Morane-Saulnier Type N was aptly nicknamed the "Bullet." Built in small numbers, it was the first French aircraft specifically developed as a fighter. Famed French aviator, Roland Garros shot down four German aircraft with this system (which he helped to design), before an engine failure brought him down behind enemy lines. He was captured and his aircraft was secured by German authorities before he had a chance to burn it. It was then turned over to Anthony Fokker for evaluation, and within 24 hours, Fokker devised a far more practical method of synchronization for the gun to fire with the rotation of the propeller. Armed with a fixed, forward firing machine gun, its propeller was protected by the metal deflector plates pioneered by Roland Garros on the Morane-Saulnier Type L. Although it was faster and more maneuverable than previous aircraft, the Bullet was extremely difficult to fly and unpopular with pilots.
187

Fighters in 1918

Sopwith Camel

SPAD XIII

Sopwith Dolphin

Four fighter aircraft that served with distinction in frontline combat operations until the termination of hostilities in November 1918. Three of these aircraft, the French SPAD XIII and the British Sopwith Camel and Dolphin, were strutandwirebraced biplanes that had a conventional woodframe structure covered with fabric. The fourth, the German Fokker DVII biplane, had internally braced cantilever wings like the Fokker triplane, together with a typical Fokker welded steel tube fuselage. 188

Sopwith Camel

189

Sopwith Dophin

Unlike the SPAD XIII and the Fokker DVII, the Sopwith Dolphin cannot be regarded as one of the great fighter aircraft of World War I, but it is one of the many unusual designs developed during that turbulent era. At first glance, the Dolphin appears to be a conventional doublebay biplane equipped with an inline engine. A closer look, however, discloses that the wings are configured in an unorthodox fashion, with the lower wing located ahead of the upper wing. An aircraft with this wing arrangement is described as having negative stagger. The earlier DeHavilland DH5 (a limited success) had this wing arrangement, as did the well-known Beech model 17 which appeared about 15 years after the Dolphin. 190

Fokker D.VII

The Fokker D.VII was arguably the best aircraft of the First World War ... it has been said it made a mediocre pilot good, and a good pilot great. While this may be an exaggeration, the D.VII was the only German aircraft specifically mentioned in the terms of the armistice ending WWI, with all examples to be turned over to the Allies. The D.VII was built by three different factories - Fokker itself, Albatros and the Albatros subsidiary of OAW. Each had its own style of cowl and engine cooling louvres. These louvres were installed after a series of inflight fires in which aircraft spontaneously caught fire with disastrous results. This was thought to be due to the temperature of the engine compartment setting off the phosphorous ammunition. Once these tribulations were worked out, the D.VII went on to equip most German Jastas. 191

SPAD XIII

SPAD was the acronym of the French aircraft company Societ pour Aviation et les Derieves, headed by famed aviation pioneer Louis Bleriot, which produced a line of highly successful fighter aircraft in World War I. The SPAD model XIII C. 1 is the subject of the following discussion. The SPAD XIII descended from the earlier model VII which first entered combat in the fall of 1916. In contrast to the earlier aircraft, the model XIII was somewhat larger, had a more powerful engine, and was equipped with two synchronized machine guns rather than one. It entered combat in the fall of 1917 and served with the air forces of most of the Allied Nations, including the United States. Many famous aces flew the SPAD, but to Americans the best known was Captain Edward V. Rickenbacker, the top scoring U.S. ace of the First World War. 192

Junkers All-metal Aircraft AllFollowing the experiences of the J1 and J2 aircraft, Hugo Junkers realized that the iron structure employed in those designs was to heavy to fulfill the demand for satisfying climb performance as well as maneuvering. Therefore he advised Otto Mader to think about the utilization of Duralumin, which reduces the weight for about 60% compared to iron structures. While his assistants Mader, Reuter and Brandenburg were engaged in the construction of the new aircraft design, named J3, Steudel was responsible for the research of new production technologies for the utilization of Duralumin. The development of the J3 were privately financed by Junkers and ICO without any support by IDFLIEG (Inspectorate of Aviation Troops) or the German government. Two versions of the J3 were designed, a single seated fighter aircraft and double seated battle aircraft. In late summer 1916 the production of the single seated J3 prototype was started at Dessau. The fuselage tube construction and the complete wing with corrugated Duralumin panels were already finished, when Junkers ran into financial difficulties for this project and in October 1916 the further project was stopped. Even if the J3 did not become the world's first aircraft, which was built from light metals, all calculations proofed, that the utilization of Duralumin was heading towards lighter metal aircraft, which offer convenient performances compared to the conventional wooden and textile covered aircraft.

193

AIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANES

English Sopwith Camel

Thin wing, lower maximum CL Bracing wires required high drag German Fokker Dr-1

Higher maximum CL Internal wing structure Higher rates of climb Improved maneuverability

Wing Sections

195

Wing Planforms

196

Fighters: Time to Climb

197

WWI Heavy Bombers: England

Bombload: 298 kg Engines: one 375-hp Rolls-Royce Eagle Speed: 230 km/h Entry mission: March 1917 Number built: 4,346 (USA)

DeHavilland D.H.4

High-speed bombers. Fighters could not intercept them!

DeHavilland D.H.9A
Bombload: 300 kg Engines: one 400-hp 12-cylinder Liberty Speed: 193 km/h First mission: December 1917 Number built: 2,100
198

WWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

Bombload: 750-2000 kg according to combat radius Engines: four 245-hp Mayabach or 260-hp Mercedes D IV Max. speed: 135 km/h Wingspan: 42.2 m Entry into service: 1917 Number built: 18

ZeppelinZeppelin-Staaken R VI

Heaviest bombload was the design target

Gotha G IV

Bombload: 600 kg Engines: two 260-hp Mercedes D VIa Max. speed: 140 km/h Wingspan: 23.7 m First bombing mission: 1917 199 Number built: 232

WWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

ZeppelinZeppelin-Staaken R VI

200

WWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

SiemensSiemens-Schukert R VI

201

WWI Bombing

Largest bomb of WWI 1650 lb

German observer dropping handhand-held bomb

202

WWI Aerial Cameras

203

WWI Figures

World War I

204

The Golden Era of Airships

205

Early Zeppelins

LZ-1 (1900)

LZ-4 over Munich

Graf Zeppelin (1838-1917)

Hugo Eckner
206

Dirigibles: Zeppelins over London in WWI

Zeppelin bomb damage at Yarmouth, England, 1915.

Zeppelins L 13, L 12, and L 10 on a bombing mission. 207

Balloons and Airships 19121912-1915

Zeppelin bomb damage at Yarmouth, England, 1915.

208

Balloons and Airships 19171917-1918

209

British Airships: R-100 R-

Capitalist airship was faster Despite the handicaps, the R.100 performed well. It was at least ten miles an hour faster than the R.101. During the final acceptance flight, although the weather was atrocious, the ship handled like a dream. One man, taking a stroll on top of the ship, lost his wristwatch one night. It was found the next day by one of the riggers. The flight to and from Canada was successful, and the government took delivery of the capitalist ship without a hitch.

210

British Airships: R-101 RThe R.101 was built under no economic strictures. Any amount of experimentation and research was funded. But while the Air Ministry officials made the rules and kept the score, they were, as Shute put it, "hemmed in behind a palisade of their own public statements." The design of the ship was unbelievably complex, and once committed to a design innovation, the Air Ministry staff were unable to change their minds. The ship's diesel engines and unnecessary servo motors added weight, and while the R.100 had two engines that could run forward or reverse, the R.101 carried an extra three-ton reverse engine that rode as a passenger. The gas valves of the R.101 were oversensitive. The outer cover was friable, and had to be replaced. The R.101's payload lift was only 35 tons, as opposed to 54 tons for the R.100. To gain more lift, the gas-bag anchors were loosened , and the ship was sliced in half and a new bay inserted.

211

British Airships: R-101 R-

Original HMA R101 Schedule to Karachi:

Outward Depart Cardington Arrive Ismalia Depart Ismalia Arrive Karachi Return Depart Karachi Arrive Ismalia Depart Ismalia Arrive Cardington Times (approx. due to local conditions) Midnight 26th September after Sunset 28th September after Sunset 29th September before Sunrise 1st October Times (approx. due to local conditions) After Sunset 5th October After Sunset 8th October Before Sunrise 9th October After Sunset 11th October . . (refuel) . (refuel) . . (refuel) . (refuel)

212

Gas Bags Manufacturing

213

< Similar idea that came much later

214

USS Los Angeles (LZ 126)

215

Graf Zeppelin (LZ 127)

216

Graf Zeppelin Specs

Volume: Dimensions: Speed: Payload: Propulsion: Range:

110,000 m3 237m x 30m 110 km/h 40 crew, 20 passengers Maybach props; 5 x 550 hp 10,000 km
217

Graf Zeppelin Facts

Launched: 1928 Round the world in 12 days: 1929 No. flights: 590 Distance traveled: 1,700,000 miles Atlantic Crossings: 50 De-commissioned: 1940 Fuelled by: Blaugas
218

Airships: Hindenburg (LZ 129)

The Hindenburg was a huge gamble in a long line of gambles for the Zeppelin Company. She still holds the record as the largest aircraft ever to fly but, as majestic and awe-inspiring as she was, the Hindenburg was meant to be only the first of a fleet. History dictated that she was to be the first of only two. The Hindenburg was a marvel of zeppelin design. Her sheer size was truly an engineering masterpiece. For years builders of dirigibles, including the Zeppelin Company, had simply stretched the hulls of their airships to accommodate more lifting gas. The British built R101 was actually cut in half and had a whole extra section added to accommodate an additional gas bag to increase its poor lift and the famous Graf Zeppelin was in fact, little more than a stretched version of the LZ126, the Los Angeles. The Zeppelin Company decided that with this new zeppelin, they would increase gas volume by not only making her the longest they could, but also by radically increasing her girth. Where the Graf Zeppelin was an impressive 100 feet in diameter, the Hindenburg would measured in at 135 feet and 1 inch. Even though an increase of a little over 35 feet doesn't sound like so much, remember that these monstrous ships needed hangers to protect them from the elements and when the Hindenburg was being built in her new construction shed, she was wedged in as tight as possible! With her massive diameter and her impressive length, the Hindenburg would carry a gas volume of 7,062,000 cubic feet. This volume, when filled with hydrogen, would produce an astounding 242.2 tons of gross lift. The useful lift (the lift left after you subtract the weight of the structure from the gross lift) was still 112.1 tons. An astounding weight even by today's standards but mind-blowing in the 1930's. At this point in world aviation, airplanes could fly only short distances with constant refueling and as little weight as possible.

219

Airships: Hindenburg (LZ 129)

220

LZ 129 Hindenburg

Crew rest area. Partial view of Restaurant.

221

Transatlantic Flights to Brazil

Em 1933, os alemes da Companhia Zeppelin Luftschiffbau vieram ao Brasil escolher a rea apropriada para pouso e abrigo dos Zeppelins. Aps meticulosos estudos climticos, direo dos ventos, velocidade e tambm possibilidade de meios de transporte, foi escolhida a rea prxima Baa de Sepetiba no estado do Rio de Janeiro. Essas terras foram doadas pelo Ministrio da Agricultura e totalizavam 80.000 m2. No ano seguinte, o Hangar concebido por engenheiros alemes, comeou a ser construdo pela Companhia Brasileira "Construtora Nacional Condor" que seguia as instrues do gigantesco Kit fornecido pelos alemes. Um acordo entre o governo brasileiro e a Companhia Alem previa a construo de um aerdromo no local, que mais tarde foi denominado Bartolomeu de Gusmo. Alm da construo do Hangar, foi instalada tambm uma fbrica de hidrognio para abastecer os dirigveis e uma linha ferroviria ligando o aeroporto estao de D. Pedro II. Finalmente, em 26 de dezembro de 1936, o Hangar foi inaugurado com a ativao de uma linha regular de transportes areos que ligava Frankfurt ao Rio de Janeiro com escala em Recife e contou com a presena do ento presidente Getlio Vargas. Os Zeppelins j chamavam a ateno do povo brasileiro desde 1930. Em Recife, no dia 22 de maio de 1930, a cidade parou para ver de perto o Graf Zeppelin, no bairro do Jiqui, (onde at hoje existe a nica torre de atracamento de dirigvel que restou no mundo). A mesma cidade tambm foi visitada pelo dirigvel Hindemburg, causando a mesma comoo. Logo que comearam a chegar os primeiros dirigveis, era preciso 200 homens que ficavam na pista para ajudar a atrac-los, segurando seus cabos, apelidados de "aranhas". Havia uma torre onde a proa ficava atracada, enquanto a popa era engatada a um carro gndola, feito para receber o cone e que entrava no Hangar para desembarque dos passageiros e manuteno, feita pela prpria tripulao. No Hangar, tudo tem propores imensas. Com 270 m de comprimento, 50 m de altura e 50 m de largura, o Hangar do Zeppelin est orientado no sentido Norte/Sul. O porto Norte, com 28 m de largura e 26 m de altura s servia para ventilao e sada da torre de atracao e s abre manualmente. O porto Sul, o principal, abre-se em toda a altura do Hangar e possui duas folhas de 80 toneladas cada uma. Estas portas podem at hoje ser abertas eltrica ou manualmente, utilizando o sistema original. O uso do Hangar foi efmero e em 1937 o ltimo Zeppelin decolava do aerdromo aps nove viagens ligando o Brasil Europa. Dentre essas viagens, quatro foram realizadas pelo Hindenburg e cinco pelo Graf Zeppelin. Quando o aeroporto Bartolomeu de Gusmo foi transformado em Base Area de Santa Cruz em 1941, o Hangar passou a abrigar as diversas Unidades Areas que ali se instalariam ao longo dos anos.

Zeppelin Flights to Brazil

Santa Cruz Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro

Recife, Pernambuco

223

Hindenburg Airship in Brazil (1936)

224

Graf Zeppelin II
The LZ-130 was the last of the great fleet to be built. Originally there were to be several like her built, but as the second world war quickly approached, the golden era of the passenger airship drew to a close. Outwardly, the LZ-130 didn't differ from her ill-fated sister, the Hindenburg, much at all. The most obvious difference is that orientation of the propeller blades. Up to this point, most large airships has pusher type propellers (facing backwards), but the Graf Zeppelin II was fitted with new forward facing engines. This would have made the Hindenburg and the Graf Zeppelin II easily distinguishable, but the two would never be able to share the sky. While the LZ-130 was still in the middle of construction, the news reached the Zeppelin Company of the Hindenburg's fiery death. A great wave of sorrow swept over the workers of the Zeppelin Company. In the new era of Nazi governed Germany, the company was finding it hard enough to simply survive, but with the loss of their flagship, and so publicly, the company seemed to be nearing its end.

225

Hindenburg Last Flight

226

Vulnerability to Weather

Huge surface area, near neutral buoyancy Power proportional to square of velocity No journey for winds > 60% cruise speed Reliance on weather forecasting systems Fatal threat: wind, turbulence, precipitation Must run away from fatal weather threat
227

History of Aeronautics

Goodyear
After manufacturing some airships, Goodyear no longer produces them. In the United States, it operates three well-recognized blimps: the Spirit of Goodyear, the Eagle, and the Stars and Stripes. It also operates two Spirit of Europe blimps on the European continent and the Spirit of the Americas in South America.

228

Zeppelin NT

Volume: 8,225 m3 Dimensions: 75m x 19m x 17m Speed: 60 km/h cruise/135 km/h max Payload: 12 passengers (2 t) Propulsion: Propeller; 3 x 200 kW Range: 900 km Pressure Level: 2,600 m

229

Air Transportation Between Wars - Europe

230

Air Transportation in Europe between Wars

In contrast to the slow development of airline aviation in the United States, European air transport began almost immediately after the cessation of hostilities in 1918. The major capitals of Europe were soon connected by primitive passenger-carrying airlines. The aircraft types utilized for carrying passengers were at first hastily converted military bomber and observation types. Later, new aircraft were constructed for the infant airlines; however, these aircraft usually followed the standard biplane formula developed during World War I. Typical of these transport aircraft is the Handley Page trimotor. The aircraft was a multibay biplane, similar in configuration to the bomber types of the war, but employed an enclosed cabin capable of carrying 10 passengers. The two pilots were accommodated in an open cockpit just forward of the leading edge of the upper wing. The engines drove each a four-blade propellers and the landing gear was characterized by multiple wheels. The use of the fourwheel gear was no doubt a concession to the relatively soft sod or mud landing fields of the period. The Handley Page trimotor was a relatively heavy machine of 13 000-pound gross weight, but with only 840 horsepower as the combined output of the three engines. The wing loading was a very low 8.9 pounds per square foot in order that the aircraft could operate out of the small fields that existed at the time. The cruising speed was a modest 85 miles per hour; the drag coefficient at zero lift was 0.0549, which was larger than that of the DH-4. Although the use of multiple engines is usually thought to increase safety and reliability, that was not the case with the Handley.... Page trimotor. The aircraft could not maintain level flight following the loss of one engine according to the information from some sources. The Handley Page trimotor was Put into operation by the British Imperial Airways and the Belgium Sabena Airways Systems in about 1924 and continued in operation, at least to some limited extent, until about 1931. In fact, very large multiengine biplanes were utilized on some European airlines right up to the beginning of World War II.
231

Airliners after WWI: Early airliners

O AEG II was derived from the AEG J.I fighter. The AEG J.I fighter

Derivatives of military airplanes

Bleriot SPAD 46 (1921), which accommodated four passengers.

Breguet 14T (1919)232

Airliners after WWI: Early Airliners

Junkers F.13
The F.13 was designed in 1918 especially for passenger transport and it is considered by many the first true airliner. Indeed, it was a clever adaptation of the wartime J 10 and only carried a crew of two and four passengers (under the terms of the Versailles Treaty, Germany was severely restricted in the type and size of aircraft it was permitted to construct). It was in use throughout the world, as passenger and freight airliners, for post flying and for various expeditions. More than 350 have been built. The F.13 was build in various subtypes, with different engines, open or closed cockpit, sea- or landplane, etc.
233

Civilian airplanes of the 1920s

234

Successful airliners of the 20s

Farman Goliath

The Handley Page H.P. 42 (in airline service from 1931 to 1941), was a massive four-engine biplane. Two versions were built; the Hannibal which carried 24 passengers and the Hercules which carried 38. The H.P. 42 had a fuselage nearly as long and wide as a railroad Pullman car and fully as comfortable, with wall-to-wall carpeting and stewards who served seven-course meals at tables that were set up between facing seats. Large windows provided an ample view, and the cabin was partially soundproofed-a welcome innovation. The H.P. 42 was slow, but it was very safe, with a landing speed of only 50 miles per hour. 235

Junkers J 1000

Another futuristic design was the J1000 developed in 1924. This design was developed specially for Hugo Junkers' travel to the United States. Junkers and Zindel presented the J1000 design as a probable future transport aircraft, which was also usable as a transatlantic aircraft for passengers. Routings over Iceland, Greenland and Canada were already discussed by Junkers. The design was a wing only canard solution. Accommodation for up to 80 people were fully integrated in the wing. Individual sleeping cabins were also available for long range flights of 8 to 10 hours. The design was highly futuristic for its time and it is uncommon until today. For his commercial presentations of the J.1000 design, Junkers had prepared a model aircraft, as well as a lot of technical and art drawings. Also a mockup of the passenger areas in the wing were already built at Dessau. It is unknown, if Junkers and Zindel believed to present a realistic design for the mid twenties or if they just like to show, what will be possible in the future of air transport. However, their U.S. discussion partners did not show highly interest in the J.1000 design and no further developments of this project are known. Nevertheless, a lot of concepts of the Junkerssime and the J.1000 were later used by Junkers in the G38 development, which became the largest landbased aircraft of its time.

236

Junkers G 38

The Junkers G. 38 is a very large all-metal commercial monoplane fitted with four 750-hp Junkers Jumo 204 Diesel engines and having the unusual feature of accommodation for passengers in the wings. It carried a total of thirty-four passengers, six being seated in two compartments in the leading-edge of the wing. Two passengers are seated in the nose of the fuselage and the remainder in cabins arranged on two decks. There is a smoking saloon aft. The G. 38, which was used by Deutsche Lufthansa on certain European services, had a MTOW of 52,900 lb and a cruising speed of 129 mph. 237

Lignes Ariennes Latcore

1925
238

Lignes Ariennes Latcore

239

Lignes Ariennes Latcore

240

Crossing The Seas

241

Air Transportation in Europe before The War

SM-73 Fw 58 Weihe Ju 52M Budapest - 1939

242

Crossing The Seas

Breakfast in bed on a Short Empire Flying Boat 'Canopus', c 1940s.

Lady being served breakfast in her compartment, positioned just behind the wing. The spacious and elegant Empire flying boats, powered by four Bristol Pegasus engines, provided luxury travel across the Empire though conceived to deliver the mail. They operated from 1936 to 1947, many ending their lives in Australasia.

243

Crossing the Seas

The Fw 200 Condor, in many ways, fulfilled and exceeded the promise of a plane like the D.H.-91. The Fw 200 was the brainchild of Focke-Wulf designer and test pilot Kurt Tank (1898-1983). This four-engine, long-range transport for twenty-six passengers flew at a cruising speed of more than 200 miles per hour. In 1938 it flew record-breaking flights from Berlin to Tokyo and Berlin to New York, and back. The latter, for instance, took twenty-four hours, thirty-six minutes and twelve seconds at an average speed of 159 miles per hour going westbound and the return was made in nineteen hours and fifty-five minutes at a speed of 199 miles per hour. The Condor flew for Lufthansa and attracted export orders from customers in Brazil, Denmark, Finland and Japan before World War II, with a total of twenty constructed for civil purposes. During the war, more than 260 were built to serve as transports and, particularly, as long range naval reconnaissance and convoy attack aircraft, being the eyes and aerial arms of Germany's U-boat wolfpacks and earning Winston Churchill's curse as "the scourge of the Atlantic." Yet, it is indisputable that the long distance reach of this large airliner prefigured the shift from commercial seaplanes to landplanes after World War II.

244

Planning The FutureTransatlantic Transportation

Focke-Wulf Fw 300

245

Air Transportation Between Wars - USA

246

American Civil Aviation before WWII

William Boeing and Eddie Hubbard deliver the first shipment of international airmail on March 3, 1919. On March 3, 1919, Willam E. Boeing (1881-1956) and Eddie Hubbard (1889-1928) deliver the first bag of international U.S. Air Mail. The men flew a Boeing-built C-700 seaplane for the demonstration trip from Vancouver, B.C., to Seattles Lake Union, and Hubbard later won the contract for regular service. Like Boeing, Eddie Hubbard had taken his first flight with daredevil Terah Maroney and earned his license from Boeings Pacific Aero Club. William Boeing was not initially interested in air mail, but he changed his mind as his companys military orders dwindled after the end of World War I. Following this first successful flight, Hubbard purchased a Boeing-built B-I seaplane for routine air mail service between Victoria, B.C., and Seattle. He later prevailed on Boeing to compete for the Chicago-San Francisco route, and thereby planted the seed for Boeings future dominance in air transport.

Above - Eddie Hubbard and William Boeing (right) arrive at Lake Union with first bag of international airmail, March 3, 1919

247

American Airliners

248

US Post Office Airmail Routes, 1921

Sacramento

Reno

o Elk Sa

San Francisco

it y e C ck ak Ro lt L

gs lins in pr Raw S

s oli ap e e nn ss Mi ro C La
e att Pl s ty Ci a ne ah Moi wa ia Io or Om es Pe D s ui Lo . St

Ch ica

go

ne en ey Ch

rth No

nd la an ry ve e B Cl

lle Be

te fon

New York Philadelphia Washington

Source: adapted from Davies (19 64).

Douglas M-3 (1926) M-

Douglas aircraft joined the United fleet in 1926 with National Air Transport. The M-3 was chosen to replace the war-surplus DeHavillands that were flying the mail routes and brought greater speed, a greater load capacity, and more reliability and safety. Power was derived from a 400 hp Liberty engine. Cruise speed was 115 mph. 250

Ford 2-AT Pullman 2-

For all intents, the Stout designed Pullman" was the first all-metal commercial aircraft to be built in the U.S. An aluminum alloy frame was covered with a corrugated skin clad with aluminum to prevent rust and corrosion. Stout Metal Airplane Company engineers, probably prompted by "Tony" Fokker Triplane success of 1925, redesigned the "Pullman" and added three 200 hp Wright "Whirlwinds" in place of the single 400 hp Liberty 12. The 3-AT was the first of the many Ford Tri-Motors. 251

Ford Trimotor
Henry Ford could see that aviation had a bright future. The Tri-Motor was developed from several earlier designs and became Americas first successful airliner. The Ford Tri-Motor came out at the end of the barnstorming era. Public distrust of aviation was at an all time high because accidents were very common in those days. The government just began to regulate aircraft. Most of the surplus World War I aircraft that were part of the problem could not meet the new standards. Starting in 1925, Ford sponsored Air Safety tours in an attempt to show the public that aviation could be safe and reliable. The Ford Tri-Motor was involved in another interesting attempt to get the public to fly. The plan was to take people Coast to Coast in 48 hours. Starting in the evening in New York, passengers would board a train where they were treated to a nice meal and went to bed. Waking up in Port Columbus, Ohio they disembarked and were whisked to an airport where they would fly all day in a Ford Tri-Motor. Arriving late afternoon in Waynoka, Kansas they then boarded another train for an all night run to Clovis, New Mexico. The final leg of the journey was on a Ford Tri-Motor, which would arrive in Los Angeles by nightfall and in less than 48 hours. 252

Crossing the Seas

The Sikorsky S-42 seaplane was the worlds first big luxury airliner.

As airplane travel became popular during the mid-1930s, passengers wanted to fly across the ocean, so Pan American Airlines asked for a long-range, four-engine flying boat. In response, Boeing developed the Model 314, nicknamed the "Clipper" after the great ocean sailing ships. The Model 314 had a 3,500-mile range and made the first scheduled trans-Atlantic flight June 28, 1939. By the years end, Clippers were routinely flying across the Pacific. Clipper passengers looked down at the sea from large windows and enjoyed the comforts of dressing rooms, a dining salon that could be turned into a lounge and a bridal suite. The Clipper's 74 seats converted into 40 bunks for overnight travellers. Four-star hotels catered gourmet meals served from its galley.

253

Crossing The Seas Sikorsky S-42

For many years, the Sikorsky S-42 flying boats were the most extensively used throughout the world. Used by both Pan American and BOAC for commercial uses, they were the only flying boats in service capable of long-range flights during the 1920s and early 1930s.The first variation of the Sikorsky S-42 was constructed in 1931 when Russian exile Igor Sikorsky designed a new airplane for Pan Am. Juan Trippe, president of Pan Am, wanted a plane that would perform more efficiently for long distance travel. When the first one was flown to the Anacostia Naval Station in Florida, Trippe called it the "flagship" of the Pan American fleet. In its very outline the S-42 represents simplicity. Diverting sharply from the past Sikorsky designs, external bracing's have been reduced to a minimum. The tail, instead of being supported by outriggers, is attached directly to the hull. The one-piece wing with tapering tips is attached to the hull by means of a superstructure. The necessary large external struts brace from the hull to the outer portion of the wing. These struts are the largest streamlined duralumin sections ever extruded. With a span of II4ft. 2in., the wing has an area of 1,330 square ft. Spars and compression members, of modified Warren Truss design, are constructed of extruded duralumin shapes. Stressed metal skin covers the major portion of the wing surface. Flush type rivets are used throughout the external surface. Extending along the full straight portion of the rear spar is the hydraulically controlled flap. The flap is mechanically operated by means of a substantial hydraulic piston. The piston is actuated by an electrical pump that is controlled from the pilot's compartment. For emergency use a manually operated pump is provided. The angular position of the flap can be altered in accordance with the attitude of flight, thus changing the performance of the whole wing. Ailerons of conventional design, tapering in conformity with the wing plan, are hinged to the rear spar outboard of the flaps. The power plant units, consisting of four Pratt and Whitney 700 h.p. geared Hornet engines, together with the necessary accessories, are attached to the front spar by means of welded steel tubular nacelles. Completing these units are the three-bladed variable pitch propellers, the largest of this type ever produced by the Hamilton Standard Propeller Company.

254

Crossing The Seas Boeing 314 Clipper

The Yankee Clipper project dated back to 1935, with the start of a series of negotiations between Pan American World Airways and Boeing for the production of a flying-boat capable of guaranteeing transatlantic passenger flights with a high degree of safety, comfort, and speed.1 On July 21,1936 Pan American signed a contract for six aircraft, the first of which (designation Model 314) made initial see runs on Puget Sound on May 31,1938, and took to the air on June 7, 1938. 2 When it made its appearance this flying-boat was the largest civil aircraft in service. It outstripped all rivals in size, with twice the size of the Sikorsky S-42 and outweighed the Martin M-130 China Clipper by 15 tons.3 The 14-cylinder double-row Wright Cyclones were the first to use 100-octane fuel. The Boeing 314, the finest flying boat to go into regular commercial service, weighed 40 tons, and the first batch cost $550,000 per aircraft. 255

Boeing Model 40

Not until early 1927, when the Post Office began turning airmail service over to private industry, did a modified Model 40, called the 40A, win another competition. This plane was redesigned for a lighter, air-cooled Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engine; used a steel tube and fabric-covered structure; and had a redesigned fuselage that could carry two passengers. It was the first Boeing plane to carry passengers. Although an initial investment of $750,000 would be needed for the 25 new aircraft, Boeing was able to submit a low bid for the San Francisco-Chicago airmail route partly because it could take advantage of the income that two passengers would provide. Boeing Air Transport (BAT) was formed as a subsidiary to Boeing Airplane Company to handle the route. The decision was rightit proved to be a profitable venture. In its first year, BAT carried 837,211 pounds (379,753 kilograms) of mail, 148,068 pounds (67,163 kilograms) of express packages, and 1,863 passengers. 256

Boeing Model 80
Comfort graced "The Friendly Skies" with the introduction of Boeings model 80A. This grey, green and orange tri-motor, one of 16 built between 1928 and 19, flew with United until replaced by the Boeing 247 in the early 1930's. The model 80A provided new comfort and luxury to airline passengers, who were accompanied by a registered nurse, the first United stewardess.

257

Boeing 247
First commercial aircraft with deicing boots First commercial aircraft to use an autopilot

The first modern airliner, the Boeing 247 marked the beginning of a new era. Three key men - President Phillip G. Johnson, Vice President Claire Egtvedt, and Chief Engineer C. N. Monteith - chose to develop the transport potential of their successful Boeing B-9 twin-engine bomber rather than stick to the orthodox trimotor and biplane design of the day. Versatile, easy to manoeuvre, and economical to operate, the 247 quickly outshone other transports of the period. United Airlines, which had a monopoly on the production of 247s, was soon outdistancing its competition. This forced TWA to go to Douglas Aircraft to request a new plane which could compete - even outperform - the 247. The result of this challenge was the development of one of the most significant planes in aviation historythe Douglas DC-3.

Same wings of the B-8 bomber

258

Douglas DC-3 DC-

The Douglas DC-3 was one of the most noteworthy aircraft ever built. It probably did more than any other plane to introduce a whole new segment of the population to air travel and establish air transportation as a normal way of traveling. More than five times as many passenger miles were flown in 1941 than in 1935 in the United States, and much of that can be attributed to the popularity of the DC-3. Douglas also produced a number of military versions that played a vital role around the world, especially in World War II. The DC-3 was the first airliner to make a profit by carrying just passengers without the support of mail contracts or other forms of government subsidies. Its production, along with continued production of the DC-2 that lasted until September 1939 for the military version, ensured the prosperity and financial soundness of Douglas Aircraft for many years. The DC-3 was an outgrowth of the DC-2, which first flew in 1934 for Transcontinental and Western Airlines (TWA). American Airlines , a competitor of TWA, had longer routes and needed a plane where passengers could stretch out and sleep. It had been using the Curtiss Condor because it was large enough for sleeping berths, but it was slow. The DC-2 was faster but it was too narrow for berths. During the summer of 1934, American decided that it needed a plane that could fly non-stop between New York and Chicago with both the roominess of the Condor and also the DC-2's performance. It approached Douglas about providing a plane to meet these requirements. Douglas was a little hesitant about accepting the project at first since he anticipated a limited production run and because American was low on cash. However, American's president, Cyrus R. Smith, promised an initial order of 20 aircraft, and Douglas decided to proceed. American also received a $4.5-million loan from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, so Douglas was confident that American could pay for the planes.

259

Douglas DC-3 DC-

TWA outlined the DC-1 specifications to Douglas

The Russian Lisunov Li-2

260

Douglas DC-4E (1938) DC-

The original DC-4 was built in 1938 as a requirement for both United and American Airlines. It began test flying in 1938, but when the U.S. entered into World War II, the production line was commandeered by the military authorities and thus the first 24 C-54's were produced. The C-54 and its variants have since seen service with many different Air Forces around the world. The production line closed in 1947, but many of the military variants found use in civil service. A total of 1.245 were produced (This number does not include the Canadian built version, as this is not an original Douglas design). Even while the DC-3 still had to make its first flight, the President of United Airlines, William Patterson, foresaw a need of a larger transport than the DC-3. He convinced his counterparts with American, Eastern, Pan American and TWA to support this project. The original DC-4 was designated DC-4E, E for experimental. This shows how far fetched this dream for a fourengined transport must have seemed in those days. 261

Douglas DC-4 (1942) DC-

The DC-4E was sold and shipped to Japan in 1939. Its fate unclear, faded away in the advent of W.W. II. Later it became clear that it was bought to support Japanese studies into a long-range bomber The DC-4 was revised, smaller than the DC-4E, lighter and simpler. The wing was altered, the cabin unpressurized, Pratt & Whitney R-2000 Twin Wasps (1.450 hp) were assigned to the case. Eastern, American and United were enthusiastic and Douglas accepted the first commercial orders. Military orders by the USAAF followed (9 C54s and 62 C-54As with reinforced cabin flooring, special cargo doors and built-in loading hoists). Then came the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and all production facilities were needed for the war effort. The civilian produced Skymasters were impressed in the service, as a stop gap until the actual C-54s were delivered. There was no prototype DC-4, the first production aircraft cn3050 was completed in Feb. 1942 and was assigned USAAF serial 42-20137. It was first flown March 26th, 1942 at Santa Monica. The DC-4 had a notable innovation in that its nose-wheel landing gear allowed it to introduce a fuselage of constant cross-section. This lent itself to easy stretching into the later DC-6 and DC-7. 1,163 C-54/R5Ds were built for the United States military services between 1942 and January 1946. Douglas continued to develop the type during the war in preparation for a return to airline services when peace returned. However, the type's sales prospects were hit by the offloading of 500 wartime C-54s and R5Ds onto the civil market. DC-4's were a favorite of "start up" airlines (aka-non-scheduled or supplemental carriers) such as Great Lakes Airlines, North American Airlines, Universal Airlines, Transocean Airlines, etc. In the 1950s, Transocean Airlines (Oakland, California) was the largest operator of the DC-4. Douglas produced just 79 new-build DC-4s before production ceased on August 9, 1947. Pressurization was available as an option, but all civilian DC-4s (and C-54s) were built unpressurised. 262

Boeing 307
Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner was the first fully pressurized airliner to enter service anywhere in the world, Boeing's 33-seat Model 307 Stratoliner of 1938 employed the wings and tail surfaces of the B-17C Flying Fortress. Boeing's Model 299, prototype for the military bomber aircraft which duly became the B-17 Flying Fortress, was developed in parallel with a civil version of the same aircraft which had the company designation Boeing Model 300. The Model 307, or Stratoliner, was a straightforward conversion from the supremely successful B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. The Boeing 307 was developed to start another era, that of pressurized comfort at higher altitudes than had been previously contemplated. The Boeing 307 first flew on December 31, 1938 and TWA put it into service on the transcontinental route on 8 July 1940. Boeing had suffered setbacks as a result of the popularity of the Douglas DC-2 and DC-3's and was looking to re-establish itself as a market leader with the unveiling of this plane. The Stratoliner's ability to fly at high altitudes in pressurized comfort was marketed as a technologically advanced alternative on trans-oceanic flights. The Stratoliner commenced its inaugural transcontinental voyage easily beating the DC-3's average flying time by 2 hours, completing the trip in 13 hours and 40 minutes. 263

Selected Transcontinental DC-3 Routes, Late 1930s

Departs at 8:48 AM TWA DC-3 circa 1940 Arrives at 10:40 AM

New York
Arrives at 11:20 AM

Pittsburgh

Kansas City
Both depart at 4:30 PM

TWA

Sk y C

hi ef
n rli Ai es M

c er

ur

Departs at 3:05 A M

Los Angeles

Albuquerque
Departs at 9:38 PM

Memphis

Am

ic er

an

Tucson
Departs at 8:22 PM

Dallas
Departs at 2:16 AM

Arrives at 4:42 AM

Source: Based on historic timetables available at www.airchive.com.

Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s

Eyeries Botwood New York Azores Alexandria Cairo Wadi Halfa Khartoum Juba Nairobi Mbeya Harare Johannesburg Cape Town Imperial Airways African Route (c1933) Imperial Airways/Quantas Australian Route (c1934) Aeropostale (1930) KLM Amsterdam Jakarta (1935) Pan American Transatlantic Route (1939) Gaza London Amsterdam Paris Toulouse Lisbon Marseilles

Military Aviation Between Wars

266

Tupolev ANT-4 ANTFirst Worlds low-wing cantilever Bomber

The first World's all-metal cantilever twin-engined bomber. Layout of the ANT-4 was copied all over the World since 1930, after the first international appearance. All following multi-engine bombers added no radical layout changes to this aircraft of 1925, except aerodynamic and structural refinement, number of engines and guns, different levels of equipment sophistication. It is interesting that this (mostly) land-based aircraft has a naval pre-history. In 1923-1929 the Special Technical of military inventions (Ostekhburo at Leningrad, headed by V.I.Bekauri) badly needed a heavy bomber aircraft for their research (naval torpedoes). Plans to buy some in the Great Britain did not materialize. As a result, A.N.Tupolev at the TsAGI started to work on this project (November 11, 1924). Timeline was only 9 months. Aircraft was assembled on the second floor in non-industrial building! In addition to this A.N.Tupolev had not enough skilled workers. Despite all odds, ANT-4 was ready in time. It was 'extracted' from the second floor, through removed building wall on August 11, 1925. In October 1925 assembly was finished on the Moscow Central Airfield. On 26 November, 1925 first flight was performed by pilot A.I.Tomashevskij. It took 7min to carry out preliminary evaluation.

267

Vakhmistrov Parasite Fighters

268

Doolittle - IFR Flight in 1929

The career of Jimmy Doolittlefrom his service in World War I to his racing career to his leading the first bombing raid on Tokyo just weeks after Pearl Harbor, for which he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honorwas a remarkable one. Doolittle was an accomplished pilot, he held a doctoral degree in engineering from MIT, and he retired a major general of the U.S. Armed Forces. From the point of view of aviation, Jimmy Doolittles greatest contribution to the history of flight may well be his flight of September 24, 1929. What was remarkable about the fifteen-minute flight in the Consolidated NY-2 test plane was that he could not see out of the cockpit because of a hood that covered the windows. It was the first blind flight in which a pilot took off, flew a given course, and landed using only instruments. The test was conducted at Mitchell Field on Long Island, New York, and the plane had dual controls. The other set was available to pilot Lieutenant Ben Kelsey in case anything went wrong. Kelsey did not have to touch the controls as Doolittle used his instruments to guide his flight. The three instruments most important for this test were the device designed by Doolittle himself, most important for this test were the Sperry Horizon, a device designed by Doolittle himself, which instantly told the pilot the orientation of the plane with respect to the three axes of rotation (pitch, yaw, and roll); the Kollsman Precision Altimeter, a hypersensitive gauge that was designed by engineer Paul Kollsman and has been standard on virtually all aircraft since it was first introduced; and the Sperry Directional Gyro, which was used to measure turns and the direction of flight. With these tools, a pilot can fly in any weather or at night.

269

First Fighter with Cantilever Wings and Retractable Landing Gear - 1933

In ten years, 20,000 were built.

270

I Got Lost: Stipa Caproni - 1933

Caproni was an Italian engineer and aircraft manufacturer. His background in hydraulic engineering convinced him of the possibility of successfully using hydrodynamic principles for aeronautical applications and, after 5 years of development, Stipa submitted to the Technical Division of the Air Ministry a design for a twin engine land/sea plane fighter. The Regia Aeronautica examined the proposal and funded the construction of a single engine two seater ducted fan prototype. Caproni built the Aircraft, as per the Regia Aeronautica requirements, at their plant near Milan in 1932. The unusual design caused a number of skeptical comments about the original design intention of increasing the efficiency of the propeller by reducing the losses.

271

I Got Lost: Campini-Caproni of 1933 CampiniIn 1931 Italian engineer Secondo Campini submitted a report on the potential of jet propulsion to the Italian Air Ministry, and the following year, demonstrated a jet-powered boat in Venice. In 1934, the Air Ministry granted approval for the development of a jet aircraft to demonstrate the principle. As designed by Campini, the aircraft did not have a jet engine in the sense that we know them today. Rather, a conventional piston engine 500 kW (750 hp) Isotta Fraschini L. 121/R.C. 40) was used to drive a compressor, which forced compressed air into a combustion chamber where it was mixed with fuel and ignited. The exhaust produced by this combustion was to drive the aircraft forward. Campini called this configuration a "thermojet" but the term motorjet is in common usage today since thermojet refers to a particular type of pulsejet (an unrelated form of jet engine). Campini turned to the Caproni aircraft factory to help build the prototypes, and two aircraft and a non-flying ground testbed were eventually constructed. The first flight was on August 27, 1940 with test pilot Mario De Bernardi at the controls. Great propaganda use was made of the aircraft by Mussolini and the Fdration Aronautique Internationale recognised this at the time as the first successful flight by a jet aeroplane. Following World War II, one of the prototypes was shipped to the UK for study at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough.
272

B-9 and B-10 Bombers BBoeing B-9, the first allmetallic bomber. It was able to reach a top speed of 300 km/h.

The Martin B-10, a monoplane bomber with retractable landing gear, enclosed cockpits and good streamlining, outpaced the contemporary biplane fighters and revolutionized bomber design. It did away with the ugly box-like designs that were common in the 20's. The B-10 was powered by the R-1820 and reached a top speed of 330 km/h; aircraft powered by the R1690 were known as B-12s. Its period of superiority was brief, because it was soon overtaken by even more advanced designs. Some exported aircraft saw combat in WWII, mostly in the Dutch East Indies. 273