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CHAPTER 2 TAXONOMY
GENERAL VIEW

1. Taxonomy: the classification of living things and the development of

taxonomy

2. Taxonomy: The branch of biology concerned with naming organisms and

placing them in groups study the rules, terms, names and concepts used in the management of biodiversity. 3. Taxonomists arrange organisms using a universal classification system Diagnostic (usually structural) characters to identify organisms. 4. Taxon (taxonomic rank): A name for one category or group at one level in the hierarchy scheme. HIERARCHY SCHEME EXAMPLE: MAN LEVEL CATEGORY kingdom phylum class order family genus species TAXON animalia chordate mammalian primates homonidae homo sapiens

1 2
3 4 5 6 7

5. Advantages of taxonomy: a) Classification allows taxonomists to store and provide information on plants and animals systematically. Materials and information are filed and catalogued. b) Nomenclature allows taxonomists to give scientific names to organisms scattered all over the world. Communication and exchange of data and information to be carried out effectively within the scientific community. c) Taxonomists use a natural classification system. This approach provides information on evolutionary relationship among different organisms in the web of life. d) Taxonomy also provides evidence to support organic evolution. Taxonomists can discover natural relationship among organisms in different categories in the Linnaeus hierarchy.

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e)

Taxonomy makes the study of morphology, anatomy and physiology easier. Taxonomists group organisms in different categories. By studying one representative in a group, biologists are able to understand other members in the same group. LINNAEUS HIERARCHY

1. The first hierarchy scheme introduced by Linnaeus

2. Character:

Linnaeus grouped organisms into seven levels Organisms are grouped into different species, Several species are grouped into genus, Several genera are grouped into family, Several families into an order, Several orders into a class Several classes into a phylum, Several phyla into kingdom.

3. Species The species is the smallest group at the lowest level in

the original Linnaeus hierarchy. Consists of individuals with a unique genome. All the individuals have common diagnostic features. Individuals who are sexually mature can interbreed to produce fertile offspring Animalia Vegetabilia

Linnaeus (1975) Two kingdoms Haeckel (1866) 3 kingdoms Chatton (1925) 2 groups

Animalia

Plantae

Protista

Eucaryote

Procaryote

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Copeland (1938) 4 kingdoms Whittake (1938) 5 kingdoms Woose (1977/19 90) 3 domains

Animalia

Plantae

Protista

Monera

Animalia

Plantae

Fung i

Protist Monera a Archaea Bacteri a

Eukarya

TWO KINGDOM SYSTEMS 1. Before 1970 2. Plant and animal kingdom 3. Plant: Bacteria, fungi and photosynthetic unicellular organism 4. Animal: All microorganisms which were not photosynthetic: protozoa. 5. Not suitable for classifying microorganism. FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEMS 1. In 1969, Robert Whittaker came up with the Five-Kingdom systems a. Kingdom Monera Members of Kingdom Monera made up of the organisms with prokaryotic cells such as bacteria and the blue-green bacteria. The other 4 kingdom composed of organisms with eukaryotic cells and are divided according to two main criteria: degree of complexity and method of nutrition. b. Kingdom Protista Members of kingdom Protista made up of unicellular, or one-celled eukaryotic organisms. Descendants from unicellular eukayotic ancestor not fit the definition of plants, fungi or animals and multicellular: seaweeds-close relationship with some protista. c. Kingdom Plantae (plants) Members of kingdom plantae made up of eukaryotes that have cell walls that contain cellulose and all able to perform photosynthesis. The members include multicellular algae, mosses, ferns, grasses, shrubs and trees. Monera-Members

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d. Kingdom Fungi Fungi differ from plants in several ways. All members of the Kingdom are heterotrophs and must absorb food from living or nonliving organic source. Fungi and green plants also differ in cell wall composition body plan and reproduction. e. Kingdom Animalia (Animals) Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic heterophics organisms that obtain food mostly by ingestion or by engulfing or eating food. THREE DOMAIN SYSTEMS 1. Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. 2. Most prokaryotes belong to Bacteria. 3. Archaea includes a diverse group of prokaryotes that inhabit many different habitats. 4. Eukarya includes all organisms with true nuclei, including many unicellular organisms as well as the multicellular kingdoms. 5. Early in the history of life, there were many interchanges of genes between organisms in the different domains. 6. Different organisms fused to produce new, hybrid organisms. 7. It is likely that the first eukaryote arose through fusion between an ancestral bacterium and an ancestral archaean. 8. Why 3 domain:Systematists applied cladistic analysis to taxonomy constructing cladograms based on molecular data. 9. These data led to the three-domain system of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya as superkingdoms. 10.Bacteria differ from archaea in many key structural, biochemical, and physiological characteristics 11.Many microbiologists have divided the two prokaryotic domains into multiple kingdoms based on cladistic analysis of molecular data. 12.Challenge to the five-kingdom system comes from systematists who are sorting out the phylogeny of the former members of the kingdom Protista 13.Molecular systematics and cladistics have shown that the Protista is not monophyletic. 14.Some of these organisms have been split among five or more new kingdoms. 15.Others have been assigned to the Plantae, Fungi, or Animalia. 16.New data, including the discovery of new groups, will lead to further taxonomic remodeling. 17.Keep in mind that phylogenetic trees and taxonomic groupings are hypotheses that fit the best available data. 18. Lifes three domains: a. Bacteria:

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Bacteria are the most diverse and widespread prokaryotes and are now divided among multiple kingdoms. Each of the rodshaped structures in this photo is a bacterial cell. b. Archaea; Many of the prokaryotes known as archaea live in Earths extreme environments, such as salty lakes and boiling hot springs. Domain Archaea includes multiple kingdoms. The photo shows a colony composed of many cells. c. Eukarya: Protists (multiple kingdoms) are unicellular eukaryotes and their relatively simple multicellular relatives. Pictured here is an assortment of protests inhabiting pond water. Scientists are currently debating how to split the protistsm into several kingdoms that better represent evolution and diversity. Kingdom Plantae consists of multicellula eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy to food. Kingdom Fungi is defined in part by the nutritional mode of its members, such as this mushroom, which absorb nutrients after decomposing organic material. Kingdom Animalia consists of multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms. SIX KINGDOM SYSTEMS 1. Eubacteria: consist of bacteria 2. Archaea: Unique group of prokaryotic organism. 3. Protista: Protozoana and algae, most unicellular but some are multicellular algae. 4. Fungi: Mushroom, mold and yeast decomposers that break down dead organisms and organic wsates. 5. Plantae: Plants-Produce their own sugar and food by photosynthesis 6. Animalia: Animals obtain food by ingesting other organism. Plants:

1. Flowering plants, mosses, and ferns. 2. Plants are all multicellular and consist of complex cells. 3. With over 250,000 species, the plant kingdom is the second largest
kingdom. Plant species range from the tiny green mosses to giant trees. 4. In addition plants are autotrophs, organisms that make their own food. 5. Without plants, life on Earth would not exist! Plants feed almost all the heterotrophs (organisms that eat other organisms) on Earth.

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Animals:

1. The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom with over 1 million known
species.

2. Sumatran Tiger -

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum, Chordata, Class Mammalia, Order Carnivora, Family Felidae, Genus Pathera, Species tigris 3. All animals consist of many complex cells. 4. They are also heterotrophs. 5. Members of the animal kingdom are found in the most diverse environments in the world.

Archaebacteria: 1. In 1983, scientists tool samples from a spot deep in the Pacific Ocean where hot gases and molten rock boiled into the ocean form the Earths interior. 2. To their surprise they discovered unicellular (one cell) organisms in the samples. 3. These organisms are today classified in the kingdom, Archaebacteria. 4. Archaebacteria are found in extreme environments such as hot boiling water and thermal vents under conditions with no oxygen or highly acid environments. Finding Archaebacteria: The hot springs of Yellowstone National Park, USA, were among the first places Archaebacteria were discovered. 5. The biologists pictured above are immersing microscope slides in the boiling pool onto which some archaebacteria might be captured for study.

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Eubacteria

1. Like archaebacteria, eubacteria are complex and single celled. Most

2. bacteria are in the EUBACTERIA kingdom. They are the kinds found everywhere and are the ones people are most familiar with. Eubacteria are classified in their own kingdom because their chemical makeup is different. Most eubacteria are helpful. Some produce vitamins and foods like yogurt. However, these eubacteria, Streptococci pictured above, can give you strep throat!

3.
4. 5.

Fungi:

1. Mushrooms, mold and mildew are all examples of organisms in the 2. 3.

4. 5. kingdom fungi. Most fungi are multicellular and consist of many complex cells. Fungi are organisms that biologists once confused with plants, however, unlike plants, fungi cannot make their own food. Most obtain their food from parts of plants that are decaying in the soil. Some fungi taste great and others can kill you!

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Protists: 1. Slime molds and algae are protists. 2. Sometimes they are called the odds and ends kingdom because its members are so different from one another. 3. Protists include all microscopic organisms that are not bacteria, not animals, not plants and not fungi. 4. Most protists are unicellular. 5. You may be wondering why those protists are not classified in the Archaebacteria or Eubacteria kingdoms. 6. It is because, unlike bacteria, protists are complex cells. 7. These delicate looking diatoms are classified in the protist kingdom.

PHYLOGENY AND SYSTEMATIC

1. The important of system of classification is to avoid ambiguity the

problem to identify and discussion between biologists from different country. 2. The name are in Latin 3. Biologists draw on the fossil record: This provides information about ancient organisms (sedimentary rocks). The fossil record is based on the sequence in which fossils have accumulated in such strata.

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4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Fossils reveal: Ancestral characteristics that may have been lost over time Biologist also use systematics As an analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of organisms, both present-day and extinct Systematists use Morphological, biochemical, and molecular comparisons to infer evolutionary relationships In general, organisms that share very similar morphologies or similar DNA sequences Are likely to be more closely related than organisms with vastly different structures or sequences Phylogenies are based on common ancestries inferred from fossil, morphological, and molecular evidence Though sedimentary fossils are the most common Paleontologists study a wide variety of fossils

SORTING HOMOLOGY FROM ANALOGY

1. A potential misconception in constructing a phylogeny: similarity due to

convergent evolution, called analogy, rather than shared ancestry.

2. Convergent evolution occurs when similar environmental

pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages. Example: California ocotillo and allauidia of Madagascar

(Convergent structures in the ocotillo (left) from the American Southwest, and in the allauidia (right) from Madagascar.)

3. Analogies: Are anatomical features that have the same form or function
in different species that have no known common ancestor. For instance the wings of a bird and a butterfly are analogous structures because they are superficially similar in shape and function. However, their wings are quite different on the inside.

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4. Homologies: Anatomical features of different organisms that have a similar appearance or function because they were inherited from a common ancestor that also had them. For instance the forelimb of a bear, the wings of bird and human arm have the same functional types of bones as did our shared reptilian ancestor these bones are homologous structures.

EVALUATING MOLECULAR HOMOLOGIES

1. Systematists use computer programs and mathematical tools

analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms. 2. Ancestral homologous DNA segments are identical as species 1 and species 2 begin to diverge from their common ancestor. 3. Deletion and insertion mutations shift what had been matching sequences in the two species. 4. Homologous regions do not all align because of these mutations. 5. Homologous regions realign after a computer program adds gaps in sequence 1. 6. Phylogenetic systematics connects classification with evolutionary history PROCEDURE:

1. Taxonomy is the ordered division of organisms into categories based on

a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differences.

2. Linking Classification and Phylogeny: Systematists depict evolutionary

relationships In branching phylogenetic trees.

3. Each branch point: Represents the divergence of two species 4. Deeper branch points: Represent progressively greater amounts of
divergence

5. Phylogenetic systematics informs the construction of phylogenetic

trees based on shared characteristics

6. A cladogram: Is a depiction of patterns of shared characteristics among

taxa 7. A clade within a cladogram: Is defined as a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants. 8. Cladistics: Is the study of resemblances among clades can be nested within larger clades, but not all groupings or organisms quality as clades 9. A valid clade is monophyletic: Signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendents Monophyletic

1.

In this tree, grouping 1, consisting of the seven species is a monophyletic group, or clade. 2. A monophyletic group is made up of an ancestral species and its entire descendant species.

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3. Only monophyletic groups qualify as legitimate taxa derived from cladistics. 4. For ex: Family ursidae

Paraphyletic 1. Grouping 2 does not meet the cladistic criterion: It is paraphyletic, which means that it consists of an ancestor and some, but not all, of that ancestors descendants. 2. For eg: Lass reptilia excludes the class Aves although a reptilian ancestor common to all reptiles is shared. 3. A paraphyletic clade: is a grouping that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants.

Polyphyletic

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1. Grouping 3 also fails the cladistic test. It is polyphyletic, which means that it lacks the common ancestor of the species in the group. 2. Eg: Kingdom plantae includes both vascular plants and moses which evolved from different algal ancestors. 3. A polyphyletic grouping: Includes numerous types of organisms that lack a common ancestor.

SHARED PRIMITIVE AND SHARED DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS

1. In cladistic analysis, clades are defined by their evolutionary novelties. 2. A shared primitive character:
Is a homologous structure that predates the branching of a particular clade from other members of that clade. Is shared beyond the taxon we are trying to define. 3. A shared derivided character Is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade. 4. Outgroups: i. Systematists use a method called outgroup comparison To differentiate between shared derived and shared primitive characteristics ii. As a basis of comparison we need to designate an outgroup Which is a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup, the various species we are studying iii. Outgroup comparison is based on the assumption that homologies present in both the outgroup and ingroup must be primitive characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor. iv. The outgroup comparison Enables us to focus on just those characters that were derived at the various branch points in the evolution of a clade.

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TAXA 1. Character table: CHARACTERS Hair Amniotic (shelled) Four walking legs Hinged jaws Vertebral column 0 indicates that a character is absent; 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 indicates that a character is present.

LAGEND FOR TAXA Lancelet (outgroup) Lamprey Tuna Salamander Turtle Leopard

2. Cladogram: Analyzing the distribution of these derived characters can

provide insight into vertebrate phylogeny.

3. Phylogenetic Trees and Timing:

Any chronology represented by the branching pattern of a phylogenetic tree. Is relative rather than absolute in terms of representing the timing of divergences

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4. Phylograms:
The length of a branch in a cladogram reflects the number of genetic changes that have taken place in a particular DNA or RNA sequence in that lineage

5. Ultrametric Trees

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In an ultrametric tree the branching pattern is the same as in a phylogram, but all the branches that can be traced from the common ancestor to the present are of equal length.

6. Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees are those that fit the most data: morphological, molecular, and fossil Cladistic analysis is often a search for the simplest hypotheses about phylogeny A phylogenetic tree based on molecular data CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

1. Phenetic Classification/ Numerical taxonomy

2. Phylogenetic/ Cladistic Classification 3. Traditional systematics Phenetic Classification a. Counting up differences in features between organisms and working out a classification from those counts with the species having the fewest differences being the closest. b. In this process the taxa are clustered together based on the number of their similarities. c. Phenetics compares as many anatomical characteristics or character as possible and makes no attempt to sort homology from analogy. d. In this system, a comprehensive list of features is used. e. The organisms are examined for each feature listed. f. Scale from 1 to 5.

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g. Consideration: Evolutionary/ Homoplasy is not considered.

However many phonetic taxonomists believe that using many features can reflect it. h. All features are equally important. i. Homoplasy: Resemble in form of structure between different organs or organisms due to evolution along similar lines rather than common descent. Phylogenetic/ Cladistic Classification a. Cladistics or phylogenetic classification is a type of systematics that attempted to develop a more objective method of classifying organisms. b. Phylogeny is defined as the evolutionary history of a species or a group of species. c. Phylogenetic classification is a natural classification because it shows evolutionary relationships and reflects evolutionary history. d. Express those relationships in phylogenetic trees, called a cladogram. Cladogram also suggesting a classification of organism based on the time sequence in which evolutionary branches arise. e. In the past: physical or morphological features were used to compare organisms. f. Today, modern taxonomists use several features to classify organisms g. The features selected are homologous structures. h. Homologous structures have a common origin but different functions. i. Example: Pentadactyl limbs Bats, human, apes and dogs have pentadactyl limbs. Therefore these animals show close evolutionary relationship. j. The phylogeny chart is called a phylogeny tree. k. Assumptions are used in phylogenetic classification: Organisms with homologous structures show close evolutionary relationship. Homologous structures show evolutionary development from a common origin. The differences are the result of adaptation to environmental changes. As a result, homologous structures have a common origin, but perform different functions. l. Exclusive characteristic for cladistic m. Only secondary homologous structures are considered. n. This method makes use of lines of descent only rather than phenotypic similarities to reduce evolutionary relationship. o. Clados in Greek means branch the organism are classified based on the time of appearance of the evolutionary branch. Use the homologous structures.

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p. Only apomorphic structures are unique for particular species and be used to determine the latest common ancestor. q. Appeared after diverted. Primitive homologous (plesiomorphic) structure cannot be used. r. The evolutionary chart is called a cladogram. s. Dichotomous branching. At each point of the branching, there are the unique homologous features. t. Ex: lizard, horse, seal, lion and cat: Common primitive homologous structures: five digits for limbs is not used even though the common ancestor had this character. Horse and seal do not show this character anymore whereas lizard, lion and cat still show this character. Example, hair and mammary glands are derived homologous structures which can be used to determine a branch point for lion, cat, seal and horse. These animals are grouped into one branch. The apomorphic characters developed after the branch diverted from the phylogeny tree. The second branch point. Lion, cat and seal share many common adaptive features for skeleton and teeth which are not observed in horse. Therefore these apomorphic features are used to determine the second branching point in the cladogram. Lion and cat share common adaptive features for skull and teeth and these are used to determine the third branch point. Lion and cat are put into one branch while seal is put into another branch. u. Disadvantages: The cladogram only shows a series of branch points according to time without showing the degree of divergence between evolutionary lineages. Each branch point represents a common ancestor for the modern species that appeared, but does not show which species appeared earlier in evolution. A cladogram also does not show the appearance of the latest ancestor. The ancestor is only represented by a branch point. No information about the latest ancestor and its relationship with the modern species concerned. Traditional Systematics

a. Traditional systematists are sometimes referred to as Linnaean

classification.

b. A system based on a hierarchy of formal ranks (e.g. family,

genus, etc.) and binomial nomenclature (two-part scientific names consisting of a genus name and specific epithet).

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c. These systematists mostly utilize anatomical data to classify organisms and build phylogenetic trees based on evolutionary principles. d. Parallelism or parallel evolution Is similar evolutionary development in different species lines after divergence from a common ancestor that had initial anatomical features that led toit. For instance, some South America and African monkeys evolved relatively large body sizes independently of each other. e. Convergence or convergent evolution Is the development of a similar anatomical feature in distinct species lines after divergence from common ancestor that did not have the initial trait than led to it. The common ancestor is usually more distant in time than is the case with parallelism. EXERCISE 1. A. B. C. D. 2. A. B. C. D. Closely related genera may be grouped together in a single phylum. domain. species. family. In the six-kingdom system, the kingdom that includes the protozoa is Plantae. Protista. Archaea. Eukarya.
[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

3. A taxon that contains a recent common ancestor and all of its descendants is A. polyphyletic. B. paraphyletic. C. monophyletic. D. phyletic. homologous because they evolved independently. A. Homoplasy B. Homology C. Plesiomorphic D. Synapomorphic 5. A. B. C. D. In cladistic analysis ancestral characters are used to reconstruct phylogenies. characters must be homoplastic. polyphyletic groups are preferred. outgroup analysis is used.

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

4. __________ refers to superficially similar characters that are not

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

6. Shared ancestral characters, or plesiomorphic characters,

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

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A. suggest a distant common ancestor. B. indicate a more recent common ancestor. C. implies evolution from a common ancestor. D. provides methods for comparing macromolecules for assessing evolutionary relationships. 7. A. B. C. D. The domain Eukarya includes green algae. mushrooms. bears. all of the above.
[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

8. In the case of comparing birds to other vertebrates, having four appendages is A. a shared primitive character. B. a shared derived character. C. a character useful for distinguishing the birds from other vertebrates. D. an example of analogy rather than homology. 9. A. B. C. D. Phenetics is a numerical taxonomy based on phenotypic similarities. emphasizes common ancestry. emphasizes polyphyletic groups. focuses on ancestral characters.
[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

10.Homoplastic structures are a result of evolution. A. the absence of B. divergent C. convergent D. derived

[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

11.A (An) ______character is a trait which has evolved relatively recently. A. derived B. ancestral C. cladistic D. homologous

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

12. Whales are classified as mammals due to their ___________ characters

such as breathing via lungs, have a little hair when born and nurse their young. A. cladistic B. homoplastic C. plesiomorphic D. derived
[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

13. If a biologist classifies organisms based on enumeration of similarities

between taxa, the ______ system is being used. A. cladistic B. phenetic

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C. phyletic D. classical
[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

14. A frog that lacks chemical defenses, yet resembles a poison arrow frog
would exhibit A. Batesian mimicry. B. mutualism. C. camouflage. D. Mullerian mimicry.

15.The most significant difference between the Archaea and the Eubacteria is A. lack of a nuclear envelope in the Archaea. B. the absence of the 70S ribosomes in the Eubacteria. C. the presence of a single filament flagellum in the Eubacteria. D. The absence of peptidoglycans in the cell walls of the Archaea.

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

16. Sea snakes, which are reptiles, are similar in body form to eels, which
are fish. Sea snakes and eels therefore share ________ structures. A. ancestral B. homoplastic C. homologous D. cladistic 17.Which of the following is an example of Batesian mimicry? A. The resemblance of a harmless fly to a bee. B. The resemblance of the walking-stick insect (a kind of mantis) to the twigs it lurks among. C. The similar appearance and black-and-gold coloration of many wasps. D. The resemblance of the western meadowlark to the eastern meadowlark.
[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

18. Which of the following could not be used to determine how closely
related two different organisms are? A. Developmental stages. B. Habitat preferences. C. DNA hybridization. D. The presence of homologous structure. 19.In an outgroup analysis, the assumption is that A. analyzing the taxonomic distribution of homologies enables the sequence identification in which derived characters evolved during phylogeny. B. chronological sequence of branching occurs during the evolutionary divergence. C. any homologies present in both the outgroup and ingroup must be primitive characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor. D. shared primitive characters are useful in establishing phylogeny, but not shared derived characters.
[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

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20. Two plants in the same kingdom but different phyla are more closely
related than two plants in the same A. species but different varieties. B. class but different orders. C. order but different families. D. genus but different species.

21.In Mullerian mimicry A. the palatable species mimics the unpalatable one. B. one prey species may gain significant protection by mimicking the appearance of another. C. the greater the number of unpalatable prey, the more quickly predators adapt in avoiding prey of similar appearance. D. the unpalatable prey have similar patterns of coloration usually black and yellow.

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

22. Describe briefly the binomial system of nomenclature. Define the term
species. (4 marks)

_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

23. Compare and contrast the three approaches to systematics. (6 marks)

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_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

24. You are given five different specimens that are turtle, horse, wolf,
leopard and domestic cat. Construct an appropriate cladogram that reflects the nesting of clades within more comprehensive clades. Label the derived characters that evolved in the ancestor of each clade. (10 marks)

_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

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_______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

25. Construct a table of the six kingdom system. Identify at least one

_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

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member of each kingdom, as well as the diagnostic features for each kingdom. (12 marks)

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_______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

26. Define the following terms : monophyletic, paraphyletic, and

_______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________

polyphyletic. Give one example for each taxon. (6 marks)

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[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

27. A new species of frog is discovered. If you were a cladist, what steps

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would you take to classify this frog? How would this approach be different if you were a pheneticist? (4 marks)

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[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

28. The 5 kingdom classification system has been generally accepted.

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Explain the basic features of each kingdom and provide at least one member of respective kingdom. (10 marks)

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[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

The classification of living things the development of taxonomy, the binomial system of classification Definition of taxonomy Classification of organism a. The binomial system b. The hierarchical system c. The kingdom of life i. Two kingdom system Linnaeus [character of each kingdom, examples] ii. Five kingdom Whittaker [character of each kingdom, examples] iii. Three domain system Woese [character of each domain, examples] ~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:13) ~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:537,538,551) Different approach in classifying organism Phylogenetic tree ~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:544, 546) Systematic i. Cladistics systematics ii. Phonetic systematics iii. Traditional systematic

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[Sorting Homology from Analogy] [Shared Ancestral and Shared Derived Character] [Differences between monophyletic, paraphyletic, polyphyletic] ~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:540-547)

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