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Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
-.---
ooj
Trm
Published by: inter~rztionai Labaur Office Pubikations Branch CH-1211 Geneva 22 SWITZERLAND
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HAND TOOLS FOR WOOD HARVESTING FILES ................................................... GRINDSTONES SPLITTING MAKING AXES
TOOL HANDLES
USE AND TYPES OF AXES ................................... MAINTAZNING SHAFTING BGW SAWS USE AND TYPES OF DOW SAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CROSS-CUT SAWS SAWS ................................. SAWS .................... ......................... SAW ................... SAW ................ SAWS ..................... ................................. CROSS-CUT AN AXE ...................................... MAKING AN AXE HANDLE .................................... AN AXE .........................................
14 16 20 22
24
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42
MAINTAINING MAINTAINING
TYPES OF RAKER-TOOTH
A RAKER-TOOTH
CROSS-CUT
SAWS ........................
44 46 48
NUTRITION
vi
THE UORKER (continued) WORK PLANNING ACCIDENT TREE FELLING PREPARATION TREE FELLING TREE FELLING FOR TREE FELLING . . . . . . . . . . . ..~.............. SAW . . . . . . . . . . . . ..I.. 58 60 62 64
66
AND ORGANlSATZON
. ..e......................
52
PREWENTlON
. . . . . . . . . . . ..~..~....................
54
WITH AXE AND BDW SAW . . . ..s......~.......... WITH AXE AND CROSS-CUT
PRECAUTIONS WHEN MAKING THE UNDERCUT AND THE BACK CUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..s........................... FELLING FELLING FELLING FELLING FELLING TREES LEANING
DIRECTION
INTO
. . ..e..................................
TO THE SIDE
DENSE TROPICAL
FORESTS
WOdD WASTAGE DUE TO POOR WORKING TECHNIQUES IN FELLlNG .. ... .. ..... ..... ..... ........ .............. .. RELEASING LODGED TREES LODGED TREES WITH SIMPLE TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80 82
LODGED TREES WITH SPECIAL AND MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..v.... AND DEBARKING . . . ..m.......................................
DEBRANCHING
84 86
GENERAL RULES FOR CROSS-CUTTZNG TOOLS FOR CROSS-CUTTING SUPPORTS AND TRESTLES CROSS-CUTTING WOOD WASTAGE IN CUTTING WLNDFALLS
.........................
88 90 92
94 96 98
WOOD SPLITTING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
vii
BILLETS
WOOD . . ..a..
. . . . . . . . . 104
106
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
-ooo-
INTRODUCTION
This vious -
updates
and
amalgamates
the
following
pre-
forests
Selection
of
tropical
trees
in
natural
of
logging
(1970).
These publications were prepared by B. Strehlke, on the basis of substantial inputs from H. Gl;iser and R. Wettstein and with illustrations by B. Schmidle. The first of these two publications dealt with axes, Its English version hand saws and chain sqws. for several years. In 1980, in collaborahas been out of print tion with the FAO, the section dealing with chain saws was expanded to include work in man-made forests and chain-saw maintenance and this was published separately under the title:
Chainsaws in tropical
forests .-
(Rome,
FAO/ILO,
1980).
During the last decade, the use of chain saws has spread increasingly to the developing countries where they are found in commercial logging operations, especially in countries with higher wage levels. However, wood harvesting with manual tools continues on a large scale and, with the shift of emphasis to trees grown by rural people, it will gain more importance in the
years
to
come.
It is for this reason that a need was felt to compile information excluding machines ard techniques which on basic hood harvesting, in many developing countries are out of reach of the rural populaThis view was fully supported by the participsnts, in an tion. FAO/ECE/lLG Workshop on the Transfer of Basic Technology, held in 1986.
For several years it looked as if experience in efficient basic logging and supplies of hand tools of adequate quality would beThis trend has changed thanks to come less and less available. the manufacture of improved forestry tools in several developing countries and the reappearance of logging hand tools in the catalogues of some of the major dealers in forestry tools and equipment.
Attempts have also been made in Central Europe and Scandinavia to keep alive experience in manual logging accumulated in previous periods and to encourage further improvement of manual tools and An example of this is the logging sulky of which a techniques. bogie type has been developed only recently.
This work
manual is supervisors
to
trainers,
extension
workers,
As in the three publications mentioned above, an attempt has been made to use simple terms and to describe as much as possible by means of drawings. Users are encouraged to translate the text into other languages and to copy illustrations in any way they might find useful for training purposes.
The the -
interested in publications:
supplementary
information
is
referred
to
planning guides -_I for vocational and education programmes: No. ILO, 1981); technology in forest ogerations with_eo_ssibble --I SIDA, 1983); technology (HelsGki,
(Rome,
FAO,
1982); -in
techniques (Sgnga,
applications
appropriate countries
_-
The
tion Michel
was Hazel
compiled Cecconi
by
edited
B.
Strehlke
in
collabora-
and
supplemented
the
vided
the
finance.
4
----
BASIC
TOOLS
tools
are
needed
for
efficient
manual
wood
har-
(1)
Axe
(weight
between
0.8
and
1.5
kg)
(2)
One-man
bow
saw
(length
approx.
1 m)
(3)
Cross-cut
saw
(length
usually
1.20-1.60
m)
(4)
Machete
(5)
Splitting
hammer
(weight
about
2.5
kg)
(6)
Wedges
(for
felling,
cross-cutting
and
splitting)
(7)
Turning
hook
(B)
Timber
tong
and
timber
pick
(9)
Measuring
stick
or
tape
measure
(10)
Caliper
(to
measure
diameter)
(11)
Debarking
spade
More detailed information is given in: for ---_.- -_._.I._,___,____._._____ vocational and technical -.- -..--- traininvnd ---...-. --.No. ILO, 1981). -_- _ _ 17 _-..-___.-.__... ____ Forestry ,__--_, (Geneva,
07
BASIC
TOOLS
FILES
types of An effort
stocking
file
will
has and
been
commonly made to
distribution.
For
cross-cut
saws
single cut, smooth (22.4
Millsaw file, 20 cm, with two round edges small gullets deepening A worn lowering fi!e of this
for
sharpening (1).
can
cutter
and
sort
be used
for
jointing
the
saw and
for
the
raker. 25 cm, between constant rakers diameter (2). of 12.5 mm for deepening the
Round
big
file, gullets
For
Millsaw
axes
and
file,
other
25
edged
cm, single
tools cut,
tapered
or
blunt
for
reshaping
tool
wooden
handles
(4).
They
must
File
handles
A file
handle
or
rasp
should
a handle
(5).
The
Care
of
files
rasp
(file
teeth card)
become which
and
must never be allowed to become rusty, knocked or are best kept in a canvas holder when not in use.
0I
3 0
BASIC
TOOLS
GRINDSTONES
AND WHETSTONES
sharpening axes, revolving grindstones lar overhauls (1). and a minimum width artificial material
For
debarking spades and other cutting $ools, operated by hand or foot are used for reguThey should have a minimum diameter of 50 cm of 10 cm, be made of sandstone or appropriate When not in use, the and be used with water. softening the part of stone must be kept dry to prevent moisture the stone under water. From time to time, the stone must be "dressed", that is, restored to its original circular shape. be made locally from 20 litres of good can easily cement and 50 litres of quartzitic sand with 1 mm or The sand must be sieved (e.g. with mosparticle size. In be washed and clean from clay or salt. quito netting), an iron tube or rod is needed, about 60 cm length and addition,
2 cm diameter The grindstone with is a nail welded to its middle. (2) which is set up in by 50 cm in size (2a) which are placed 50
Grindstones
quality smaller
resting
centre angle nailed
a perfect
by small
boards
of the mould the iron rod with the mould and securely on the mould (3a). with
is
placed, held in
forming position
After
the ling
to
dry
compacting
it
carefully,
three
too mould, fitted
days.
rapid the
Some sprinkdrying.
required
After
removing
the
with
grindstone
a piece of
from
an old
the
tyre
stone underneath
is
placed as a
(4a).
is also handy for spades and should sharpening agricultural in any
be available
Zn addition to grindstones, whetstones are necessary where edged tools are in use for frequently touching them up during the day. They are also used for finishing axes after grindstone work and saws and axes after filing. Whetstones with a coarse and a fine side, of pocket size (5 by 10 cm), are required (5).
j0 cm
0I
3 0
r-
10
-
BASIC
TOOLS
SPLITTING
To avoid and to lift
the
in
the
splitting
wood,
a splitting
needed.
The
splitting
hammer handle
should
have
a weight For
of
about
2.5 the
kg and edge
a straight should
about sharp.
90 cm long.
splitting,
be kept
Wedges
also
should
be made wood.
from
can
Steel if
of
Three Type
types
wedges
2a
is
large
commonly and
for
felling opening
with
a rather saw
up closed
very
pressure. and a wooden the type the of of head which can head has a up head to be is
wooden wedge
angle type
therefore In the
saw cut
2a.
a metal with
shoe,
a wooden
wedge
may be fitted
an iron
reduce
Type
2~
made and
very
convenient
in
for the
felling.
be carried
as a measure
precaution
1 0
2 0
a 0
c 0
12
BASIC
WORK ANDIMAINTENANCE
TOOLS
MAKING
This
simple (la)
made
for
from
wood
and
two
pieces
of
an
old
tyre
making
holding
a piece
of
wood
when
a handle.
The the
vice platform
is
when
the
platform
is tool is is
down firmly
(lb).
held on the
It
opens between
platform. of the
when the
The worker
two
His ing
rubber
elbow of the
when should
standing
correspond
to
the
height
open-
Good
tool
handles, important
for to
instance
of
axes,
hooks
and
hoes,
are
extremely
ensure handle
and the
that
should size wood
work
fit and in order
can the
weight
be done worker of
last
conveniently Isi
and
length should
efficiently. of bc
The arm,
made height) from
of
tool. a long
hand,
It time.
the for
suitable
to
The
an
vice axe
can
during
be used
sharpening.
for
other
purposes
as
well,
such
as
holding
13
_-
y--
--
__
-,. -
-m-.-5 -am----
---.*--. --
-4
- _ _
14
AXES
In
wood
harvesting,
debranching,
is
used
debarking.
of
axe
work
are
the
simple
tool
outfit
and
heavy
including
work
of
wood
and
cause
Axe
work
should
be
to
preparation
for
the
restricted felling
to
the
of
Axes made by local blacksmiths may be quite use if they are properly hardened and well
traditional
The The axe consists of a steel head fitted to a wooden handle. most important part of the head (1) is the blade (la), ending in The wooden handle is fitted into the eye (1~). the edge (lb). Modern axes are shaped like a wedge and have an oval eye which prevents the handle from turning in the eye.
Special However,
types
in
of most
axes cases
can
be used
for
axe
a universal
the type of axe shown in the picture is weight should be from 0.8 to 1.5 kg, the on the length of the length of the handle from 60-80 cm, depending The handle should have fawnfoot shape (2) and worker's arms (3). Workers should be able to make handles and be made of strong wood. During transport, the axe to replace broken handles themselves. blade should be secured with a protective cover which can be made from a worn bicycle tyre (2a). easily, 8.g: work, The
during
the
15
2 0
3 0
16
AXES
MAINTAINING
AN AXE
Taper The axe blade has a curved ening it is important that Heavy axes a stronger Lighter to the Although be very taper towards the the correct taper During edge, is maintained. wood sharp-
and axes used to cut hard blade close to the cutting and axes UC!', 1 for edge (lb). soft
red;.Jire
axes cutting
be thinner
close
is usually soft, branches may the same taper as for hard wood.
Taper
gauge suitable for average conditions. of metal sheet corresponding to This gauge can be used during the taper is too small and if into the wood, the taper is too maintenance and when the taper the taper gauge can be adjusted
The taper of new axes is usually A gauge can be made from a piece the taper of the new axe (2a). If the axe "bites", maintenance. the axe does not penetrate enough big. Adjustments are made during corresponds to the requirements, accordingly.
Oaikmaintenance -----. Hone the or spit wards on with the axe several times daily on the whetstone to keep one side with the handle handle up (3b). with a whetstone (3). Use water it moist. Honing is done downdown (3a) and on the other side
. :
17
0I
I \ I d 9 \ 4---+-h \ \ \\\ I : I
\ \ \ \ \ \ \
: I I : \ ~ \ I : \ 1 \ 1 9: :I: v
2 0 @ .
,>:;.. ~~
18
AXES
-
MAINTAINING
AN AXE (continued)
Major
This is
overhaul done at intervals of about Major overhaul of the axe. a week or long er depen ding is done by th e follow ing
Check curve of edge with a new axe or a curv e gauge A curve gauge can be made locally from a met al, sheet using a new axe to copy the correct curve. If necessary,
the axe axe
(1). (la)
correct
in
curve
a vice
holding Grind
with (2).
millsaw
fil
e (page
61,
blade right
on grindstone in zone to left (41 and at the Grind zone 3b only at longer by moving the axe from left is done as for daily remove burrs and to 3, previous page).
the 3a, by moving same t ime up a n d inte rvals, i f to ri ght (4). e with surface a of
honing
to
(see
is not available, If a grindstone sharpening. Care must be taken move file away from the cutting
to
edge.
19
1 0
-I-.-
20
AXES -
NAKXNG AN AXE HANDLE hardwood of high elasticity and To make an axe handle, is taken from the butt end of a young tree or from the The wood must be well seasoned. zones of an old one. have straight fibres and be free of knots and bends, A scantling piece of
as indicated is
wood
in
sawn (1).
the
seasoned
before
the
or squared with an axe out of a suitable Annual rings should run through the scantling drawing (2a). The scantling must be well handle is made.
the outline be copied of
A model of a fawnfoot handle is used for drawing The model can the handle on the scantling (2b). of cardboard. a new handle on a piece A bow saw is used from the scantling An axe
Final
from
for
(2~).
making
cuts
into
the
wood
to
be taken
off
can
shaping
be used
is
shaping
with
the
outline
of
the
handle.
a spokeshave
(31,
if
available,
and
a wood
rasp
(see
6).
by polishing with sandpaper window glass), or a knife.
finished instance,
(41,
a piece
handle
is
easier
if
a vice
can
be used
(see
page
12).
0I
2 0
80mm \
36m!nb
3 0
4 0
22
AXES
SHAFTING
AN AXE
must handle
be taken are
in
to
ensure:
the
exactly
same
blade
blade
the end
surface of the
if
the
handle
is
done
by the
following
to
(4)
and
test
for
correct
align-
cut
with
a knife
or
axe
to
the
Put the handle wedge into the Test head for of correct
with
eye (6).
again
and
drive
a small
hardw ood
alignment
(1,
alignment
the
2). after
If
having
necessary, taken
off
adjust the
If the handle,
alignment
2 small
head
handle
of
the saw 1 cm
Note:
the
reshafted, drive the remaining wood out of from the unwedged side or from the wedge d side and wedge have been removed. Never bur n wood still remaining in the eye: by doing this, the ax e's temper would be lost and it would become useless.
If an axe is
23
24 ___---__-_ _..-
BOW SAWS
USE _...-_ TYPES OF BQW SAWS AND -...-Bow saws are handy vided the wood is for not felling too hard. and cross-cutting small trees pro-
the bow saw should consist of a high-quality use, holding a thin blade under high tension (1). is needed to guard the blade during transport
A (la).
A one-man bow saw with an asymmetric frame of approx. 100 cm (1). There are also models with a symlength is recommended metric frame and one side of the bow extended into a handle which allows more force in cutting but restricts movement if space is narrow (lb).
For a frame of 100 cm length, are 91.5 cm long and usually or raker teeth (2b).
the have
corresponding hard-pointed
(2)
(2a)
When should
a hard-pointed be re-set
with
starts
p inching,
it
the blade becomes dull, it can be re-sharpened with a whet(4). If the saw runs to one side, the whetstone should be on the side to which it is running (5).
blades wear out after some time Great care must be taken during soil, sand and stones.
25
a 0
b 0
26
CROSS-CUT
SAWS --
TYPES OF CROSS-CUT
SAWS
tool outfit is rein order to make the job saws require less energy
a comprehensive If cross-cut saws are used, The saw must be well maintained quired. Properly maintained easy and efficient. in use and increase production.
For large trees, The saw should be made of high-quality steel. a straight-back type of saw is preferable (la) and for small to The cutting edge should be type. medium trees a hollow-back thicker than the back in order to reduce friction and the risk The length of the saw should be 100 cm plus the of "binding". The saw should be fitted with detachable diameter of the tree, A protective (lb) which can easily be screwed on and off. handles cover (1~) is needed to guard the cutting edge during transport. Peg-tooth (2a). Raker-tooth They cut Saw teeth In
type
saws
are
common
because
they
are
easy
to
maintain
workers. (2b).
do three the
the loose
cut break
remove
the
fibres
(sawdust)
from
the
kerf.
these three saws, saws the first of cutting on alternate actions are done by the
things are done by one tooth. In the three actions is done by a group The second and sides of the kerf. raker following the group of cutters.
27
2 0
28
CROSS-CUT
SAWS -
MAINTENANCE
The saws:
following
are
necessary
for
peg-tooth
type
(la) (lb)
(1~)
file
(single
cut)
file
or
self-made
gauge
grid
Whetstone
Filing vice
(Id)
(The three
self-made
metal pins
setting
indicator
consists length in
of
a fixed
a piece
position
of
wood and
with
of
the
same
pin.)
an
adjustable
screw-type
For except
tvoe
following
saws.
the
same maintenance
tools
are
needed,
differences:
a raker (2a)
is
(or
a combined and
raker
adjuster
and
shaper)
a setting setting
(2b)
and
a setting
anvil
(2~)
replace
the
29
1 0
C 0
C 0
30
--c-e
CROSS-CUT
SAUS
VICES,
vice saws hold
the
held
saw
firmly
in
maintenance,
vertically. firmly in
raker-tooth
oblique should preferably the height posi-
must
that
the
vertical
can must
be easily be steady.
elbow standing
changed.
a length
Opening of
saw at should
be
easy.
more.
least be
The
sitting.
of
the
a comfortable
working
position
whether
A filing
little vertical
vice commercial
can
oblique in
easily value
from
at
a standing
elbow height.
tree
of The
As required, wedges
and
held
cuts these
made by using
into
the
small
stump. wooden
be firmly
-The
Swedish
saw
vice
(2) piece
is
built
of and (2d)
two are
(2a)
enclosing
centre Four
is
(2b)
legs
connected
is
by three on to one
wooden erected,
piece
boards. two
the
in
saw
held
and
the
centre
a vertical
oblique
The
Swedish
can
be made easily
transportable.
from
locally-available
materials
31
115
IOcm IQcm
32 .
CROSS-CUT
SAUS
FlLING
VICES,
COMMERCIALLY-MADE
.
Commercially-made
filing
vices given:
are
available
in
vario
us
types.
Two handy
examples
are
The to
Swiss --sit
filing filing
bench
has
(1).
the
advantage
of
enabling
the
worker
during
An engineers
pieces
vice
can
be used
as position
a filing
vice
by
with
in serting flap
two hinges
of the
wood
vice
in
a vertical jaws.
connected
position
between arranged
An oblique (2).
of
the
sa w can
be
using
two
wedges
33
1 0
2 0
34
CROSS-CUT
SAW
EAINTAINING The
following
A PEG-TOOTH measures
CROSS-CUT are
SAU for triangular teeth: Width of gullet between two tezh 6.0 mm 0.5 mm 3.7 mm
recommended
of wood
Distance
points
Height of tooth 16 mm 12 mm 15 mm
14 mm
jointing while
Maintenance
a vertical
the
the saw teeth teeth in the at the end. and the ning The
jointing
by the filing vice. using very little pressure middle of the saw will wear This is adjusted by increased end of the jointing stroke.
saw is firmly held in The jointer is run along (1). In normal use, the more quickly than those pressure at the begin-
flat
is continued until all cutter teeth show a small and jointing should stop when this happens. One or a few (if evenly distributed) badly worn or broken teeth are not conFurther jointings will bring them back into the tooth sidered. line.
teeth filing is done with a 20 cm millsaw file using horistrokes parallel to the lines of a grid attached to the The sharpening angle marked on the grid (2a) is 70 for (2). hard wood and 60' for soft wood. These angles may be copied from figure 3. The top angle (2b) is 38O for hard and soft wood. A to check the sharpening angle and the top angle gauge is needed During filing, the gullet should be lowered at the same (4). time (5). First file one side of the saw, tooth by tooth, and then turn the saw and file the other side. Care must be taken to stop filing when the flat is about to disappear.
zontal vice
Cutter
is
done
along
with
both
side of saws,
carried
(6b). mm for
Badly
The soft
set
(aa)
and
special
hard
wood
and
worn saws may need gulleta --This is best done after having position (7a). The round edge for gulleting (7b).
before sharpening begins. marked the gullet depth and of the millsaw file is used
35
1 0
4 0
36
CROSS-CUT
SAWS
TYPES OF RAKER-TOOTH
CROSS-CUT
SAWS
raker-tooth
felling professions!
saw
is
the
This
most
efficient
type
of
saw
type
of
saw is
recommended
are EM')
two for
one wood
followec!
by
two
cutters
by
(Champion four
and
one
raker wood
followed
(Lance
4 YMT)
softer
(2).
can (3b)
be compared
which
with cut
that on both
of
a plane. of the
It
rekerf the
if
sides
by
The
will
raker not
shorter fibres.
loose the of
cutters too
and
so that
it
short, the
is
w 11 will to
not
sufficiently jam
in
fibres
cutters needed
the
depth
hold
and
transport
(3~).
Correct
if if
depth depth
fine is
produces
too long, is
long
chips chips
with
clean to have
edges
whiskers
(4);
(5);
the too
tend
sawdust
produced.
1
tion.
According
to
International
Organisation
for
Standardisa-
.:/ _: \ Is ,,
$
,-
:,
37
0I
2 0
38
CROSS-CUT
SAWS --
MAlNTAfNlNG
A RAKER-TOOTH
CROSS-CUT
SAW
Maintenance
work
follows
the
same raker
pattern adjustment
position
as
is
for
saws saw
except
is
that,
at all
additionally, times in
held
a vertical
during
maintenance
work.
Jointi
is
done
in
exactly
the
same
way
as
for
peg-tooth
saws
(1).
adjustment. a raker
is filed
The (2).
flush
raker
the the
adjuster,
tool tool firmly guide
set,
the
is
placed
saw, the
Holding with
The mm for
working chips.
raker soft
condi-
mm for depth
by
hard must
wood
and
be found
properly-shaped
Raker
is file
filing
is until
after
flat
adjusting is as small
the
raker as angle
height
(3). Horizontal
It
continued
possible.
strokes be checked
file
are
(3a). during
The
filing
raker
with
be 90. of the
Zt
mill-
can
saw
the
(3b).
Cutter
(4). Filing of the
filing angle
is
done 70'
not
with
the
saw
angle
in
the
oblique
position
of
should
and
a side 60
35'
must The
be produced.
full file. length
exceed
per
pressure and
with
on the the
file how gentle. flat
Check
almost or is small left. is
the
angles
with
disappears, piece
tooth
of
last
picturi?
The
the
is
must about
be very to
Sharpening
finished
flat
disappear.
39
0I # & n
2 0
3 0
^,_, :
/_,;,, ..)_
40
CROSS-CUT
SAWS
A RAKER-TOOTH Put
is
CROSS-CUT
in
SAW (continued)
position.
saw along
a vertical both
sides
The saw to
with firmly over
fine
side
of
whetstone
Be careful (2).
of
remove
the in
burrs
to that man,
the
saw left is
sharp
held is
fingers.
the vice. taking anvil
For care
in
arm the
with
to first. the
the
saw
arm the
or
body, the of
Those
anvil with
bevels
are The
held
against strokes
short (2a,
is used
the
hand
The The
setting
indicator
check
is is
the
0.1-0.2
set
of at
tooth
(3).
correct strokes.
saw set
If
hard
set is
wood set
too
mm, for
it anvil is
0.2-0.4 hammer
setting
Insufficient
corrected
great
after
set.
of
the
changed
setting
saw is
turned
The
first
six
teeth
end
filing
of
the but
saw
need order
no setting. can
also
normally
follows
the
intervals
of on the
millsaw (4~)
about cutters
file with
it
is gullets gullets
gullets with
the
the cutters
the
41
i----
0.1 - 0,4
mm
42
CROSS-CUT
SAWS
SAWS
become
line.
badly
This as saw
out can
of
tooth
line,
it
is
necessary
a new is
to
saw
adjust
which
the
is
best
be done
Its
by using
line is
shaped
old gullet
a model. (I).
tooth line
also (2). to
marked
with
scribe
drawn
underneath after
jointing
at
the
with points
depth.
to
be done
The
attached marked
the
position
of
tooth
on the
avoid
incorrect
spacing.
If
a new
saw
is
not
available,
a thin
board
desired
(or
curve
a
(3).
straight-back
It is fixed line
can ends
If
be used and
to bent
draw
in line
middle is is
to drawn
the
correct the
tooth two
middle length, length.
a straight
ends of
board, board
is
the bent
correct outwa:-d
length
obtained
the
m saw
by
8 cm for
2.0
m saw
m saw
the
curve
according
if in
to shears
the can
line instead
marked of
files.
on
facilitated
Shears
may be found
central
workshops.
Use of
In for files central
a press workshops,
gullets time. it may also be useful worn saws to provide (4). This a press saves
deepening
and
reshaping
and
43
2 0
3 0
44
THE WORKER
CLOTHING,
PERSONAL PROfECTlVE
EQUIPMENT,
FIRST-AID
EQUIPMENT
Workers (1)
should
wear:
shirt
Long-sleeved
colour, fitting
or
neither
jacket, too
preferably
loosely nor
in too
a warning tightly.
(2) (3)
Long Boots
trousers. with
non-slip soles.
In (4)
felling
operations,
helmet with
the
worker
must --
wear:
Safety
ventilation
holes.
During
the
felling
of
large-sized
trees,
it
may be advisable
to
use:
(5)
Knee
protectors.
The (6)
following
first-aid first-aid
equipment
kit containing
must
be available:
roller carried serious
A pocket standard
bandages
by the
and
worker to .
dressing
first-aid
for
kit
open
for
wounds,
treating
(7)
A full kept at
accidents,
be
the
work
site
for
a group
of
workers.
During
rainy
periods, boots.
workers
should
have:
(8)
(9)
Rubber
Raincoats.
Simple protection
shelters
against
should
rain
for
use
during
breaks
as
5 0
7 0
-_. )
a ,,
i:
-.
I.
46
THE WORKER
FOOD,
NUTRITION
AND REST
is
heavy
work be
in
and
over
a period state of
of
time
is
tiring.
worker
must
therefore
a good
health
and
be well
He should
have
a meal
before
starting
work
and
eat
during
breaks.
Under
tropical
severe
climatic
(very
six
weather of
or
than
productive
two meal
be expected.
at least
(after
the
first
two
hours
of
work
and
Food
should
be
rich in oil,
in
starches (beans,
(rice,
maize,
wheat, fish);
vitamins
mi 1 1 e-t , bananas,
in
proteins cheese,
eggs, and
meat, in
fats
(olive
coconut
butter);
(fruit,
vegetables).
During
litres
hard of
work
liquid
and
per with
in day.
hot
weather,
This
the
body
can
lose
3 to
must water,
Workers beverages
intervals lost
should and
during
boiled
when must
thirsty
but to
also replace
regular
the salt
Care
be taken
through
sweating.
47
I)Lr I
!J,;. : I I ,<
;?
-:
,:
,I,
48
THE UORKER
UORKING
Heavy
physical
work movements.
can
be made
easier
by
prop er
working
postu
and
working
Sawing is pulled
can
very arms
tiring
and the
only
quite
ineffi if
cient
if
the
saw
st
towards
body, short
the
body s can
remains
and
upright
consequently
stroke
be made.
To make work
only along by
the
job
its
less full
tiring length
and
and
more
the
efficient should
the be
saw carried
should not
load whole
the
arm and
muscles
but
by the
the
body of
swinging
backwar
and
forwards
supporting
movement
th e saw.
working (2)
techniques indicated in
in
the
use illustration
of
(1)
and
cr
are
position.
the
showing
the
ch
The
(3).
same
principles
y to
other
jobs,
debarking
Manual
wood
harvesting
often
involves
li
fting
and
straight
carryi to
of
avoid
loads.
In
such
work,
back
ke pt
excessive
strong
of
the
legs
shou
be used
for
49
2 0
/,.. &&,
3 0
*,,A23 ,.,,.
4 0
50
THE WORKER
-
Zn axe
changing near the
work,
the cut
the
weight while
and away
slides grip
the cut
the
stroke to
handle.
by
leg lf right-
the
the hand
worker
grip
masters
(31,
(1).
(2)
and
the
work
safer
and
less
strenuous.
51
01
3 0
52
THE UORKER
UORK PLANNING Wood harvesting make and the best production of type cut),
(flat,
planned
material minimising
and
while
organised keeping
in
order labour
to input
raw and
to
the
A variety
ing logs),
harvesting size
be applied
(fuelwood,
on the
clear
and or
assortment
natural), (artificial,
or
type (roads,
motorised).
of
or and
In
coppice,
terrain means
all
accessibility animal,
waterways)
of
these
and
organisation
of
work
depends
the of
of
volume
to
be harvested; to
places,
the
wood
assortments
storing
be produced;
skidding lines
clearly-instructed availability
and of Ihe
skilled
supervisors hand
tools
and and
workers;
necessary
maintenance
and
clear
other
separation different
work
teams
and
of
transport).
map indicating (21, the
shows
network (3),
an example
(I), felling the
a harvesting
direction (4) and
transport direction
the
skidding
the and
storage
for
logs
(5)
short
wood
(6).
2 0
_,
54
THE UORKER -
ACCIDENT
PREVENTION
is
workers
are Cutting
wounds. in
occur or on
when slippery
surfaces.
accident of wood
prevention harvesting.
is
therefore
a basic
requirement
of
Workers must be
to
be
in jobs,
good
condition. strictly
They observe
trained of
a definite
The -
most In
safety
rules
following: safety first be helmets, aid available type distance distance in a tree and of wear equipment. in suffigood
workers soles
regards
a minimum
(1).
when be given
This
may the is
visibility before
forest about
A warning
Greatest by an
is
in
trees leaving
during a sufficiently
felling
the for
worker falling
must
retreat branches
to (2).
a safe
55
:;
56
THE WORKER
ACCIDENT
PREVENTION
(continued)
Particular safely
care
is
needed
to
bring
lodged
trees
down
(1).
felling debranching, watch out trees debarking people are are more tired. concentrate that or should be debarking they parts spades must frequent During on keep are of done in and not trees, or splitting of the the stormy weather. workers falling, on sliding slopes. are being
No tree
During must or
cross-cutting, caught by
When used,
period, less
harvesting jobs.
the
dangerous
The
working with
techniques a view to
described reducing
in
this
manual
are
specifically
designed
hazards.
57
58
TREE FELLfN6
PREPARATION
The
will shape
felling
direction
must
skidding the wind,
be carefully
direction, and on
determined
the obstacles lean
(I). of
in
This
depend
of fall, the
on the
crown, obstacles safely.
the the
tree, way of
the the
tree's of
on the
ground
and
also
on the
possibility
retreating
When the
placed
felling opposite
direction to
(la)
felling
is
the
tools
are (lb).
the
direction,
the
tree
The routes
placed
working
are
area
cleared,
around
as
tree as
is
is
(1~).
allow
necessary to the
sideways
at
about
angles
rear
(Id).
The
base
of in
the order
tree to
must prevent
be well the
cleared,
using blunting
the
too
axe
or
a
(2).
matchet
saw from
quickly
59
1 0
I , /
I I I I I
d 0
2 0
60
TREE FELLINC -
TREE FELLING
Small
trees
an axe,
cutting
from
both
sides
(I).
For
In
larger
trees,
horizontal
are can
with
used the to
for axe
making with
the should
it (3). is
be done maintain
The
is tion
back wasted of
cut and
fall
not more
because the
direc-
Axe
felling
of
larger
trees
is
allowed
only
in
exceptional
cases.
61
62
TREE FELLING
TREE FELLING
Felling
SAY trees
is
of the
done
with
the
skills
axe and
and
cross-cut
process
requires
special
experience.
A proper a hinge
Small
undercut (2a)
lateral to cuts felling.
(la)
guide
cut
into avoid
are
desired tearing
necessary,
direction of fibres
leaving of fall,
the
tree l/5
60.
depth
of
undercut open
at
of back very
the cut
large
should
about underl/3
undercut and
may penetrate
diameter, cm higher.
may be
Wedging
will
be necessary
wedging will
to
also
avoid
pinching
of to
the
fall.
saw
(3).
If
necessary,
force
the
tree
1 0
2 0
3 0
64
-
TREE FELLING
PRECAUTIONS
WHEN MAKING
Accurate
rations
felling
makes
and
with it
reduces
greatest easily
timber
wastage.
therefore
at felling
the
can
care be seen
and
whether
been
done.
When making
cisely into
undercut,
felling
care
direction.
must
that
it
points
prestanding
by
in
front
of
undercut
(1).
If
necessary,
should
be
corrected.
Sufficient in in
wood
which
acts
as
a hinge
must it
always
remain
order any
control other
of that cut.
picture, it
the
tree
so that
(2).
does
not the
fall
intended
2a shows
correct as and
depth of
of by
the 2b in
If
the the
cut tree
penetrates
is practically
as deeply
loose
indicated
a gust
wind
may push
anywhere.
If
trees the
have
it
is
necessary which
to can
them
making
undercut and
back (3).
be made also
log. it
precision
to that are
transport are
an placed axe.
of
the
position,
helps
if
marked
65
1 0
0
2
a 0 b 0
1 1 I I I
3 0
66
,
TREE FELLING
FELLING
TREES LEANING
INTO
DIRECTION
Trees
felled
leaning particularly
into
the
planned
in
felling
direction
to avoid
(1) danger
have to
to the
be
carefully
order wastage
workers,
damage
to
the
saw and
of
timber.
a case,
This
the
undercut
(2) preparing
must
more
in
deeply two
into
steps continue
(4). axe.
saw starts.pinching,
should
The
back
cut wood
(5) (6)
must
be done parallel
from
both with
sides
and
hinge.
only
the
re-
maining
be sawn
the
67
1 0
b8 --
TREE
FELLING
FELLING ---
TREES
LEANING
TO THE
SIDE
A tree In this
can
also the
be
felled undercut
at (a) (c) on
an
angle should
of face be
about the
30'
from
the felling
lean.
direction of the
The and
hinge larger
kept to
the is the
side to lean be
which on the
felled. will
a wedge fall
placed tree.
the young
lean tree
is
only
justified or near
in buildings) (e.g.
excep-
growth and
techniques
equipment
win-
49
e 0
Q4
0C
: d 0r 1 b 0
0b
\ \
d 0
70
TREE FELLING
TREE FELLING
IN
DENSE TROPICAL
FORESTS
Felling
in
dense
tropical
forests it
can
be particularly to retreat
in it
dangerous. from
the
Dense during
is to
undergrowth
its fall.
makes Dead
difficult
the crown,
tree
which
often
assess
not the
visible. lean
may be difficult
of
the
may be over-mature
may therefore
have
hollow
or
rotten
are
fall,
often they
falling
to
each
pull
other down
with other
climbers.
the and
from
neighbouring (4).
Climbers
(2,
and
accident
back
trees
in
dense the
tropical
is
considerably
area cleared.
around
base
of
and
the
escape
cleared
a length felling
of
direction.
20-30
m beyond The
angle
the
reach
of them
crown
be
opposite
about 45.
the
between
to
the
tree
to
must
clean
also
be cut base of
before the
sawing
begins. remove
lt bark
will
be necessary deposited
in with saws natural
the
tree
to
by
termites.
tropical although
Tree
harvesting
forests
in
still large
continues commercial
to
some
rations
extent
chain
hand have
saws
the
ope-
taken
over.
71
72
TREE
FELLING
FELLING
Plank many
buttresses tree
species
are once
common
they
in have
tropical
trees.
large.
in
grown
Large
only the
trees
at
with
plank
attain level
a cylindrical
shape
level
a height
of
(1).
irregular
At
ground
(3).
cross-section
becomes
more
(21,
Trees
working
with
large
plank while
at
a convenient level.
height
at
ground
If
to
felling build
from
a platform will
the
ground
(41, to
is
not
possible, in quite
it
may be necessary
terrain. with
especially do this
steep
quickly
Experienced
material avail-
workers
able
be able The
locally.
platform
position.
should
permit
a sufficiently
comfort-
able
and
safe
working
74
TREE FELLING
FELLING
If
felled
felling into
is
done the
through
the
of
buttresses,
lean.
the
tree
is
usually
direction
is
made
to
a depth cut
of
is
about
of the than
side Wedging
the
oblique
diameter cut.
hori-
the
is
horizontal
cut of
made
about
the
the
undercut. on the
lateral
buttresses
may
(lb)
finished
buttress
in
be tree
of
necessary and
fall
on the rear
buttress to push
order tree
the
on the (Id).
buttress
the
into
This
tree.
technique The
be adapted
may, for
to instance,
the
particular
shape
of in
the two
to
be made the
the
buttresses
felling smaller To assist
there have
are to
also
buttresses after
then to
opposite other,
larger wedges
the the
one (2~).
direction
which
cut (2b)
one
should
be cut
it is
first again
felling,
advisable
insert
(2d).
75
1 0
76
TREE FELLING
IN
FELLIN --and
insufficient
High
stumps
are
an indication Often
they are
of
the
poor
result
workmanship
of control putting
felling too
marks,
high.
be left
find
on the
it
stump more in
for
purposes, to cut
(e.g. low as
Sometimes
workers
level (la).
comfortable
special cases
about
hollow possible lower
1 m above or
heavily
ground buttressed
This
trees),
to easier. avoid
should
be as and
helps
wastage
of
wood
because
skidding
Where of
wage in
level
is
low
and (1~)
the
timber
price
high,
the
value
wood of
one
stump
may correspond
to
a week's
wages
or
more
operator.
The
following
table
gives
information
on
volume
loss:
Stump
able
Diameter
60 0.057 0.113 0.171
cm
80
0.100
0.200 0.300
wood
losses
in
felling
can
an
also
occur
if
the
tree (2).
the
is
an undercut
is a risk the at the
or
same
undercut
than,
If
cut,
the
back
that
value
wood
of
out
of
the
butt
reducing
the
log.
If
the
undercut
the
is
small is no in
(3a),
longer
this
can
properly
be most
guided. wastage
dangerous
The tree valuable
tree's
and this
considerable
on the
butt
end.
78 --
TREE FELLING
IN
(continued) trees
(11, they hit loss
amount across
logs
of
valuable
is
lost
obstacles or
on the (3).
the
ground
species
such
hollows if
rocks
break
such caused
Although
part
may be small,
the
by
cutting
out
the
break
be considerable.
The when
This
experienced
determining will
worker
the
will felling in
look
carefully
obstacles
and,
avoid heavily side
direction,
try that
on
to even
them.
bu possible trees
lean.
many
to
cases.
a point
leaning of
can
be felled
either
the
Efforts
facilitate
to
avoid
obstructions because
not
only
reduce
waste
is
but
also
work
unnecessary
cross-cutting
avoided.
The
breaking
of hardwood
a tree
species.
can
cause
serious
losses,
especially
for
valuable
_,
r ;, :...
,.
:;i.,.,,:t:,
: (
.:.,.
79
:. .i ,_
.- ,: I, ;
80
RELEASINQ
LODGED TREES
RELEASING
TOOLS
man-made trees.
a hang-up.
falling is
trees
are to
frequently
by other
called
then
said
be lodged
and
Skilled
operators spaces.
help to
will
try
to
avoid
this
by
felling
the
into
open
will
A proper
reduce
undercut,
lodging,
an adequate but
this
hinge
always
and
be
cannot
hung-up
to take
trees
the
is tree
very
down.
dangerous.
Th ink
first
or
to
work
fell.the
below
a hang-up.
which is holding the lodged tree.
tree tree
another
the
on to tree for to
the
hang-up.
its
lodged
loosen
crown.
Recommended
Place
techniques
suitable
small (e.g.
trees
poles, might slide split
material
wood) backwards
on the (la),
ground (Za),
-
on to (3a).
which
the
tree
Cut the
might
the
wood
which with an
may still
axe
connect
If
the
is
tree
used,
with it
stump,
easily the
(1).
a saw
Use
turning to
tree
to
one (3).
side
(2).
push
winch increase if
the
to
butt
pull the pull
end the
backwards tree
backwards
place the
(4).
winch
A pulley
in a
or
to
position,
necessary.
81
1 0
3 0
82
RELEASING
LODGED TREES
SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT
AND MACHINES
If
lifting sulky
lodging
a sulky stump
it
may be a convenient to
pull skidding this it
ai d for
and
to
down
line.
(1).
The
be used means
is
the
Sul kies
are job.
0.5
facilitating to
heavy
and
danger
of
ous
restricted Sulkies
trees
up to
in local
a volume
abo ut
metres.
can
be made
workshops.
BEUARE suddenly
it ing is the
if
the
terrain
slopes, it is lifted
the
tree from
the In
sulky
forward
advisable sulky.
when
to For
such
cases
move
the
butt
the
end
handle
to
before
is lift
at tached up
braking,
Heavy pulled
trees down
be dislodged
animals or
by
manual
work tractor
be The
th e
a skidding
tractor
lodged
or tree
be placed
winch
at used,
a safe
distance
and
r7--
2 0
: _ _: L .,.T,. ,, . .,, ,I _
2; . :::, -
,,*:,
.. .
,,.., _,,_,*.,
,__ ,, ;,,,
,_ .:
.,,:, /;,. .
, :
84 I, 3 +I .d DEBRANCHING :^-
DEBRANCHING
AND DEBARKIN
Debranching
coniferous thin
may be a rather
trees. It is
time-consuming
job, For
in w ith
:.
done can
with also
an axe. be used.
branches,
a matchet
Debranching
may
is
a dangerous
severe, especially leg.
job
This
and
if
easily
causes
especially
accidents misses to
wh ich
t he
be quite and
a powerful
stroke
branch
hits
the workers.
may happen
young
inexperienced
It as that
is
therefore as
is possible
essential
never
side to
to of
direct
the
legs,
to
s tand
far
on the and
always
opposite away
the from
branc the
h body.
cut
(1)
usually
towards
tension,
the
it
top base
of
the
tree. subsequent1
Zf
fi
thick off
rst
Y
from
with
their
the
remaining
stem.
If
trees
are from
heavily
care keep
must the
be taken
working
to
remove
clear.
c.ut
branches
the
space
After turn
debranching trees or
logs
the (2a).
upper
side,
a turning
hook
(2)
is
needed
to
2 0
0 0
DEBRANCHING
AND DEBARKING
as
of for is
control
weight used for
instance
a variety of reasons such of wood seasoning, reduction the demand for wood without bark, demand for the bark itself if it
for
Large with
industries debarking
requiring machines
debarked installed
in
wood the
equipped
the
tools tools
can
Debarking of smallto medium-sized of which different barking spades, debarking spade is used for harder for softer bark, to permit working
logs is usually done with models exist. A short-handled bark (la), a long-handled in longer strokes (lb).
deone
ends
if
the
bark
is
It may be necessary to debark large logs of trees which have very thick and strong bark. iron spoon should be used which permits, if bark loose and peeling it off with the spoon
Machetes are sometimes used for peeling off the thin bark They are less efficient smaller trees, such as eucalyptus. less convenient than debarking spades and should therefore restricted to occasional work on a small scale.
of and be
As in during
debranching, debarking.
a turning
hook
may
be
needed
to
turn
logs
, Li @ - 84 \ .\ LI / ( Ir/-. ~ d ml ,
88
CROSS-CUTTIN
the
the
tree
is should
not
skidded be done
and to
to
a landing
for by the
avoid
cross-cutting,
this which
operation
in the
in
the tree.
forest
to
same
this
team process of
felling
debranching
supervisors timber
delays
and
additional rel,uires
spent presence
basic
on getting of
qualified knowledge
However, or
grading unless
availability
workers
is
only
fuelwood
be produced.
greatest care is required to avoid losses in cross-cutting
They
cross-cutting grading into
should
be thoroughly
begins. Clear logs. lengths
inspected
instructions Simply
for
proper
should
of
different log
cutting in
trees
wastage
from
during
the
bottom
utilisation.
uniform
may result
much
A single
higher-quality chipboard siderably
tree
plant
may be cut
logs
into
different
sawmill
assortments:
for
grading
for the
it /* is
the and
(lb),
fuelwood
(la), (1~).
returns of
logs
lower-quality Skilled
increase
economic common
the
to
operation.
In the
many forest
sawmills, without
for must
in into Minimum
saw
go
straight
from
In such
further and
of quality
cross-cutting
into
conversion.
cases,
tree should
with
shape
degree
be carefully
the mill.
assessed
Heavily lengths
to
tapering
allow
a reasonable
recovery
trees
trees size,
therefore
little will taper
be cut
(2).
shorter
and
than
log
maximum
however,
logs
depend
normally
on transport
be cross-cut
facilities.
should (3).
in
the
bend
and
not
be-
bends
.--
trees,
This tool with
e.g.
facilitates
for
a portable
(1).
cutting
and
avoids type
of can (see
the
sharp 92).
the and
ground. transported
of the
easily
be made on the
spot
within
page
Bow saws
are
handy
for
cross-cutting
up to
a diameter
of
20 cm (2).
Above cross-cut
diameters saw
of (3).
20 cm,
the
bow saw
should
be replaced
by
the
To avoid
pinching
of
the
saw,
wedging
is
required
(4).
Furthermore,
suring sticks,
tools
for or
correct
calipers.
measuring
are
needed,
such
as mea-
tapes
91
c- _,A
---
2 0
2Ocm
92
CROSS-CUTTING
are
locally
and
used
in
as
an aid
at is
work more
s;Jch
easily tool close
tis
de-
cross-cutting
the and
roadside,
landing
In for
many supports
cases,
time
and
edges to
using
Moreover,
is
remain ground.
sharp
a longer
work
not
done
the
A forked rested
branch against
i s the
easiest
means in the
of
supporting (I).
a pole
if
a standing
tree
forest
!7~~~ataaI
trestles
consist
of the the
light
a wooden
with
and
two
tools
legs.
easily
in of
no other top
into
than of
and
sides
is
on three
fitted
The
low
dovetail
(4a).
trestle
(4) dovetail
of
a post are
cm long
and
The the
25 mm deep
into
70 cm and
about from
of
inserted be about
into
Their
log
65 cm apart. the
dovetail leg
the
must the
lower
and
notches
positions
end can
of
three trestle
poles
be put
on to
by tools
such
turner
a sappie.
93
8
-----.-.-.b---
0I
Jb
J
3Qcm ---r .-
80 - IOOcm -.-g- --
---4
,&cc--y
r-
---+L
--^
36cm
5Ocm
dir
94
-
CROSS-CUTTING
CROSS-r, -
TIN6
Cross-cutting
may
of
trees
under
also
through
pinch special
the
saw.
techniques.
Tension
can If
often
be
reduced
by
(la).
side is
cross-cutting
this
under
is not tension
should
putting supports under the tree e.g. in a tree where the upper lower side is accessible, then below
above
from
(lb) (1~).
until
the
saw
starts
jamming
and
then
continued
If be
the made
lower
to
side
place
of
the
tree
is
under the
an In
effort
should
a support
under
sawing
and
should start from above until the saw starts be continued from below (2~) unless wedging is
sufficient.
In
windfalls,
on pages cases such
cross-cutting
98 and 99,
under a pressure
is
or
very
As used
shown in
cable
to
avoid in
cracking. other
equipment operations.
in
special
cases
also
be useful
harvesting
*r- &A2&..-
_ -.
96 -. NOOD WASTAGE IN
Cross--cutting wood,
CROSS-CUTTING -I_CROSS-CUTTING -,
with
of 30
axes
per of wood
should
cent of 1 m or and
losses into
amount
(la). volume
saw cut
In
large-sized if cnly
work mrasurewood
may occur
wastes than precise transport. axe
is cut minimal
(lb).
ment and
lengths
of
less.
The
requires
Furthermore, stacking as
a clean well
as
saw cut
denser
If
cross-cuts
on
logs
are
not
made
at
an
angle
of may
90' require
(2a),
wood cor-
utilisation
since
logs
from
the may
side be an
which
is
tension
causes
the
log
to
when
This log
advantage
special into
be reduced
circumstances fuelwood
by or
would have to be split However, valuable logs should to fuelwood quality (3a, 3b).
pulowood.
careless
I:utLing
97
@ ic /r-
11L._
-,i
2 0
--++----h-
cc
98
CUTTING _..-
UIZJDFALLS -
the wood is often under high Windfalls are dangerous to cut: the working place is sometimes restricted and the tree tension; Stumps may tip forward or backward when cut difficult to get at. Therefore, the worker must be well trained loose from the trunk. and experienced in order to avoid accidents and to reduce the loss of wood.
Chain saws have a definite advantage over hand saws in clearing windfalls as they can be more easily handled in restricted space compared to a crass-cut saw, only one man is exposed to and, They permit special techniques for cutting wood under danger. FlJrthermore, in extensive windfalls without cracking. tension where there is a danger of wood deterioration through insects and fungi, chain saws help to speed up the operation. Wind-fallen
entered. the top areas are attacked from the When working with hand tools, end by debranching and cross-cutting
side
trees
When cutting the tree if there is a danger stump moving towards a piece be used, e.g.
from the stump, special care must be taken of the stump turning over. To avoid the different means of support can the sawyers, of wood or a stone (la), a pole (lb), or
a cable
After must
(1~).
off the tree, stumps may fall back. make sure that nobody is standing are The behind sawyers the stump
sawing.
loose soil, the base of the tree may be pressed on the ground. this case, it is necessary to dig a trench to allow salvage of the valuable butt end (2a).
In
In
Cutting
losses
pressure
windfalls may easily result in wood This risk can be reduced through
Work after
in windfalls cross-cutting
is
if which
the are
wood easy
is
of
skidded
access.
0
1
0
2
a 0
b O
0
3
100
-_Ic
WOOD SPLITTING
1--
To to
make reduce
handling
the
and
transport for
of
short
pieces
of
do3d
easier
the
and
ex-
time required ceeding 20 cm is often split of splitting tools, bigger remain unutilised.
a diameter
in
absence often
kood
quality
It
may also
be necessary
to
spl it
wood
to
be
used
as fence
posts.
good quality The hammer should weigh about about 90 cm long, with 2 knob head should not be used (2).
wedge with a wooden head and
Splitting
requires
splitting
2.5 (1). kg and
hammers have
and
wedges.
a straight
handle,
Steel wedges with a mushrooni The safest wedge is a steel socket a steel ring (3).
Since species,
wood the wood the crack
the
splits
techniques
differs
must
a lot
be
tree
For
easily,
on the
a few blows
end of the
the
side
of For near
will is
suffice.
inserted as the
difficult
and
to
further
split,
wedges
billet
needed
101
0
2
102
HANDLlNG Loading
BILLETS
and
AND LOGS -a
simple
of
are
billets
used.
and
moving
of
logs
is
easier
if
In
and
the
absence up the
of
such
helping
from the
tools,
ground,
the which
worker
may
has to
be muddy
bend
(?a).
down
pick
wood
A timber
pick of wood
makes
it
much
easier
to
pick
up and handle
small
pieces
(lb).
Different
hooks hand of
types
of
handling picks
(3)
tools small
but the
are timber
available,
wooden
such
(21,
the
timber
worker
with
and
a short
handle, (4).
can ones
tongs
tool
made
is
more
particularly easily.
handy
former
be
locally
The
sappie (5).
42 28
is
used
for for
logs
a hook
lifting heavier
of
and
A 1ighi:er
and
a hook
Sappies
them (7).
are
typically
In the
used
gravity handling
pulling logs (6) and for turning countries they were widely user; for and continue to be indispensable in felling and transport.
for
103
0
2
104
---..h..-
manually inefficient
of just
should
job a few
be
avoided is
(1).
as
much
as
possible.
over
It
is
short
a heavy
which
metres
only
permissible
distances
Small place
logs can be pulled more easily using skidding tongs (2). The the
end
to
tong
the
stacking
should be effect
or
loading
and thus
attached
close to facilitate
of
the
log
to
achieve
a lifting
pulling.
If
the
and of short
ground assembling
cover
permit, loads
e.g. of for
the
short
wheelbarrow
pieces wood of to
is
wood
an
for
excellent
transport for
distances,
taking
a site
a charcoal
kiln
(3).
10s
___c_____e-rf. -
- -. ,C_
---*
106
WOOD HANDLING
AND TRANSPORT
USE OF SKIDDING
The
SULKIES
transport of Loads
slopes.
can
gravity.
the
wards
single logs or bundles and may have a weight of loads are attached at the centre On flat terrain, kg. the load is shifted more toOn increasing slopes, Skidding sulkies can be back to serve as a brake. 2 wheels (la) or with 4 wheels latter type is more sophisticated larger loads and negotiating fixed to bogie but permits
surface
built
(lb).
with
The
handling tions.
of
rougher
Two
sulkies
can
also
be
connected
the load is guided by this case, in the rear. the rear On slopes, close to the ground to facilitate
bigger logs (2). In one handle in the front and one part of the log should hang rapid braking when required.
to
skid
On can ched
steep be to
terrain,
connected trees
two
by
sulkies
may
be
operated
together
(3).
They
(3a).
a cable which is guided by two pulleys attaThe loaded sulky (3b) can thus be used to
(3c), together
one
with
the
worker,
who
guides
0
3
108
-
WOOD HANDLIN6
AND TRANSPORT
SLIDZNG
Timber
wood
downhill
on slopes
pieces
(1).
of
Plastic chutes are commercially available in sections of 5 m and At a diameter of 40 cm, the chutes with a diameter of 35-50 cm. logs up to a length of 5 m and short pieces to a diameter can take
of 30 cm.
Chutes
over
distances
may
of
be
up to
150 m.
per
Under hour
favourover
able
that
2 m3 stacked
transported
chutes are easily assembled thanks to Commercially-available different connecting systems. Chutes may be made locally from plastic tubes cut lengthwise or from other materials, e.g. wooden although these are heavier and more difficult to handle. boards,
In
to
clearfelling
the
areas
on
moderate
slopes, have
logs been
down
across
trees
which
slope if applied
(2).
necessary,
properly,
be out into shorter assortments, This techrique, if the foot of the slope. save considerable expense in skidding.
subsequently
109
0
1
0
2
110
STACKING
AND STORING
OF WOOD
Proper
stacking reduces
of
wood
at
the and
roadside
prior
to
transport
weight
should
provides
be
protection
done on the
against
higher
aids deterioside
of
Stacking
embankment
if this
possible facilitates
if
loading
(1).
Logs
and
poles
for
should
be
placed
on
supports
(!a)
a!ld
be
easily
accessible
loading.
Short
wood The
is
usually
should
piled
(Za). (Zb).
stacks
in stacks which also require supports be firmly secured by one or more stakes
Small-sized
and
material
more
used
for handled
fuel
and
can
be
bundled
(3).
prior
to
stacking
is
thus
easily
marketed
0
2
P
b
0
3
PIT-SAWING
Pit-sawing continues to be It is used for countries. site without transporting locally as building material Pit-sawing provides kets. Pits
are However, dug
widespread in rural areas of developing cutting boards and planks at the felling The sawnwood is mainly used the logs. but sometimes it reaches distant marjobs for many thousands of workers.
and large logs are easily rolled across for sawing. more convenient to set up a stand on which the log The saw cut is marked with a string soaked in moist is placed (1). A plumb line is fixed to the end of the cut dust (fines). charcoal This worker should to guide the worker standing on the ground. The saw hat as a protection against sawdust. wear a wide-brimmed only on the way down but the worker standing on the log has cuts the heavier job because he has to lift the saw up to shoulder Therefore, height. both workers should change places regularly.
it
is
The
pit
may upper
handles
an
saws
Depending on log size, saw is tapering in shape (2). Different types vary in length from 150 to 300 cm. An example is given of a lower handle (3a) are used. both of which must be easily removable. handle (3b),
pit
of and
The shape and sire of the teeth is indicated in illustration The height of teeth is from 15 to 20 mm, the distance from front edge angle varies from to tooth from 20 to 25 mm, the 100 to 1050 and the near edge angle from 20 to 25 mm.
4.
tooth
Maintenance
includes (as
for
the
following
operations:
jointing gulleting
sharpening the saw);
cross-cut
round-edge
(with
of
teeth
(with
angle
of
90'
with
setting
0,8
mm);
of
saw
(as
for
triangular
cross-cut
saws,
saw
set
bevelling
about 50).
(teeth
pointing
away are
given
a slight
bevel
of
given
must
be
adapted
to
size
of
log
and
hardness
of
113
0
2
1 0
0
3
h n
0
b
I u
114
TRAINING
IN UOOD HARVESTING
whether done with hand tools or with machines, Wood harvesting, lf it is done by unskilled percan be a heavy and dangerous job. with poor tools and inadequate working techniques, it generally sons results in excessive effort, numerous accidents, low productivity training is indispensable For this reason, and also in wood waste. not only for professional forest workers but also for occasional wood cutters such as rural people harvesting fuelwood or constructio
poles.
must be adapted to the special conditions lt must be done on the job, as much as possible of wood harvesting. in a practical way aid on a short-term basis with follow-up visits. It should always be based on locally-available tools and equipment. may be lost if tools are brought just for The benefits of training the sake of training which cannot be bought locally or which are Under such conditions, it is too expensive for village people, important for the trainer to ensure that tools and tool handles made by rural artisans or sold by local hardware shops meet the requirements as much as possible.
Obviously,
such
training
Traditionally,
Where the
skills are passed on from one generation to the next. axe is the only wood harvesting tool, this transfer of However, skills normally produces quite experienced axe workers. tools and helping tools requires the use of saws, saw maintenance additional knowledge and skill for which training is needed. Training forest workers may last several weeks in levels of productivity with new tools the occasional wood cutter, the minimum would be a one-to-two day demonstration, but a one-week period including demonstrations and on-the-job practice would be prefeThis type of training should concentrate on safe working rable. habits, reduction of physical effort and optimal wood utilisation more than on high productivity. of professional
The trainee is provided with information, demonstrations and practice regarding tools and tool maintenance, safety rules, directional tree felling, debranching, cross-cutting, splitting, stacking and For the maintenance of tools, transport as required for his job. especially saws and wooden handles, it may be necessary to train specially selected persons who take care of this aspect for a group
of workers.
be readily Follow-up
work.
accepted
if are
visits
it brings needed to
115
I--
He will only be plays a crucial role i n traini n9= if he is able to a nd he is perfectly skilled h imself Ide ally, instructors communicate in the language spoken lo tally. i nw ood h arvesting should themselves have extensive expe rience and should undergo special training a s instru cto rs fo r several
months.
Training technical
subject
of instructors co-operation
may be requested
Forestry and Wood lndustrie International Labour Office CH-1211 GENEVA, 22,
5 Specia lis t, 9
Switzerland. Please
contents send of to the any comments
this
same
training
address,
which you mi ght wish to make on the manual and suggesti its improveons for
ment