An International Journal for Experimental Mechanics

Residual Lifetime Assessment of an Ancient Riveted Steel Road Bridge

A. M. P. de Jesus*, M. A. V. Figueiredo, A. S. Ribeiro*, P. M. S. T. de Castro and A. A. Fernandes
*Engineering Department, University of Tras-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal

IDMEC-FEUP, Campus FEUP, Porto, Portugal

Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

ABSTRACT: The present paper reports research work carried out to characterise the fatigue behaviour of the Portuguese Pinhao riveted road bridge, built in 1903 over the Douro river. The present trafc conditions are completely different from those foreseen by the bridge designer, rising new concerns, with respect to the bridge integrity, namely its fatigue behaviour. An experimental programme was performed using original material removed from the bridge. The chemical composition and microstructures of the removed materials were characterised. Also, the notch toughness, at room temperature, was evaluated using both notch impact and Crack Opening Displacement (COD) tests. Fatigue crack growth tests were also used to evaluate the fatigue crack growth behaviour. Finally, fatigue tests of riveted joints were conducted in order to dene an appropriate S-N curve. The experimental results were used to evaluate the residual fatigue strength of the bridge, adopting both S-N and Fracture Mechanics approaches. The analysis revealed a good tolerance to fatigue cracking, even in the presence of small fatigue cracks, detected in the joints. KEY WORDS:

ancient road bridge, fatigue behaviour, fracture mechanics, riveted joints, S-N

approach

Introduction
The maintenance and safety of existing bridges is a major concern of governmental agencies. In particular, the safety of old riveted highway bridges fabricated and placed into service at the end of the 19th/beginning of 20th centuries deserve a particular attention, since they were designed taking into account trafc conditions, both in terms of vehicle gross weight and frequency, completely different from those observed currently. Also, the current design procedures were not yet fully developed or even did not exist in the 19th century and designer engineers were not aware of some important phenomena such as fatigue. Fatigue was only intensively studied in the 20th century. In order to assure high safety levels in old riveted steel bridges, highway authorities have to invest heavily in their maintenance and retrotting. In this context, knowledge of the fatigue behaviour of riveted joints is of paramount importance. The present paper reports research work carried out to characterise the fatigue behaviour of the Portuguese Pinhao riveted road bridge, designed by Eiffel at the end of 19th century and built between 1903 and 1906. A similar study was carried out by authors with the

Luiz I bridge of Porto [1]. The Pinhao bridge, illustrated in Figure 1, crosses the Douro river and links Pinhao to Sao Joao da Pesqueira and Peso da Regua. The bridge has three spans of 68.8 meters each and one span of 10 meters; there is only one deck with 6 meters width, divided in one trafc lane with 4.60 meters width and two sidewalks with 0.675 meters width each. The paper reports studies concerning the assessment of the residual fatigue life of the bridge. Both traditional S-N approaches and Fracture Mechanics approaches were used in the analysis. The study is supported by an experimental programme aimed the evaluation of material properties such as tensile strength, toughness and crack growth properties. Also, fatigue tests of riveted joints were carried out. The material and riveted joints were extracted from bridge members, which were replaced by new material, according to a previously approved procedure.

Experimental Programme
The experimental programme was carried out with material extracted from the bridge. One piece 1500 mm in length was extracted from a diagonal

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Figure 1: Riveted road Pinhao bridge

member. Another piece 1400 mm in length was removed from a bracing member. Both cuts were located in the rst span, from Pinhao side, as illustrated in Figure 2(A). The members were in service since the construction of the bridge. Figure 2(B) illustrates the cross sections of the diagonal and bracing members. The bracing cross section is composed by two equal-leg angles, riveted to each other. These two cross sections are representative of the cross sections existing in the bridge.

Several types of specimens were prepared using the material samples removed from the bridge. These specimens were used in chemical and metallographic analyses, hardness measurements, tensile tests, notch toughness tests, fatigue crack propagation tests and fatigue tests of riveted lap joints. The riveted lap joints were prepared only from the bracing member. All other specimens were machined from both members extracted from the bridge. This paper only gives a brief description of

Figure 2: Locations of the extracted diagonal and bracing members (A) and respective cross sections (B)

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Table 1: Chemical composition of the materials

%C Diagonal Bracing 0.06 0.05 %Si <0.01 <0.01 %Mn 0.04 0.34 %P 0.04 0.04 %S 0.03 0.04

the experimental programme. More details can be found in reference [2].

Table 2, where Rm is the ultimate tensile strength, ReH is the higher yield stress, A is the elongation at fracture and Z is the reduction in cross section area, at breaking point. The materials exhibit a high ductility and elastoplastic behaviour with almost null strain hardening. This behaviour is compatible with the observed microstructure of ferrite with low volumetric fraction of perlite.

Hardness measurements Chemical composition

The chemical composition of the materials of the diagonal and bracing were measured using spark emission spectrometry. Six samples, three from the diagonal and three from the bracing, were analyzed. The chemical analysis revealed good homogeneity in the chemical composition. The mean values of the chemical composition of the materials are summarised in Table 1. The phosphorus and sulphur contents are low and are within the acceptable values for modern steels. According to the chemical composition, the analyzed steels are carbon steels with small amounts of Mn, Si and C. Figure 3 illustrates the typical microstructure of the materials from the diagonal and bracing members. The material from the diagonal exhibits a microstructure almost composed by ferrite as is expected by the low carbon content. The material from the bracing member shows a microstructure of ferrite with low content of perlite. Vickers hardness, HV40, were measured accordingly the procedures of the NP711-1 standard [4]. Six samples of material, three from the diagonal and three from the bracing, were subjected to hardness measurements. A mean hardness of 108 HV40 was found for the material of the diagonal; a value of 116 HV40 was found for the material of the bracing. The measured values presented small scatter.

Notch toughness testing

The notch toughness of the materials was measured using both Charpy V-notch impact and COD tests. The Charpy V-notch impact tests were conducted according to the NP10045-1 standard [5]. A total of 16 specimens (thickness of 7.5 mm) were tested namely, eight extracted from the diagonal and eight extracted from the bracing members. One half of the specimens were cut according to the longitudinal direction and the others according to the transverse direction. Tests were conducted at room temperature (19 C). The material from the diagonal exhibits a mean Charpy V-notch strength of 89 J, in the longitudinal direction, and 20 J in the transverse direction. The material from the bracing exhibits a mean Charpy V-notch strength of 89 J, in the longitudinal direction, and 26 J in the transverse direction. A signicant difference in the Charpy V-notch strength

Tensile strength properties

The tensile strength properties were evaluated using 14 specimens, seven from the diagonal and seven from the bracing. The specimens were prepared and tested according to the NP 10002-1 standard [3]. The mean values of the properties are summarised in

Figure 3: Microstructure of the diagonal (left) and bracing (right) materials

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Table 2: Tensile strength properties

Rm (MPa) Diagonal Bracing 367 355 ReH (MPa) 284 328 A (%) 33 33 Z (%) 70 72

Crack propagation tests

Crack growth studies were also undertaken. Tests were conducted according to the ASTM E647 standard [8] using the compact tension (CT) geometry. The geometry of the specimens, with the respective dimensions, is illustrated in Figure 4. The specimens were machined from the bracing and diagonal members, and were oriented according to the longitudinal (rolling) direction of the members (T-L crack plane orientation). The critical elements of the bridge are the vertical members connecting the arch to the deck. These members are subjected to tensile loading. They support the structure self weight plus the variable loading induced by vehicle crossing. Taking into account the simply support conguration of the bridge spans, the vertical elements experience a minimum tensile stress corresponding to the structure self weight and a maximum tensile stress corresponding to the vehicle crossing. Thus, positive stress ratios are expected for these members, being the actual stress ratio dependent on vehicle weight/bridge self weight ratio. R = 0.0 and R = 0.5 are two representative values. The evaluation of the crack growth rates for these two distinct values allows the assessment of the stress ratio inuence. A total of ten specimens were tested, four from the material of the diagonal (D) and six from the material of the bracing (B), for the two referred stress ratios. The experimental results were correlated using a power relation between the crack growth rate and the stress intensity factor range, as proposed by Paris and Erdogan [9]:

between the longitudinal and transversal directions is observed, which can be justied by the oriented microstructure (oriented grains, lined-up inclusions) induced by the rolling process, used to produce the bridge members. According to the Eurocode [6], the minimum allowable Charpy V notch strength, for a material classied according the EN 10025 Class B (same type of the investigated material), should be 27 J at the temperature of 25 C. Thus, the material of the bridge presents very acceptable toughness properties, even for modern design requirements. Crack opening displacement tests were also carried out according to the BS 5762 standard [7]. The thicknesses of the specimens were limited by the thickness of the bridge members from which they were extracted. A total of six specimens were tested, three from the material of the diagonal (5 mm thick) and three from the material from the bracing (9 mm thick). All the specimens were machined in the material longitudinal direction and they were tested at the room temperature. The two materials exhibit a good toughness at the room temperature as is conrmed by the average CTOD values of 0.949 mm and 0.765 mm, for the bracing and diagonal members respectively, and measured at maximum load. The required minimum CTOD values, at working temperature, should be 0.25 mm.

Figure 4: Geometry and dimensions of the Compact Tension specimen (dimensions in mm)

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Table 3: Crack propagation constants

R = 0.0 Material Diagonal Bracing Diag.+Brac. C* 1.9900e-17 1.3128e-15 2.7874e-16 m 4.3410 3.7482 3.9684
)1.5

R = 0.5 R2 0.9838 0.9841 0.9696

.

R = 0.0 + R = 0.5 m 3.2833 3.3208 3.3085 R2 0.9874 0.9910 0.9896 C* 1.8697e-15 4.8966e-15 3.1961e-15 m 3.6793 3.5548 3.6117 R2 0.9291 0.9838 0.9618

C* 2.9374e-14 2.2866e-14 2.4849e-14

*da/dN expressed in mm/cycle and DK in N.mm

da=dN C:DKm

(1)

where da/dN is the crack propagation rate, DK is the stress intensity factor range and C and m are material constants. Table 3 summarises the constants of the Pariss law, where R2 is the determination coefcient from the linear regression analysis. Figure 5 represents, for each tested specimen, the crack length, a, as a function of the number of cycles, N. The gure also includes, for each test, the maximum applied load, Fmax, and the stress ratio, R. From these curves and using the incremental polynomial

method with seven data points, as described in the ASTM E647 standard, the crack growth rates were computed [8]. Figure 6 compares the crack growth data obtained for the bracing and diagonal materials for the stress ratios, R = 0.0 and R = 0.5. It was veried that the stress ratio inuences the crack growth data for the bracing material, mainly for lower stress intensity factor ranges. The increase of the stress ratio leads to higher crack growth rates. For the material from the diagonal, the stress ratio does not inuence the respective crack growth rate. The material from the diagonal exhibits lower crack growth rates than

(A)

(B)

Figure 5: Crack growth versus cycles curves: A) diagonal member; B) bracing member

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Figure 6: Comparison between the crack growth data for the bracing and diagonal materials: (A) diagonal; (B) bracing; (C) R = 0.0
and (D) R = 0.5

the bracing material, essentially for lower stress intensity ranges and for R = 0.0. For R = 0.5 it can be concluded that both materials show the same crack growth rates. Figure 6 also illustrates the correlation of the crack growth data using the Pariss law. In spite of the simplicity of the Pariss law, it gives a very satisfactory description of the experimental data. As a nal conclusion, the inuence of the stress ratio on crack growth is small and the materials from the two members present very similar fatigue crack propagation behaviours.

showed that fatigue cracks initiated at existing aws. These initial aws were developed during the operation of the bridge. Figure 8 illustrates the initial aws. A linear regression analysis was applied using the data points, previously transformed with logarithms, resulting the following expression for the S-N curve: log Dr 3:3108 0:2226 log Nf
(2)

Fatigue tests of riveted joints

Finally, fatigue tests of riveted joints were performed. The specimens were machined from the bracing member according to the nominal dimensions of Figure 7. Original riveted assemblies were considered in these tests. Figure 7 also presents a macrograph of the rivet. The observation of the macrograph of the rivet allowed the estimation of the hole diameter (/21 mm) and the rivet diameter (/20 mm). A total of seven specimens were tested under stress control, with stress ratio, R = 0.1. The number of specimens was limited by the amount of available material. The results of the fatigue tests are summarised in Table 4. The fracture surfaces of specimens CF1, CF4 and CF5

where Dr is the remote stress range in MPa and Nf is the number of cycles to failure. Figure 9 illustrates the fatigue strength data obtained for the riveted connection. This gure also points out the S-N curve. A determination coefcient, R2, equal to 0.801 was found which is within the usual values obtained in correlation of fatigue strength data. The proposed S-N curve includes the damaging effects of the previous loading history, since it resulted from fatigue tests of original riveted assemblies, which experienced the referred loading history. Therefore, the proposed S-N curve can be applied to perform residual life calculations of the bridge under investigation, if the future loading history is foreseen, without taking into account the previous loading history. The complete loading history of ancient riveted bridges is generally unknown, since it can

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Figure 7: Nominal geometry of the riveted joint (left) and macrograph of the rivet zone (right) (dimensions in mm)

Table 4: Results of the fatigue tests of riveted joints

Stress range Specimens CF2 CF3 CF4 CF1 CF6 CF5 CF7 MPa 168.3 124.1 103.6 83.5 83.5 61.8 61.8 Fatigue life cycles 86140 635172 574452* 1922024* 2243676 1450789*

account the whole loading history the previous and future ones. It is worthwhile to refer that during the fatigue tests and after the very rst cycles, a relative slip between the riveted members is observed, being the rivets subjected to shear loading. This a clear indication of low clamping forces of the rivets.

Residual Fatigue Life of Riveted Joints Using S-N Approach

Studies conducted by Fisher et al. [10], DiBattista et al. [11] and others showed that the AASHTO [12] class D S-N curve, for riveted joints, leads to conservative predictions of the fatigue strength of riveted structural details from bridges. Figure 10 presents fatigue results for riveted joints gathered by DiBattista et al. [11] as well as results obtained with fatigue tests of riveted joints from Luiz I bridge [1]

*Fracture surface presents initial cracks.

Rupture occurred outside the riveted connection.

Run out (test interrupted at 107 cycles).

represent very long operation periods, in many cases more than 100 years. If the available S-N curves resulted from tests of undamaged riveted connections, any residual life calculation must take into

4 3 5
2,8

2.8

2 2

4
1,4

1.4 11 10 10.5

Figure 8: Initial crack-like aws observed in some riveted joints (dimensions in mm)

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N Dr3 7:21 1011

(3)

Figure 9: Fatigue results of a single rivet joint from the Pinhao bridge

and the results from this study [2]. The class D S-N curve, from AASHTO code, is a lower bound of the experimental data, with some exceptions, namely some points from riveted joints of Luiz I bridge and one point from the Pinhao bridge. The observation of the fracture surface for these riveted joints showed the presence of initial cracks, which were hided by the rivet head. Figure 10, right, shows that the Eurocode class 71 S-N curve is coincident with the AASHTO class D S-N curve until about 5 106 cycles. Above this value, the two curves diverge. In the assessment of the residual life of the Pinhao bridge, the class D S-N curve, from AASHTO code, will be used. This S-N curve presents the following form:
1000
Helmerich et al., 1997 Akesson and Edlund, 1996 Adamson and Kulak, 1995 DiBattista and Kulak, 1995 (BD) DiBattista and Kulak, 1995 (TD) ATLSS, 1993 Bruhwiler et al., 1990 Fisher et al., 1987 Out et al., 1984 Baker and Kulak, 1982 Reemsnyder, 1975 AASHTO

where Dr is stress range in MPa and N is the cycles to failure. For a fatigue limit of 2 106 cycles, Equation (3) gives a stress range of 71.17 MPa which is lower than 80.95 MPa obtained with the Equation (2). Thus, the AASHTO class D S-N curve is more conservative than the S-N curve obtained with the test results of the riveted joints from Pinhao bridge. For the evaluation of the bridge residual lifetime, it is necessary to know the history of the load spectra imposed by the vehicles crossing the bridge. It is assumed that only the vertical effects of trucks with a gross weights greater than 30 kN can induce fatigue damage [13, 14]. Usually the calculations are based on a standard vehicle. Several suggestions can be found in different codes of practice. For example, the Portuguese RSAEP code [15] suggests a standard vehicle with a total weight of 300 kN and three axles for a static calculation; the BS5400 [13] suggests a standard vehicle with a total weight of 320 kN and four axles; the AASHTO [12] suggests a standard vehicle with a total weight of 325 kN and two axles. The calculation was performed using the standard vehicle proposed in the RSAEP. Generally, the crossing of one truck can induce more than one fatigue cycle in a given detail. However, the bridge is composed by simply supported spans, which leads to
1000
Helmerich et al., 1997 Akesson and Edlund, 1996 Adamson and Kulak, 1995 DiBattista and Kulak, 1995 (BD) DiBattista and Kulak, 1995 (TD) ATLSS, 1993 Bruhwiler et al., 1990 Fisher et al., 1987 Out et al., 1984 Baker and Kulak, 1982 Reemsnyder, 1975 AASHTO

Luis I Stress range (MPa) Stress range (MPa) Pinhao

Luis I Pinhao Eurocode 3 Class 71 100

100

10 1.00E+05

1.00E+06 1.00E+07 Fatigue life (cycles)

1.00E+08

10 1.00E+05

1.00E+06 1.00E+07 Fatigue life (cycles)

1.00E+08

Figure 10: Fatigue results of riveted joints: comparison with the AASHTO class D S-N curve (left) and with Eurocode class 71 S-N
curve (right) [11]

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single cycles for each truck crossing [14]. The stress cycles can be evaluated using the inuence line calculation technique associated to a cycle counting technique, such as the reservoir method [16]. The crossing of a truck induces bridge vibrations and consequently additional stresses. However, the stress ranges induced by vibrations are relatively low [14] and will be disregarded in this study. Also, it was considered that the bridge is crossed by a truck at a time, neglecting the possibility of superposition of trucks on the bridge. Experimental evidence illustrated that the effect of trucks superposition results on an increase of the stress range lower than 15% [14]. The calculated equivalent stress range for the critical element under analysis, on the basis of the load inuence lines, was Dr = 64.7 MPa [2]. This stress range accounts for the crossing of the vehicle type (300 kN) but also for other variable actions, specied by the designer [2]. The total number of stress cycles can be estimated using the following expression: NT i YD DATF NSC
(4)

2.66 106 cycles corresponds to an unlikely crossing of trucks with 300 kN even taking into account that trafc ow will rise in the future. The value of the DATF used above represents the totality of trucks crossing the bridge, with gross weights varying between 30 kN and the maximum legal of 400 kN. We assume there is no trafc of illegal weight vehicles. Since the gross weights distribution of the vehicles crossing the bridge is not available, an approximation can be obtained using the national distribution of gross weights of registered trucks, made available by the Portuguese Directorate-General for Trafc (see Figure 11) [2]. Since the actions are now produced by trucks of different gross weights, critical details are submitted to variable amplitude stress spectra. The assessment of the fatigue strength is performed by calculating the accumulated fatigue damaged. The Palmgren-Miner rule [17] was used, which states that rupture occurs when damage reaches the unit value. Damage can be calculated using the following formula: D X ni Ni 1
(5)

where i is the number of years of service, YD is the number of days per year, DATF is the daily average trafc ow and NSC is the number of stress cycles induced by each truck. Using data supplied by the Portuguese Directorate-General for Trafc on trafc ow nearby the Pinhao bridge, a daily average trafc ow of trucks crossing the Pinhao bridge was estimated equal to 91 trucks per day. Considering a study period of 30 years, results a total number of cycles equal to NT = 30 365 91 1 = 996450 cycles. Using the estimated stress range of Dr = 64.7 MPa and the class D S-N curve results a number of cycles to failure equal to 2.66 106 cycles which is about 2.7 times the number of predicted cycles for the studied period. The number of cycles to failure of

where ni is the number of cycles with stress range Dri, observed during the studied period, Ni is the number of cycles to failure for the stress range Dri evaluated using the class D S-N curve from AASHTO code. The stresses Dri were proportionally scaled from the value of 64.7 MPa corresponding to a truck gross weight of 300 kN. The calculated damage for the 30 years period (NT = 996450 cycles) was D = 0.026, which is very small. An equivalent stress range, Dre, was evaluated taking into account the gross weights distribution until 300 kN. This equivalent stress range yields the same damage as the variable amplitude stress spectra when applied for the same number of cycles. The following expression is used:

Figure 11: Weights distribution for trucks by the Portuguese Directorate-General for Trafc

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Dre

hX

ni Dri m =

ni

i1=m

(6)

where m is the slope of the S-N curve. Using the previous equation results an equivalent stress range equal to 27.9 MPa. This stress range yields a number of cycles to failure of 3.32 107 cycles, which is much higher than the calculated value, using the standard vehicle of 300 kN.

Residual Life of Riveted Joints Using Fracture Mechanics Approach

The authors performed fatigue tests of riveted joints that were extracted from the bridge, which details and results were reported in previous sections. The analysis of the fracture surfaces of some riveted joints revealed the existence of initial cracks, prior to the fatigue tests, which nucleated and developed during the previous bridge operation. These cracks are usually hidden by the rivet head or due to the overlap of the members. Figure 8 illustrates some examples of initial cracks. It is observed semi-elliptical or circular surface cracks, developed in the interface of the two riveted members; also quarter-elliptical corner cracks, at the rivet hole, can be visualised. Based on these observations, the geometry specied in Figure 12 was adopted, in this paper, as the base geometry to be used in the assessment of the residual fatigue life of a typical riveted joint. A semi-elliptical surface crack with a crack width, c, and a crack depth, a, located at the interface between the two riveted members, in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member was considered. This geometry leads to a circular crack if one consider c = 2a. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics was applied to derive the number of cycles to propagate the crack until it reaches critical dimensions, responsible for the failure of the riveted joint, or dimensions that allows the crack detection during the inspection routines. The critical dimensions of the cracks generally correspond to crack sizes at which the unstable crack propagation

will occur. The critical dimensions depend on the material toughness. Higher toughness values correspond to higher critical dimensions before unstable propagation can occur. The material from the Pinhao bridge presents a Charpy V notch energy of 89 J at room temperature which tolerates a defect of 10 mm depth and 48 mm width at the maximum stress of 169.6 MPa [2]. Thus, the occultation of small cracks by the head of the rivets is not a handicap because these cracks are far from the critical dimensions. The simulation of the propagation of the semielliptical surface crack was performed integrating the Pariss law in the crack depth direction, between the initial depth, ai, and a nal depth, af, resulting the required number of cycles, Nf (residual lifetime): Zaf
ai

Nf

1 da CDKm

(7)

The stress intensity range, DK, at the maximum depth point of the semi-elliptic crack of Figure 12, can be dened using the following generic equation: p DK Kmax Kmin Fa; Y Dr pa
(8)

where Dr is the tress range, F(a,Y) is a function of the geometry that takes into account the possible stress concentration and Y is a vector of geometrical parameters, such as the dimensions of the crack and component under consideration. Substituting Equation (8) into Equation (7) results the following Fracture Mechanics based S-N curve: Zaf
ai

1 Nf Dr C
m

da p m da Fa; Y pa

(9)

The geometry function F(a,Y) can be dened using the formulation proposed by Cheung and Li [18]: F a; Y Fe Fs Fw :Fg
(10)

where Fe, Fs, Fw and Fg are correction factors, respectively, the crack shape correction, the free surface correction, the nite plate width correction and the non uniform stress correction. The crack shape correction Fe is dened as follows: Fe 1 E k
(11)

Figure 12: Semi-elliptical crack located in the interface

between riveted members

where E(k) is the elliptic integral of second kind, dened in the following way:

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Ek

p=2 Z 0

0:5 1 k2 sin2 h dh

(12)

a with k2 c c2 . The following approximation was used to calculate the elliptic integral [19]:

r a1:65 Ek % 1 1:464 c

(13)

The correction factor for the effect of free surface Fs is dened as follows: r a Fs 1:211 0:186 c

(14)

The correction factor for a central crack in a plate of nite thickness Fw is given by: Fw r pa sec 2t

(15)

where t is the member thickness. The correction factor for non uniform stress, i.e. the effect of stress concentration factor, Fg, is assumed to be equal to: Fg 1:36
(16)

Figure 13: Integration procedure adopted in crack propagation simulations

The integral of Equation (7) does not admit an exact solution. Thus, the numerical integration scheme, illustrated on Figure 13, was adopted. The initial surface crack depth, ai, is inputted; the initial crack width is estimated using a given relation between the crack width and the crack depth. Two relations are analysed in this paper, namely, the empirical relation proposed by Cheung and Li [18]: c 3:549a1:133 and a simplication proposed by authors: c 2a
(18) (17)

The latter relation consists on admitting a crack with circular crack front. The crack is forced to propagate in depth direction admitting constant crack increments, Da (to be inputted). In this paper, crack increments,Da, equal to 0.01 mm were assumed. It was veried that crack increments lower than this value does not produce signicant changes on results. For an actual crack conguration, its stress intensity factor range is evaluated. This stress

intensity factor range is assumed to be constant during the crack increment, which allows the computation of the increment in the number of cycles. Finally, the dimensions of the crack are compared with inputted nal crack depth and/or crack width. Several scenarios for crack propagation, namely, two initial crack depths (ai = 2.0 mm and ai = 2.8 mm), which were observed on fracture surfaces (see Figure 8) were simulated. Two stress ranges were also considered, namely Dr = 64.7 MPa and Dr = 27.9 MPa. The stress range of 64.7 MPa were obtained for the most stressed member using the inuence lines method and considering the crossing of a single standard truck with a total weight of 300 kN and three axles. Again, a daily average trafc ow of 91 trucks per day was assumed resulting, for a study period of 30 years, in n = 996450 cycles. A more accurate analysis can be performed if one assumes that the daily average trafc ow corresponds to the total number of trucks from a distribution ranging from 30 kN and the maximum legal of 400 kN as considered in previous section (see Figure 11). An equivalent stress range equal to 27.9 MPa was computed, for the most stressed

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Figure 14: Crack propagation curves for an initial crack depth of 2 mm

Figure 15: Crack propagation curves for an initial crack depth of 2.8 mm

member, assuming a linear damage summation hypothesis, which will be used in these Fracture Mechanics computations. Figures 14 and 15 present crack propagation curves for initial crack depths of 2 and 2.8 mm, respectively, and for a stress range of 64.7 MPa. The crack depth, a, is expressed as a function of the number of cycles: a aN. Curves i) and iii) were obtained assuming
Table 5: Residual fatigue lives for several scenarios
ai = 2.0 mm af = 11.0 mm cf = 53.73 mm 4.706 107 1.353 10 1.671 10 0.837 10
7 6 6

that the crack width, c, is given by Equation (18). Curves ii) and iv) assumes that the crack width, c, is given by Equation (17). The crack propagation curves were interrupted as soon as the crack depth reached the thickness of the member (a = 11 mm), becoming a part through crack. The crack conguration, at which the crack width reaches the maximum of 14 mm is also point out on Figures 14 and 15. After

Dr (MPa) 27.9 64.7

R 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5

ai = 2.0 mm af = 11.0 mm cf = 22.0 mm 8.939 107 2.318 10 3.174 10 1.434 10

7 6 6

ai = 2.0 mm af = 3.36 mm cf = 14.0 mm 3.037 107 7.819 10 1.078 10 0.484 10

6 6 6

ai = 2.0 mm af = 7.0 mm cf = 14.0 mm 8.723 107 2.222 107 0.310 106 1.734 106 ai = 2.8 mm af = 7.0 mm cf = 14.0 mm 4.625 107 1.298 107 1.642 106 0.691 106

ai = 2.8 mm af = 11.0 mm cf = 53.73 mm 27.9 64.7 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 2.501 107 8.018 10 0.888 106 0.496 106
6

ai = 2.8 mm af = 11.0 mm cf = 22.0 mm 4.842 107 1.394 10 1.717 106 0.863 106
7

ai = 2.8 mm af = 3.36 mm cf = 14.0 mm 8.323 106 2.310 10 0.296 106 0.143 106
6

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Residual Lifetime Assessment of a Road Bridge : A. M. P. de Jesus et al.

reaching a width of 14 mm, the crack propagates with constant width, approaching a constant depth crack. However, simulations were run even for crack widths greater than 14 mm, which constitutes ctitious cracks. The resulted simulations should be applied with care. Figures 14 and 15 also illustrate the effects on results of the stress ratio. Global fatigue crack growth data, derived for R = 0.0 and R = 0.5 (see Table 3), was used in the Pariss equation. The highest stress ratio leads to lower failure lives. The stress ratio has a very signicant inuence on the crack propagation curves in spite of the da/dN versus DK curves being not so distinct. The relation between the crack depth and the crack width also has a noticeable inuence on the crack propagation curves. A circular crack front leads to failure lives much higher than using the relation proposed by Cheung. Table 5 summarises the residual fatigue lives resulted from the application of Fracture Mechanics for several simulation scenarios. The lowest residual fatigue lives were obtained for Dr = 64.7 MPa with R = 0.5. Inspection routines must be performed periodically to detect growing cracks since some scenarios predict residual fatigue lives below the expected number of cycles, for the study period. Some simulation scenarios reported on Table 5 gave predicted lives consistent with the S-N curve based predictions.

crack growth behaviours for R = 0.5. However, for R = 0.0 the material from the diagonal presents lower crack growth rates. The crack growth data was well correlated using the Pariss law. The fatigue resistances obtained with the fatigue tests of the riveted joints are compatible with the recommendations of actual international codes of practice such as the AASHTO. Some exceptions found were justied by the presence of initial cracks developed during the previous bridge operation. The residual fatigue lives of the riveted joints were evaluated using Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics. Several simulation scenarios were tested. For the worst cases (higher stress range and ratio) fatigue lives of the same order of magnitude of those expected for the study period of 30 years were observed. These results enforce the need for periodic inspections to detect fatigue cracks. The present study demonstrates the bridge safety against fatigue, after rehabilitation, for a period of 30 years. This analysis was supported by important assumptions related with the stress spectra at the critical locations. More accurate analysis can be achieved if the stresses/loads are experimentally monitored, during a representative period of time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Conclusions
The main conclusions of this study can be summarised as follows: The material of the Pinhao bridge presents mechanical strength properties similar to values obtained with materials of other European bridges built at same time. The toughness values of the material are much higher than values demanded by current design codes of practice, which allows a high tolerance to the presence of cracks. Cracks hidden by rivet heads are not critical unless if they become visible. Inspection routines for crack detection are required. The crack growth behaviour of the bridge steels were assessed through crack propagation tests. Two stress ratios and two distinct materials of the bridge were tested (materials from a bracing and a diagonal). The stress ratio inuenced the crack growth data only for the material from the diagonal member. Both materials presented very similar

Authors gratefully acknowledge the GEG (Gabinete de Estruturas e Geotecnia, Lda) for their co-operation in this study. This work was partially supported by the Portuguese Scientic Foundation (FCT) through the project PTDC/EME-PME/78833/2006, which is also acknowledged.
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