Rainwater 1

Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221
www.elsevier.com/locate/urbwat
Review
Techniques for water and wastewater management: a review of techniques and their integration in planning
Roland Burkhard a,*, Ana Deletic b, Anthony Craig c
c a Colenco-Holinger AG, Mellingerstrasse 207, 5405 Baden, Switzerland Engineering Department, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK Scottish Centre for Environmental Design Research, Robert Gordon University, Faculty of Design, Aberdeen AB10 7QB, UK b
Received 8 July 2000; received in revised form 13 July 2000; accepted 25 October 2000
Abstract This paper presents a review of techniques in wastewater management and a discussion as to how they can be integrated in future water-planning issues. Three technical areas are dealt with: rainwater management, domestic wastewater management, and water and waste re-use. Each approach is reviewed from a technical perspective with a further commentary on economic and social factors that underpin the dierent techniques that each approach has to oer. This is followed by a discussion on how integrated assessment can lead to the design and implementation of more sustainable approaches to wastewater management. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Rainwater; Sustainability; Wastewater; Water and waste re-use; Water and wastewater management
Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1. Sustainability in water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2. Social aspects in water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3. Social acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainwater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Suspended solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2. Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3. Land use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Economic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Social aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic wastewater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1. TSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2. BOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3. Land use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Economic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Social aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 201 201 202 202 203 203 204 205 207 207 208 209 209 211
2. 3.
4.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +41-056-483-1824; fax: +41-056-483-1875. E-mail address: roland.burkhard@colenco.ch (R. Burkhard).
1462-0758/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 4 6 2 - 0 7 5 8 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 5 6 - X
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R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221
5.
Water and waste re-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Water quality and health issues in re-use techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1. Greywater and rainwater harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2. Solid and liquid waste re-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. Economic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1. Rainwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2. Greywater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3. Human waste recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5. Social aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1. Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2. Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3. Economic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4. Social aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5. Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
211 212 213 214 214 215 215 215 215 216 216 217 217 217 217 217 218 218 218
6.
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction If future generations are not to be constrained even further, we must develop a coherent `holistic' approach to the planning, specication, costing and evaluation of water and wastewater options in the domestic context, such as where the demand for new housing developments is forecast to have signicant and widespread environmental impact. It requires a balance of technical, economic, environmental and social goals, while satisfying the demands of developers, planners, environmental protection agencies and customers. The decisionmaking process is therefore complex, requiring the identication and evaluation of mutual and conicting interests of stakeholders. 1.1. Sustainability in water management Before dealing with sustainability in wastewater management, it is helpful to review some denitions of sustainability and thus to place it in context. According to Otterpohl, Albold, and Grottker (1996), the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987, also known as Brundtland Report) made the most popular denition of sustainability. Sustainable development is dened as ``development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs''. According to Tages-Anzeiger (1995), the word sustainability has long been used in forestry where it means that volume and mass taken out is replaced and hence the mass balance accounts to zero. This is nowadays
known as `natural sustainability', whose criteria are based on mass ux and the ability of a technique to recycle nutrients and other valuable resources from wastewater before they are lost. Another aspect is `nancial sustainability'. It can be argued that the success and survival of business follows natural laws as well, i.e. money spent on production, wages and interest has to be replaced by money earned for services or goods. However, the costs and use of raw materials included in the processes to produce the goods or deliver a service may seriously aect the mass balance. The instability that can thus be created by applying dierent economic criteria is one of the principal reasons why the issue of sustainability is raised at all. Hence, the quest for sustainability is intimately linked to the quest for economic models, which take the natural mass uxes into account. A third and important factor in sustainability considerations is the potential users of a system. Their behaviour and commitment to participate in the water management process make a method sustainable, because the occurrence of pollution in the water cycle is mostly due to human behaviour. This third factor may be called `social sustainability'. In this review, sustainability will be discussed in the context of the above three distinct interpretations. 1.2. Social aspects in water management Of the many criteria which may be used to assess the feasibility of water and wastewater systems, it is likely that ``the social aspects will be the most dicult issues''
199
(Harremos, 1997). This oft-neglected `social' side of e systems can provide a wealth of information regarding the appropriateness of a technology in a given setting, along with any potential barriers to its implementation. The scope for interdisciplinary co-operation in this area is large and the role of the engineer and the social scientist may converge, thereby reducing the tendency towards `èxpertocracy'' (Fismer & Wendler, 1996). The distinction made between social acceptability and social sustainability throughout this paper is discussed below. 1.3. Social acceptability The àwareness' criteria have to be included in the investigation on ecological systems, as lack of awareness inuences acceptance. The extent to which people are required to alter their everyday behaviour will probably have the largest eect on acceptability. Disgust sensitivity is also likely to have an eect on acceptance of water and waste re-use systems (Bixler & Floyd, 1997). Furthermore, research into risk perception (Slovic & MacGregor, 1994; Renn, 1998; Lofstedt, 1997) has shown that people are more likely to accept risks if they are seen to be familiar, voluntary, and of negligible catastrophic potential. Simply being ènvironmental' does not necessarily determine public acceptance. To be sustainable, wastewater technology assessment should include community participation within the decision-making process. The need for institutional involvement in the installation and maintenance of wastewater systems will also aect the social sustainability, along with the potential for local development, in the form of jobs, amenity enhancement, and correspondence with local ethics (Balkema, Weijers, & Lambert, 1998). One of the biggest positive inuences that many alternative wastewater treatment systems may have is the `ènvironmental education'' component and the potential for further interdisciplinary communication and active partnership. 2. Review methodology Three main areas in planning of wastewater in urban areas are tackled: rainwater management; domestic wastewater management; management of water re-use (both domestic and rainwater). Three aspects have been analysed in each area regarding eciency, economic, and social aspects of the techniques, as listed below. Techniques: Both traditional and novel will be presented with a brief description of their design requirements.
Eciency: For all techniques, the eciency is presented with respect to their purpose (e.g. SS and BOD removal). Economics: Cost data are hard to nd. Whenever possible, real costs were used, but in all cases qualitative costs were systematised. They may include values, which are subjective to the user, e.g. environmental benets. Social aspects: The social impact of the dierent techniques will dier largely. The subjective importance of various social-sustainability criteria (based on Balkema et al., 1998) will be discussed briey for systems aected by that criterion. 3. Rainwater management 3.1. Techniques 1. Traditional storm drainage systems consist of inlet structures (inlets with gully-pots or catch-basins), and drainage pipes which transport water to the nearest outfall. A number of ancillary structures may be included in such systems, such as silt traps, storage tanks and controllable structures. This form of drainage is still the most widely used technique. A distinction between combined and separate drainage systems (Escritt, 1984) needs to be made: 1(a) CSS: Combined sewer systems convey both wastewater (domestic/industrial) and storm runo. 1(b) SSS: Separate sewer systems collect and convey the wastewater and runo in separate colection systems. This requires two parallel pipe systems. 2. Inltration and collection systems have been used in urban drainage for centuries, however they were almost forgotten in the era of high urbanisation. These methods are now experiencing a renaissance and are being increasingly used in the planning of new developments. Inltration systems help limit peak runo in sewer systems and can thus reduce overow from combined systems. Extensive literature exists in several countries (Watkins, 1995; Bettess, 1996; Bettess, Davis, & Watkins, 1996; Hydro Research, 1993; AGW, 1991, 1996; AfU, 1994; WEF, 1998, ATV, 1997b). Bettess et al. (1996) distinguish between plane inltration systems and 3-D inltration systems. To design inltration systems, the required inputs are listed in Table 1. The design procedures vary from country to country. The main requirement is the establishment of enough storage for a specied storm event. Safety factors attempt to minimise risks and result in larger systems. 2(a) PP: Permeable pavement is used for surfaces on parking lots and residential roads. Permeable macadam is an option, but is very expensive and tends to clog after 13 years. It needs considerable maintenance eort. Also in widespread use are lattices of blocks with the inl-
200 Table 1 Input requirements for inltration systems q (m/h) Inltration coecient from test (b0.001) AD m2
n m3 am3 Porosity of ll material (0.20.5)
i (m/h), D (h) Intensity and duration of rainfall events
Ad m2 Drainage area of inltration system
Area to be drained
Table 2 Design criteria of permeable block pavement Base layer depth (mm), material, porosity n/a, Porous ll material, n/a Top layer (Filter) depth (mm), material, porosity 50100, lter or geotextile, n/a Pavement Distance to groundwaterlevel (m) n/a b0.9 n/a Literature source Bettess (1996) WEF (1998) Leonard and Sherri (1992)
Porous Macadam, concrete blocks 300, coarse gravel (3.55.0 cm), 100, ne graded gravel (0.32.0 cm), Modular block, blocks of 0.30.4 0.20.3 lattices, etc. 200300, clean stone (25150 50, geotextile, n/a; 50, gravel 1525 50 mm Macadam, 80 mm mm), 0.30.4 mm; n/a concrete block
tration surface below the load-bearing surface. In some countries, surface inltration does not need any hydraulic design considerations when rainfall is inltrated. Table 2 shows some guidelines in the selection of PPs. 2(b) IB: Inltration basins (Fig. 1) are allocated grassed areas that can be ooded at times of rain when water can slowly drain into the ground. During dry weather intervals, the inltration basins are empty and can be used for other purposes. Table 3 shows some general design considerations. Bettess (1996) suggests that attention should be paid in handling the soil, as this is important for the support of the plants growing in the basin as well as the inltration capacity. Plant selection and plant community according to local microclimate is also an important issue. Cutting grass prevents shrub invasion.
Fig. 1. Inltration basin (after AGW, 1991).
Fig. 2. Combination of two soakaways and a French drain (after AGW, 1991).
2(c) Sw: Swales are grassed ditches, taking up runo from roads or parking lots. The runo slowly runs through the grass swale and inltrates into the ground. There is no stagnant water in a carefully designed swale. Table 4 shows some design guidelines and their gures. 2(d) So: Soakaways or inltration trenches (Fig. 2) are underground structures, which normally are circular shafts or trenches. They are lled with a gravel medium into which runo is discharged. Circular soakaways normally consist of precast concrete manhole elements lled with gravel. The concrete elements are often solid on top and perforated at the bottom. However, this varies from guideline to guideline (AGW, 1996; WEF, 1998; Bettess, 1996). Combinations of circular soakaways with trenches are used, and soakaways can be linked which enlarges the inltration area (Bettess, 1996). Table 5 shows some design gures. 3. Detention systems have been used to control runo peaks and for treatment of combined-sewer overows (CSOs) for a number of years, usually at the outlet of a conventional system. However they are now increasingly used for catchment management. 3(a) P: Ponds act as detention or retention structure where the rainfall runo enters straight from the drained surface. The pond also acts as a settlement structure. Any overow from the pond can be directed via an outlet structure, into a receiving watercourse, a soakaway, or drainage pipe. The pond can easily be integrated into the landscaped surrounding of a new housing estate and can serve as a habitat for wildlife. Table 6 shows some design data for a dry pond. Wet detention ponds also exist. 3(b) CW: Constructed wetlands can act as detention and purication ponds. They can also be used for cleaning wastewater spilled through CSOs. Table 7 shows some design data.
R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221 Table 3 Design criteria of inltration basins Max depth (m) 0.3 Distance to groundwaterlevel (m) b1.2 Layout Several small basins instead of one large Vegetation Grasses that will survive prolonged inundation
201
Literature source WEF (1998)
Table 4 Design criteria of swales Minimum length (m) 30 n/a n/a n/a Min/max bottom width (m) 0.6/2.4 n/a 1 n/a Recommended slope (%) Max ow velocity m s1 Roughness, k m1a3 s1 5/4.17 n/a n/a n/a Max depth of ow (mm) 75 n/a 2501000 (total depth) n/a Literature source WEF (1998) Bettess (1996) Leonard and Sherri (1992) FRPB (1995)
2.0 (0.5 minimum, 6.0 `0.3 maximum) `4.0 without berms n/a n/a n/a `6.0 `0.5
Table 5 Design criteria of soakaways and inltration trenches Porosity of lling m3 m3 0X150X30 n/a Maximum depth f(Wall stability, groundwaterlevel) 36 m Layout conguration Long and deep Depth excavation `3 depth to invert of drain Dist to seasonal high groundwaterlevel (m) b1.2 Mention of caution Literature source WEF (1998) Leonard and Sherri (1992)
Table 6 Design criteria of ponds Storage volume Capture volume + 20% Detain storm runo for a few hours, capture of rst foul ush n/a Layout Expand from inlet, contract toward outlet, top stage 0.61.8 m deep, bottom slope 2%; bottom stage 0.50.9 m Careful inlet and outlet design to prevent scouring, orice control for outlet O- and on-line detention tanks, ow storage Basin side slopes `4:1 n/a Literature source WEF (1998) FRPB (1995)
n/a
Luker and Montague (1994)
3(c) OR: On-site retention systems may consist of grassed roofs or other roof areas where runo can temporarily be stored. These may be parking lots, sports grounds and other suitable areas. 3.2. Eciency For rainwater control systems eciency of water quality control (qualitative eciency) and the eciency of ood control (quantitative eciency) were examined.The qualitative eciency of these systems is as-
sessed with regard to the removal of suspended solids (SSs) and heavy metals (HMs) from the runo. 3.2.1. Suspended solids Data from the literature on removal eciency of SS for the techniques presented are shown in Fig. 3. The minimum eciency recorded in the literature for a certain technique is presented as `low', while the highest gures are presented as `high'. The following remarks concern each studied technique:
202 Table 7 Design criteria of constructed wetlands DWF depth variation (m) 0.11.2 Wet weather storage
Open water area `50% total wetland area
Length to width ratio b3:1, 2:1 recommended
Literature source WEF (1998)
Design as detention pond, surcharge depth 0.6 m above DWF depth, drawdown 24 h
1(a) CSS: Depending on the inlet structure and the particle size, sediment traps need maintenance to be ecient (Luker & Montague, 1994; Bettess, 1996). 1(b) SSS: As above (Luker & Montague, 1994; Bettess, 1996). 2(a) PP: Removal eciency is high and amounts to almost 100%, removal f(inltration media) (FRPB, 1995). 2(b) IB: As above (FRPB, 1995; Luker & Montague, 1994). 2(c) Sw: Research restricted to laboratory conditions, no interaction between natural environment and sediment studied (FRPB, 1995; Deletic, 1998; White, 1987; Gray, 1989; Escritt, 1984). 2(d) So: As PP and IB (Mehler & Ostrowski, 1998; FRPB, 1995). 3(a) P: From low to very high, depending on design and hydraulic loading of ponds (Mehler & Ostrowski, 1998; FRPB, 1995; Bettess, 1996; WEF, 1998; Luker & Montague, 1994). Long-term wet detention pond performance was found to be very good according to Maristany (1993), suggesting consistent removal of particulate constituents. 3(b) CW: Most extensive data, removal eciency depending heavily on hydraulic loading and hence design of system (Bettess, 1996; WEF, 1998; Luker & Montague, 1994; Knight, Ruble, Kadlec, & Reed, 1993; Sapotka & Bavor, 1994; Kadlec & Hey, 1994).
3(c) OR: No data found, OR techniques are combination of dierent techniques, hence good removal eciency likely. 3.2.2. Heavy metals Other signicant pollutants include heavy metals (HMs). There is research on HM removal, but this is mainly for heavily polluted runo from special mining and industrial processes (Eger, 1994). Data on removal of HM in urban runo can be found in Luker and Montague (1994) and FRPB (1995). For all techniques, the removal eciency is governed by design. Maintenance is also crucial for the eective functioning of a technique. The performance of almost all techniques with regard to SS removal can be improved by using sediment traps (AGW, 1996) and generously designed inlet structures (Ellis & Revitt, 1991). It is not possible to conclude from the literature whether low performing techniques were badly designed. 3.2.3. Land use The quantitative removal of storm water runo in urban areas is determined by the design return period (RP) storm, imperviousness of the catchment, slope of the catchment, the surface/underground on/in which the technique will be applied, the vegetation cover, the use of the catchment and the available space. A simple example is presented to illustrate the typical land use of each technique as a percentage of a newly developed site. A hypothetical catchment was located in Aberdeen. The parameters for the design storm were chosen for the Aberdeen area (NERC, 1974; Bettess, 1996; Leonard & Sherri, 1992), and the site specications were adopted according to the literature. The chosen site and storm characteristics are presented in Table 8. The following was assumed for each technique: 1(a) CSS: Assumed all underground structures under access roads. 1(b) SSS: Assumed all underground structures under access roads. 2(a) PP1: Permeable pavement with subgrade material of porosity n 0X325. 2(a) PP2: Permeable pavement without subgrade material, hence porosity n 1. 2(b) IB: Inltration basin with maximum water depth of 0.4 m. 2(c) Sw: Swales with base width of 2.4 m, embankment slope of 1:4 and base slope of 0.5%.
Fig. 3. Removal eciency of rainwater control techniques: suspended solids (SS).
R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221 Table 8 Design constraints BMPs Site Aberdeen, UK
a
203
Rainfall eventa 10 Year RP
Soil type, k b Loamy sand, 0.3 m/h
Dwelling typec Detached, semidetached
Runo coecientc 0.45
Estate size 2 ha
Distance GWL 2m
Bettess (1996). Data from AGW (1996). c Data from Heierli (1991).
b
2(d) So: Soakaway with lling material of porosity n 0X35. 3(a) P: Detention pond with length:width ratio 2:1. 3(b) CW: Constructed wetland with length:width ratio 2:1. 3(c) OR: Other retention measures with an average depth of 0.2 m. Using the recommendations from Bettess (1996), AGW (1996), WEF (1998), NERC (1974) and Leonard and Sherri (1992), the data on land use presented in Fig. 4 were obtained. The gure shows that the detention BMP techniques use most land. OR seems to be particularly problematic. However, if we take into account that the OR techniques include roof and parking lot retention, allocation of new land for their construction becomes less than for P and CW. Inltration techniques are from a land-use point of view least problematic, but they hardly contribute to amenity value. 3.3. Economic aspects Economic comparisons exist in several CIRIA publications (Luker & Montague, 1994; Bettess, 1996). While Luker and Montague valued the BMPs for highway drainage only qualitatively, Bettess saw the necessity for an appraisal of costs. He proposed to compare the prices of the conventional drainage system with the on-site inltration schemes. Costs for the conventional system include construction costs and enhancement of downstream systems, whereas costs for inltration systems comprise construction costs and
lower enhancement costs of downstream systems. Bettess also stresses the distinction between economic and nancial appraisal. Economic appraisal is often dicult, as many aspects cannot be measured in cash terms, such as the impact of inltration on groundwater levels. Financial appraisal concerns only the ow of money, which arises from the system. Table 9 shows a qualitative economic comparison of the various rainwater management techniques (based on Luker & Montague, 1994). It should be noted that such a comparison is inherently subjective and therefore hard to generalise from. A qualitative assessment however does provide the means to balance conicting criteria. McKissock (1999) gathered information on capital costs of rainwater control techniques. These are presented in Fig. 5(a) and (b). 3.4. Social aspects The social science literature of rainwater management is extremely limited and would clearly benet from further quantitative research. Nevertheless, some qualitative analysis can be helpful. The dierent criteria and degree of interdependence are listed below. Social acceptance of rainwater management systems will generally be high, as there is usually little awareness of such systems. However, in the case of ponds, perceived safety to children might inuence acceptance, and thus deter their use (McKissock, Jeries, & D'Arcy, 1997). Acceptance may be inuenced by a perception of ood risk for swales and inltration basins, as they may be designed to ood public areas. Acceptance of constructed wetlands could be inuenced if people have similar safety worries, or think that there might be a problem with insects. Perception of tighter land use control may also inuence acceptance (WEF, 1998). The added Amenity value of a rainwater management system will depend largely on how well landscaped the systems are (e.g. how much involvement landscape architects have). In a recent study, where a range of people involved with BMPs were questioned, it has been found that only 12% believed that runo control could have amenity objectives (McKissock et al., 1997). Houses that are built near water tend to be preferred by the public. Emmerling-DiNovo (1995) found that the residents in her study valued wet detention basins sig-
Fig. 4. Land use of dierent BMP techniques.
204 Table 9 Economic aspects of rainwater management Technique 1(a) CSS 1(b) SSS 2(a) PP 2(b) IB 2(c) Sw 2(d) So 3(a) P 3(b) CW 3(c) OR Capital cost High High High High Lowmedium Med High High Lowhigh
Operation and maintenance costs Lowmedium Lowmed High Lowmedium Medium Medium Low Medium Lowhigh
Environmental benet Negative Negative Positive Positive Positive Positive Positive Positive Positive
Remarks *** *** High maintenance costs, sweeping. Also, may have a limited life (10 years) Require periodic refurbishment Cost high when land has to be acquired. Require periodic refurbishment High maintenance and refurbishment costs. Require periodic refurbishment Cost high due to land acquisition, lower maintenance costs, wet ponds cheaper than drier *** ***
nicantly higher than dry detention basins. EPA (1995) found that well-designed runo controls can provide signicant economic benets in the form of increased property values. Community participation is important, especially for those systems that might aect the amenity and landscape value of an area. People tend to be especially concerned about landscape changes that might aect the value of their property (EPA, 1995). However, public
(a)
education is a prerequisite to public participation (see WEF, 1998; Pateman, 1970). Awareness of rainwater management systems is generally rather low. Educational interventions are required to increase awareness, such as storm drain stencilling (this is where community groups stencil slogans on storm drains or nearby signs, such as ``when you rubbish the streets, you rubbish the river'' (Melbourne Water, 1997) which makes potential polluters aware of the connection between the drain and the river). Institutional requirements will vary from site to site, depending on the size of the development in question and the land availability. By and large, however, the developer will be responsible for providing the land, meeting the capital costs, and landscaping costs of BMPs. Legal arguments around who is responsible for long term maintenance are common (Maxwell, 1997). Lack of guidance, rather than general ignorance seems to be the cause for a lack of uptake of BMPs by developers, who prefer to stick to traditional drainage structures (McKissock et al., 1997). Monitoring of discharge standards will require the same institutional involvement (from the relevant environmental protection agency) for each of the dierent systems. Local development potential of the dierent systems will depend largely on who is responsible for installation and maintenance (i.e. are local people employed). There is potential for Stimulation of sustainable behaviour, especially for ponds and wetlands, to which visits could be incorporated into school curricula. Various examples exist in Australia of such educational programmes (e.g. Melbourne Water, 1997).
(b)
Fig. 5. (a) Costs of rainwater control per housing unit, low, high and average prices. (b) Costs of rainwater control per hectare, low, high and average prices.
4. Domestic wastewater management Domestic wastewater management in urban and semi-urban Europe is based on the conventional ap-
205
proach of collecting the wastewater in one of the traditional drainage systems discussed in the section above and transferring it to a treatment works. However, a variety of decentralised methods exist, which are applicable for both rural and suburban areas. Decentralised and also ecological methods generally provide simple, low-cost and low maintenance methods of treating domestic wastewater. 4.1. Techniques 1. Centralised conventional sewage treatment works consist of several stages, of which the primary and secondary stages are the bare minimum nowadays, and the focus is on these two stages. Tertiary stages exist where there are known problems of water eutrophication, where wastewater needs advanced treatment or where it is discharged into a sensitive environment. Conventional treatment systems produce considerable amounts of sludge and they are generally very energy consuming (Gujer, 1996). The primary stage is similar for most conventional treatment works. The incoming wastewater is screened before it enters the primary stage of the treatment process. Primary treatment consists of a settlement area where grit and other solids can settle out and fats, oils and greases (FOG) are removed. Secondary stages are more diverse and they are usually the focus of alternative methods. The centralised conventional systems are listed below without any explanation because these techniques are widely known (see, for example, White, 1987; Gray, 1989; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Escritt, 1984; Salvato, 1982): 1(a) AS: Activated sludge. 1(b) PF: Percolating lters or trickling lters. 1(c) RBC: Rotating biological contactors. 1(d) OP: Oxidation ponds (aerobic ponds, anaerobic ponds, and facultative ponds). 2. Decentralised conventional systems are used for one or a few remote houses. Some of the methods have been abandoned, as they can be a threat to ground or surface water. This is especially true for group 2(a). The reason why they are listed here is their possible use as cost-effective pre-treatment methods for decentralised treatment. 2(a) NB: Non-biological treatment Cesspools, as shown in Fig. 6, are watertight underground plastic tanks in which the wastewater is collected and stored until emptied by a tanker. This solution is very costly and the waste is transported over long distances for nal disposal (Grant et al., 1996; Grant & Moodie, 1997; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; VSA, 1995). They are useful where no other options are available or are costlier, and where intermittent use does not allow for biological treatment systems.
Fig. 6. Cesspool (after Grant, Moodie, & Weedon, 1996).
Septic tanks are also underground structures that collect wastewater. They generally have two chambers, separated by a bae. In the rst chamber the sediments in the raw sewage settle out, while in the second chamber some secondary treatment processes may take place. The sewage can become fully anaerobic. Technically, they are very unproblematic and hence require little maintenance. They are a low-cost primary treatment solution and can be used in combination with leachelds, where the wastewater is fully treated. Settlement tanks have a similar function to septic tanks. However, they are a lot smaller. The sewage stays in the tank for a much shorter time and therefore does not become septic. The objective is separation of solids and foam from the sewage. The euent from the settlement tank is passed on to secondary treatment. They are extremely low cost constructions and require little maintenance except for the removal of sludge. 2(b) PB: Package biological plants Recirculating biological lter (RBF): The treatment principle is the same as in a percolating lter. The lter is contained within a plastic shell and the wastewater is spread over the lter via a pump from the well. Once through the lter, the water ows back in the well. An overow ensures the outow of the treated wastewater. Regular cleaning of the distribution channels is required for some systems (Grant et al., 1996; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). Submerged aerated biological lter (SABF): This system is a combination of an activated sludge treatment system and a recirculation lter system (Fig. 7). After an inlet chamber, the wastewater passes through a chamber with aerated activated sludge where it is broken down. It then discharges into a settlement chamber where part of the ow is recirculated back into the inlet chamber while the other part leaves the treatment SABF. This helps to enhance the treatment process but also makes it more costly (Grant et al., 1996; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). Activated sludge package plants or sequence batch reactors (SBR): This process is the smaller equivalent of the large-scale treatment works. There are several different package versions available, some of which consist of dierent chambers through which the wastewater
206
Fig. 8. Leacheld (after Klargester, 1999). Fig. 7. SABF (after Grant et al., 1996).
ows and within which the activated sludge process and the settlement of the sludge take place. Other systems consist of just one chamber, where a batch of wastewater is treated with activated sludge, i.e. oxygen is blown into the chamber and suspends the sludge. When the wastewater is puried, the aerator switches o and the sludge settles at the bottom of the chamber. The sediment-free water is then pumped out and replaced by a new batch of wastewater. Hence the name sequence batch reactors (Grant et al., 1996; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). Bio disc units: These are self-contained units, which include, similarly to RBCs, a rotating disc. The disc is powered by a low-energy electric motor. The sizing is a function of the pollutant load, daily sewage volume and ow. They are designed to deal with domestic sewage only. Table 10 provides design considerations for bio disc units. 2(c) LF: Leachelds as shown in Fig. 8, and soakaways are used in remote areas where euent from septic tanks is inltrated into the soil via an underground network of pipes. Any aquifer has to be a minimum distance away from the inltration pipes and a bioactive layer of soil is generally required to provide ample treatment for the pre-treated sewage (Grant et al., 1996; Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; VSA, 1995; Kennedy, 1997). Table 11 provides design criteria for leachelds. 3. Ecological treatment methods are generally also decentralised systems. Most of them try to make use of natural purication processes that happen in the zones of interaction between water and soil or plants. Any ow that is treated in them undergoes primary treatment, which is usually screening and settlement. 3(a) Constructed wetlands (Fig. 9) can be used for secondary treatment of domestic sewage. They consist of a watertight pool, lled with a medium and planted with aquatic plants (macrophytes), which are able to grow in
Table 10 Design criteria of bio disc units Size f( ) Daily sewage volume Use Permanent occupation, remote areas Desludge
a water-saturated root zone. At the upstream end of the wetland, an inlet structure distributes the inow either over or into the top section of the bed. At the downstream end, an outlet structure collects the treated wastewater (Grant et al., 1996; Nutall, Boon, & Rowell, 1997; Kowalik, 1995; Cooper, 1990; Cooper, Job, Green, & Shutes, 1996; Schimid & Zst, 1995; Haberl, u Perer, Laber, & Cooper, 1996; Wissing, 1995). Some design criteria are provided in Table 12. 3(b) Living machines are a relatively new method of treating domestic wastewater. Their layout consists of a preliminary septic tank where sedimentation takes place. The water then enters, where required, a greenhouse, where the rst phase of aerobic treatment takes place in a closed tank. The water then ows into open aerobic reactors. Floating on plant racks, macrophytes grow with their large root system submerged in the wastewater. In this phase, BOD and TSS are reduced and ammonia is nitried. Oxygen is constantly bubbled into the reactors. Clariers then settle solids left in the efuent from the aerobic reactors. Denitrication takes place in the subsequent stage, the ecological uidised beds. Live sh in the nal euent ensure an automatic quality control. (Findhorn Foundation, 1996; Todt, 1997) 3(c) Aquaculture is a good measure to directly recycle human waste. Being used for centuries all over the world, they were abandoned in Europe towards the end of the 20th century (Prein, 1996). This was due to their extensive nature, the need to employ shkeepers and their locations on the fringes of expanding cities where land prices rose signicantly, rendering them economically unattractive. The only remaining large aquaculture in Europe is the basin in Munich that serves as a polishing treatment stage for the refurbished treatment works. Aquaculture consists of large ponds in which dierent plants and sh live. The plants feed on the nutrients from either raw, screened sewage or secondary treated
People `12
Discharge Soakaway, watercourse
Literature source Klargester (1999)
Depends on size: every half year or annually
R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221 Table 11 Design criteria of leachelds Floor area trench m2 P Vp 0X25; P No of persons; Vp percolation (s mm1 ) 420 PE1 Use Suitable soil and groundwater environment Claymedium sand Trench width (m) 0.60.9 n/a Min/max length 30/200 m n/a Literature source Klargester (1999) VSA (1995)
207
3(d) Sand lters can be vertical ow lters as well as pressure lters. The wastewater that is applied is usually tertiary euent. (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). Table 13 provides some design criteria for sand lters. 4.2. Eciency The eciency with regard to wastewater treatment is assessed using the literature data. For all treatment systems, the eciency is only as good or as bad as the design. However, the design of conventional systems is better understood since the technology has developed over the past century and is hence well researched. Figs. 10 and 11 show the removal eciency of TSS and BOD. 4.2.1. TSS The following remarks refer to the data presented in Fig. 10. 1(a) AS: The values are for two-stage treatment works. AS plants can be designed to remove a high
Fig. 9. Wetland for domestic wastewater treatment.
euent. The sh in the pond feed on the plants and normally grow to full size in one vegetative season. They are then harvested and sold. Plants for human consumption can also be reared in aquacultures (Guterstam, 1997; Staudenmann, 1994; Ghosh, 1997; Olh and a Pekr, 1997). a
Table 12 Design criteria of wetlands Sealing None if clay; concrete; plastic container; liner; bentonite; clay If clay available, puddled clay; plastic liner or membrane Compacted clay; bentonite; plastic membranes n/a Medium Sandy gravel Velocity mh1 0.363.6
Area m2 Horizontal: min 20; P 5.0 PE1 vertical: min 10; P 2.5 PE1
Depth (m) Horizontal: 0.5; vertical: 0.8
Literature source ATV (1998)
Gravel, pulverised fuel ash
n/a
45; f(sewage strength)
0.3 (inlet)0.6 (average)
Cooper (1990)
surface: local soil subsur.: gravel Gravel sand
f(hydraulic conductivity; cross section; gradient) 0.1
f(ow; inuent, euent BOD5 ; reaction rate constant; water depth; porosity) 610 PE1
surface ow: 0.100.45 subsur. ow: 0.30.6 0.30.8
Kowalik (1995)
VSA (1995)
Table 13 Design criteria of sand lter Type Covered lter Open lter Hydr loading per area md1 0.040.08 0.120.20 Loading frequency d1 24 410 Media: depth (m); diamenter (mm) 0.60.9; 0.54 0.60.9; 0.54 Area m2 PE1 46 2 Literature source ATV (1998)
208
Fig. 10. Removal eciency for domestic treatment methods: TSS. (Values show range and average found in the literature.)
Fig. 11. Removal eciency of domestic treatment methods: BOD5 . (Values show range and average found in the literature.)
percentage of pollutants, removal of SS mainly depends on settlement tanks (Tiefbauamt der Stadt Zrich, 1993; u Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). 1(b) TF: The values are for two-stage treatment works. Low loaded TF plants remove a high percentage of pollutants, removal of SS mainly depends on settlement tanks (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). 1(c) RBC: High removal eciency, although not very robust as many mechanical parts can fail (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Gray, 1989). 1(d) OP: Poor eciency due to algae growth, usually needs nal settlement (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). 2(a) NB: Robust, but low removal eciencies. They are normally combined with other treatment facilities. Suitable for small remote housing (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984; VSA, 1995). 2(b) PB: Little information on removal eciency. Mechanical parts make them failure prone (VSA, 1995; Salvato, 1982). 2(c) LF: When used in the right place, they virtually remove all SS as the euent lters through soil with high ltering capacity (Grant et al., 1996). 3(a) CW: Good removal eciency with little maintenance requirements. Robust on shock loadings (Brner, 1992; Vyzamal, 1995; Nuttall et al., 1997). o 3(b) LM: Very good removal eciency, however requires external energy source for operation in UK.
3(c) AC: Can be very ecient in removing pollutants with the additional incentive of income. (Ghosh, 1997; Olh & Pekr, 1997; Tchobanoglous, 1997; Guterstam, a a 1997; Govindan, 1996). 3(d) SF: Usually used for euent polishing. Good performance of pressurised lters (Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). 4.2.2. BOD The following remarks refer to the data presented in Fig. 11: 1(a) AS: Can achieve very high removal eciency if properly designed. (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). (b) TF: Removal of BOD in TF depends strongly on the BOD loading. In heavily loaded TF, the removal eciency can be as low as 45% (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984) 1(c) RBC: RBC perform within a relatively small ow range. They are designed for highly predictable sewage ow from small settlements (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Gray, 1989). 1(d) OP: Can have excellent performance, depends on detention time in the pond (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984). 2(a) NB: Worst performance, however normally used in conjunction with leachelds or soakaways. (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984; VSA, 1995).
209
2(a) NB: Worst performance, however normally used in conjunction with leachelds or soakaways. (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991; Grant et al., 1996; Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984; VSA, 1995). 2(b) PB: Little information. Can be very eective though. Maintenance required (VSA, 1995; Salvato, 1982). 2(c) LF: When used in the right place, they virtually remove all BOD as the euent lters through soil with high microbial activity (Grant et al., 1996). 3(a) CW: Good removal eciency if properly designed. They can fail with improper loading. Robust (Brner, 1992; Vyzamal, 1995; Nuttall et al., 1997). o 3(b) LM: Very good removal eciency achieved by gearing the plant to very specic purposes. Requires a lot of oxygen. 3(c) AC: Very good removal eciency with the additional benets of crops. Very sustainable technique, but labour intensive (Ghosh, 1997; Olh & Pekr, 1997; a a Tchobanoglous, 1997; Guterstam, 1997; Govindan, 1995). 3(d) SF: Variable performance, dierences due to dierent types of SF (Gray, 1989; White, 1987; Escritt, 1984; Heeb & Zst, 1997). Good performance even in u very cold climates (Thompson & Reese, 1985). Removal eciencies depend strongly on the design of the dierent treatment techniques. For small settlements, ecological techniques present a valuable alternative to traditional treatment techniques, which are often costly and require a considerable amount of supervision by highly qualied sta. 4.2.3. Land use Fig. 12 shows the land requirement for dierent techniques that are suitable for small-scale wastewater treatment (VSA, 1995; Nuttall et al., 1997), given as square meter per person equivalent (m2 PE1 ). All systems need preliminary treatment. Leachelds appear to consume most land, however as they are underground structures, they cannot be seen. Their size depends largely on the subsoil conditions through which the preliminary treated wastewater percolates. The following remarks refer to the data in Fig. 12: 1(d) OP-no O2: Non-aerated sewage pond with aerobic treatment process where oxygen enters via water surface into water body. 23 ponds in series. 1(d) OP-O2: Aerated sewage pond where oxygen input is supplied. Various methods exist for aeration. 23 ponds in series. 2(c) LF min Leacheld minimum area, depending on soil conditions. 2(c) LF max Leacheld maximum area, as above. 3(a) CW VF min Constructed wetlands vertical ow, minimum depends on strength of sewage. 3(a) CW VF max as above.
Fig. 12. Land requirement for selected techniques (small treatment plants). (Data: VSA, 1995; Nuttall et al., 1997.)
3(a) CW HF min Constructed wetlands horizontal ow minimum area. 3(a) CW HF max as above. 3(d) SF cov: Covered sandlter with carefully selected ltermedia of diameter 0.51.2 mm. For nitrication lime-containing media used. 3(d) SF open: Open sandlters, same as above, wastewater must be applied evenly over the surface. 4.3. Economic aspects Table 14 provides a qualitative economic comparison of the dierent domestic wastewater management techniques. These ratings are purely illustrative. Further research needs to be carried out in order to undertake an objective comparison, such as life cycle costing analyses. For example, 80% of costs in conventional systems is attributed to transportation of sewage (Jenssen, 1996). This fact has also to be considered when conventional treatment systems are assessed. An example of quantitative evaluation of economic aspects was made between conventional treatment systems and wetland systems using the literature data. North of Scotland Water Authority's (NOSWA, 1999b) data on conventional treatment were obtained for the wastewater treatment works (RBCs) in Culbokie, Black Isle, at a cost of 725,000 for a population of 1000 or 725 per head. Another conventional scheme by NOSWA for the towns of Inverness and Fort William, serving a population of 61,000 will cost 45 million or 740 per head. Capital costs per head (PE1 ) of a few wetland systems installed in the UK (Nuttall et al., 1997) are presented in Fig. 13. The high costs of the Oakland Park wetland are due to the high standard to which the efuent had to be treated (i.e. nitrication) but are still
210
Table 14 Economic aspects of domestic wastewater management Technique 1(a) AS 1(b) PF 1(c) RBC 1(d) OP no O2 1(d) OP O2 2(a) NB 2(b) PB 2(c) LF 3(a) CW 3(b) LM 3(c) AQ 3(d) SF
a
Capital cost Mediuma higha Mediuma higha Mediuma higha Mediuma Mediuma higha Lowmedium High Low Lowa High High Medium
Operation & Maintenance costs Higha Higha Higha Very lowa Mediuma Lowhigh Medium Low Mediuma High High Medium
Environmental benet Negative Negative Negative Zero Zeronegative Negative Zero Zero Positive Positive Positive Zeronegative
Remarks *** *** *** Costs depend on land requirements High electricity costs for oxygenation* Cesspools expensive due to high maintenance costs. Septic- and settlement tanks provide cheap pre-treatment options *** Very cheap, when combined with 2(a) NB Cost depends largely on the size of settlement served *** Revenue possible Usually vertical lter
ATV (1997a).
Fig. 13. Cost of several wetland treatment systems installed in the UK (Nuttall et al., 1997).
within the range of the two aforementioned conventional Scottish treatment works. The other wetlands have considerably lower capital costs. The Wetwang wetland is for secondary euent polishing and hence not directly comparable, but it gives an idea of the PE costs for tertiary treatment wetlands. Information on capital costs from several consultants for some ecological treatment systems is provided in Table 15. All Water Utilities were very secretive and
Table 15 Capital costs of ecological wastewater techniques Consultants Iris water Cress water Elemental solutions Reed Bed Technologies Smerdon, Wagget, and Grey (1997) Reed beds PE1
reluctant to release any data at all and in most cases did not even respond. Operation and maintenance costs are as important as the capital costs. Figures from the US (Nuttall et al., 1997) suggest that 400600 per ha annually is a reasonable estimation for surface ow wetlands. Smerdon et al. (1997) expect running costs to amount to approximately 50 per year and the savings to be around 170. The costs of maintaining vegetated beds are no more than for landscape maintenance per unit area. Severn Trent Water has compared the operation of a small RBC works combined with tertiary wetland treatment and a conventional biological ltration works. The former required 68 min and the latter 46 h maintenance eort per week. Non-technically trained personnel can carry out wetland maintenance whereas conventional treatment works required technically trained sta. The layout of a wetland can demand additional costs for electricity, which is needed for pumping, raking and sometimes aeration. Harvesting can add to the costs (Nuttall et al., 1997). There are diculties in undertaking comparative studies because water companies do not break down specic and isolated costs at treatment sites for dierent treatment methods. An indepth comparison was conducted by Fife Regional Council for the Valleyeld reed bed treatment system.
Oxidation ponds 4060 (m2 ) (for 2050 PE) 400600 (PE1 ) n/a n/a n/a
Other PE1 n/a n/a 400 (sand lters) n/a n/a
The larger the cheaper 900 (15 PE); 375 (40 pe); 215 (140 PE) 500 (b12 PE) 200300 (after primary treatment) 2400 ( per house)
211
For this system, whole life costs were compared with a conventional treatment plant and the wetland was found to be the more economic option. Package sewage treatment systems were analysed by Smerdon et al. (1997). For a cluster of houses (`50 houses), the capital cost per house amounts to 2000 5000 and the running costs approximately 30, with a saving of 170 per year because there are no extra sewerage costs for conventional systems. For a village (`500), the capital costs would reduce to 15005000, the running costs would amount to 25 and the savings to 170. Economic data on aquaculture are dicult to obtain. The only system that is working on a large scale in Europe is the one used as tertiary stage in Munich. Most economically benecial aquacultures are in Asia and India in particular (Ghosh, 1997; Olh & Pekr, 1997). a a One small system is implemented in Stensund (Guterstam, 1997), Sweden and another small system where secondary treatment euent is used for commercial aquaculture is Oakland Park in the UK. 4.4. Social aspects The relative importance of the various socialenvironmental criteria for dierent domestic wastewater systems is presented below: Social acceptance. People are usually unaware of conventional domestic wastewater treatment systems, and will probably have little opinion, and therefore be fairly accepting. Further research is needed to ascertain the public awareness and acceptability of the more ecological systems (CW, LM, and AC). Most likely, acceptance will be inuenced primarily by institutional factors, as these are still ènd of pipe' systems (Shields, 1999). Individuals often still adopt an òut of sight, out of mind' attitude. Amenity value. Only the ecological treatment systems (CW, LM, OP and AC) have the potential for amenity enhancement. However, this is only the case if careful planning is carried out. Community participation. This will depend largely on the extent to which public participation is used generally in a given locality this is important for social sustainability (see e.g. Uzzell, 1982). An important related point here is the cost of such measures. People do not tend to be motivated to participate in matters that will have no direct impact on their everyday lives, but if for example, a small-scale ecological wastewater treatment works required a change in behavioural patterns, people might well be more vocal. Awareness. Unless they live fairly close by, people do not tend to be very aware of conventional domestic wastewater treatment systems, and will probably have little opinion. The more ecological systems however, have the potential to make the issue of wastewater
management more salient. Craig (1999) found that people who lived in a village next to a constructed wetland were more likely to know where their sewage was treated than people in a peri-urban settlement served by a conventional treatment works. Institutional requirements. For all systems, this will depend largely on the local situation, and will be specic to the legislative, political and social climate of the area in question. Local development. For all systems, this will probably depend on who is responsible for installation (and maintenance). More research is needed in this area, but ecological systems will usually have more potential to be managed locally. Stimulation of sustainable behaviour . The educational potential of sustainable wastewater systems is large. There are many opportunities for visiting both conventional and non-conventional wastewater treatment plants (NOSWA, 1999b), which could be extremely useful in making the issues surrounding wastewater treatment more salient. However, it must be stressed that in order to be eective, educational approaches should place the issue at hand in its broader social context (Uzzell, 1994).
5. Water and waste re-use Water and waste re-use techniques come closest to what was earlier described as natural sustainability. These techniques enhance the local water cycle and reapply nutrients from domestic wastewater to the local environment. If we consider water usage in the average household in the UK as shown in Fig. 14, we see that some 67% of
Fig. 14. Water usage in household (from Griggs, Shouler, & Hall, 1997; Mustow, Grey, Smerdon, Pinney, & Waggett, 1997).
212
all water used is theoretically not contaminated by human faeces, although small amounts of faeces can occur in baby bathing water. This water leaves the average household as the so-called greywater and can potentially be re-used for purposes where drinking water quality is not required, such as toilet ushing. Similarly, a considerable amount of lightly polluted water from impervious areas, namely roofs can be harvested and used for various purposes, including washing and watering the garden. Waste re-use may also include recycling of the organic matter at the very beginning of the water cycle before it even has the chance to get into contact with water. 5.1. Techniques 1. Greywater is normally collected from hand washbasins, bathtubs, washing machines and dishwashers. Several ltering methods are available to treat the greywater before it is collected in a storage facility. This facility could be located in the cellar or outside the house. From there, water is pumped into a loft storage facility and then distributed by gravity. Greywater contains less organic matter and pathogens (Jenssen & Etnier, 1997) than wastewater containing a mixture of sink and toilet waste residue. Thus, greywater can be re-used for domestic purposes if treated accordingly: for toilet ushing, for washing machines in the domestic environment, and irrigation (both on the surface and underground). Greywater re-use systems (Fig. 15) are being investigated (Dixon, Butler, & Fewkes, 1999; Jenssen & Etnier, 1997; Sayers, 1998a; Nolde, 1995) and, in several countries, there are also systems in the market which allow houses to be retrotted with greywater recycling systems (Sims, 1998). The technology used varies among dierent countries. Greywater is usually treated to higher levels and applied to larger housing estates in Germany than in the UK (Nolde, 1996; Kennedy, 1997; Sims, 1998; Dixon et al., 1999; Sayers, 1998a). Some features of greywater systems include (from Mustow et al., 1997):
Bypass of greywater system to restore original supply, backup supply for greywater tank. One- or two-stage treatment of greywater and safety mechanism to ensure storage 6 2 days. Air gap between backup system and maximum overow water level of greywater tank. Labelling of cisterns and taps where greywater is applied. 2. Rainwater harvesting (Fig. 16) has been practised over thousands of years. Most water harvesting takes place in arid climates where surface water is scarce and groundwater is dicult to abstract (Pacey & Cullis, 1986). Growth in freshwater demand in all regions (usually due to our lifestyle) could sometimes be met by rainwater re-use. Rainwater harvesting is certainly a viable option when it comes to watering gardens and the techniques can range from simple to sophisticated technical solutions. For example, rainwater harvesting is used in an autonomous housing project in Nottingham, where some of it is treated to potable standard (Mustow et al., 1997). Brechbhl (1998) sees the main uses of rainwater u being for domestic purposes in ushing toilets, watering gardens and washing. Design recommendations for the storage facilities are listed in Table 16 (Mustow et al., 1997; Brechbhl, 1998; Referat fr Gesundheit und u u Umwelt, 1998). Storage size considerations are given by Referat fr u Gesundheit und Umwelt (1998). They base the estimation of the harvesting tank on the average water yield per year and the water consumption of the household. The relation between water yield and consumption indirectly results in a factor, which is then multiplied with the total average water yield per year. The result is the volume of the storage facility. Smerdon et al. (1997) base their storage considerations on available rainfall, runo area and anticipated days of drought. 3. Solid waste re-use concerns both organic and human body wastes. The re-use of human body wastes was practised in Europe well into the last century when the waste was thrown out into the backstreets and then collected on carts and recycled on elds. Solid waste reuse systems include compost toilets where the waste is collected in large composting facilities (Kennedy, 1997; Otterpohl et al., 1996). Small systems where the waste is
Fig. 15. Greywater System (adapted from Nolde, 1995).
Fig. 16. Rainwater harvesting (after AGW, 1991).
R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221 Table 16 Design considerations of rainwater harvesting facilities Location Dark, cool, secure from frost, easily accessible for cleansing Material Plastic tanks for best easiest cleansing. Concrete with paintcoat to prevent algae growth in pores Layout Drain at lowest point to allow easy cleansing, U-shaped pump suction pipe to avoid pumping sediments Separation Two tanks or more allow cleansing without interrupting rainwater use (large systems) Size Dependent on usage, content to be replaced 1030 times per year Filters 500 lm into tank, sucient for domestic use; 100 lm to pump
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collected in bin liners and enhanced with carbon-rich material also exist (Rohrer & Geiger, 1998; einblick, 1995, 1999). Solid human wastes can be anaerobically digested with other organic household wastes (Otterpohl et al., 1996). The end products are nutrient-rich water, compost earth and methane which can be used for gasfuelled lorries, cars and decentralised heating systems. Rohrer (1998a) has shown that agricultural applications can also bring benets without compromising risk. The handling of the waste can be problematic as it contains a considerable amount of faecal coliforms. A certain degree of education is hence necessary to apply this kind of waste management. Farmers could be part of this solution as they are often used to handling excreta and are potential users of the nutrient-rich compost, even as a substitute for commercially available fertiliser. Huber (1999) suggests that the collection and distribution of this kind of fertiliser from small settlements does not cause problems for farmers. He nevertheless predicts problems with the even application of the fertiliser to the land. Compost facilities that are easy to handle are available in the market. Some of them depend on ventilation via electric fans. The stirring mechanism of the compost, which is contained in a drum within the toilet, is driven by an electric motor. Larger facilities with external drums or compost facilities in cellars are also available. (Peuser GmbH, 1999; Sun-Mar, 1998). Jenssen and Skjelhaugenen (1994) describe a composting facility for tenement buildings in Norway that not only composts the faeces of the residents, but also other organic kitchen waste. Design of composting toilets depends on the use of the facility. A variety of versions for weekend as well as residential use are available in the market. The compost toilets for continuous use have larger storage facilities, which are often situated in the cellar. 4. Liquid waste re-use is about collecting and using urine separately. When faeces are composted, the humidity level has to be relatively low if constant ventilation and dehydration of the compost heap is to be avoided. Hence the need to separate urine at the location of origin. According to Rohrer (1998b), urine adds approximately 88% of Nitrate and 57% of Phosphate to the domestic wastewater. Jenssen (1996) quotes slightly lower gures (81% Nitrate and 48% Phosphate). Both
are important fertilisers, which are produced (nitrate) and mined (phosphate) using large amounts of fossil fuels. Seen in this light, separate collection and storage of urine for the use as a fertiliser may become an option for new housing developments. Urine separation can be achieved by using urinals, which are restricted to male use only, or by a small, inserted bowl in the main bowl of the toilet, which collects the urine from both men and women. Jarlv (1996) reports on a trial in Falun where a urine o separation system was retrotted during renovation works on a large housing estate. Storage can cause loss of nitrogen and hence loss of fertiliser according to Hellstrm and Krrmann (1996), but if the basic cono a ditions of cool storage and low pH are fullled, storage is unproblematic. Gujer (1996) presents an alternative to storage. He suggests collecting the urine in tanks during the day and releasing it at night, when the ow in sewer systems is at its lowest. It can then be captured at the sewage treatment works, treated separately from other sewage and recycled. Adamsson and Dave (1996) investigated the toxicity that ammonium from human urine may pose to Daphnia Magna, a plant used in the food chain of aquaculture. Rohrer (1998b) designed guidelines for using urine as a fertiliser. Few examples can be found in the UK where the separation of urine is practised. It may be practised to a certain extent by gardeners who are aware that urine is a valuable fertiliser. 5.2. Water quality and health issues in re-use techniques Given the clear benets and long-standing practice of water harvesting and waste re-use, issues of water quality do need to be considered, although the hazard is generally lower than that many people expect. Problems can occur where water is stored for a long time in warm conditions. Bacteriological laboratory tests have shown that stored rainwater does not meet the EU drinking water standards, but the quality of bathing water can be matched (implying no health hazard for a person if he/ she swallows small quantities). Consideration must be given as to which surface rainwater is harvested from. Metal roofs can lead to a signicant increase of heavy metals in the water and should be avoided (AGW, 1996). People who build their own systems are generally
214
less concerned about these issues (Burkhard, 1999). Where people have little or no knowledge of these systems, there is concern that they might carry some kind of health hazards (Craig, 1999; Naisby, 1997). However, laboratory tests have shown that the total bacterial count in 20 l of rainwater is no higher than the one in a cream pastry displayed in a bakery for a day (Brechbhl, u 1999). If storage, ltering, appropriate use and labelling are undertaken sensibly, these systems pose little risk. For the UK, there are no quality guidelines. Dixon et al. (1999) and Mustow et al. (1997) state however, that application-specic water quality standards should be appropriate. As a guideline, EU bathing water standards as shown in Table 17 could be applied where water is of such a standard that small indigestion does not cause a health hazard. Trials into greywater quality conducted by Naisby (1997) and data from Rasmussen, Jenssen, and Weatlie (1996) conrm that greywater can be treated to EU bathing water standards. Rainwater can be treated to drinking water standard. This is done in countries that depend on rainwater as a drinking water source (Alghariani, 1998; Pacey & Cullis, 1986) and also in the UK (Mustow et al., 1997; Naisby, 1997). Using harvested rainwater for washing purposes has the additional benet of reducing washing powder consumption, as the rainwater is often softer than drinking water from the tap. Greywater quality varies greatly, according to Rasmussen et al. (1996). Gerba et al. (1995) suggest that this may be inuenced by habit and lifestyle of the residents producing the greywater. It contains considerably less plant nutrients than blackwater and can be treated to a high standard using septic tanks, preliminary lters and sand- and soil-based lters as main treatment. These methods eliminate most hazardous elements in greywater (Nolde, 1995, 1996; Glcklich, 1996; Rasmussen u et al., 1996). Membrane treatment systems are also considered (Demboski, Benson, Rossi, Leavitt, & Mull, 1997). Anderson, Siegrist, and Boyle (1981) found that
Table 17 Water quality for dierent uses Parameter Total coliforms Faecal coliforms Salmonella Entero viruses PH Ammonia Reactive phosphorus
a b
greywater may be routinely contaminated with faecal material, which would require the treatment system prior to re-use to address this fact. Gerba et al. (1995) investigated ve dierent treatment methods, which all led to acceptable quality of greywater for re-use in terms of faecal coliforms, total coliforms, pH, nitrate, suspended solids and turbidity. Olivieri and Cooper (1982) designed a health risk table based on interviews with health experts, which listed the health risk of using compost from toilets and greywater for dierent applications (e.g. fertiliser for food crops, irrigation, etc.) against geographic conditions (e.g. climate, groundwater). Enferadi (1982) reports that mesophilic stabilisation and one year's time of composting of faeces would eliminate most pathogens, which is also conrmed by research carried out at the Ecocentre Schattweid (einblick, 1995). Strauss (1991) discusses the health protection issues with regard to reusing wastewater for dierent applications (e.g. irrigation, aquaculture) and describes a model, which assesses the health risk of the end-user of a product where reused wastewater was applied. 5.3. Eciency 5.3.1. Greywater and rainwater harvesting The success and eciency of greywater and rainwater harvesting can be measured in volumetric (litres of water saved) and monetary terms. Studies were conducted by Naisby (1997), Mustow et al. (1997) and Nolde (1995, 1996) into the eciency of these systems. The savings in the use of drinking water depend largely on the size of the storage tank and the intended purpose of the water. Theoretically, rain or grey water can replace all drinking water for toilet ushing. This can constitute up to 34% of the total water consumption. Sims (1998) reports a drinking water reduction of 39% while trials with members of the EA show a reduction of 5.230.6% (Sayers, 1998a). Sayers suggests that giving an average
Concentration bathing watera 10,000 (100 ml1 ) 2000 (100 ml1 ) Absent in 1 l No plaque forming units in 10 l 69
Concentration drinking waterb 0 0 n/a n/a 5.59
Concentration rainwaterc 3340250,000 (ml1 ) 03500 (100 ml1 ) n/a 1300 (100 ml1 ) 6.67.85
Concentration greywaterd 103 107 (100 ml1 ) 103 105 (100 ml1 0 (chlorination) 0 (chlorination) 3.85.7 00X02 mg l1 0X020X16 mg l1
EU bathing water standard. UK drinking water quality. c Laboratory test results CH. d Naisby (1997).
215
value is not very reliable because the range of savings is quite large. Karpiscak, Brittain, Gerba, and Foster (1991) describe a desert house in the US where water conserving xtures, greywater recycling and water harvesting can reduce potable drinking water use by up to 50% without major expense or change in lifestyle. 31% of the total water budget is recycled as greywater and represents the largest source of water savings (Karpiscak, Foster, & Schmidt, 1990). Smerdon et al. (1997) estimate that some 30% of water usage can be saved if a greywater system was installed. They also consider the application of greywater systems to single units as less complicated than several dwellings. The evidence shows that use of rainwater does not deteriorate our lifestyle in an unacceptable way and can lead to considerable potable water savings for households. Current research in the UK (Dixon et al., 1999) on the use of rainwater for toilet ushing suggests considerable water savings due to rainfall harvesting only. 5.3.2. Solid and liquid waste re-use Regarding waste reduction, solid and liquid waste recycling is the only method that reduces nutrient and BOD loading to wastewater treatment works signicantly. Keeping human waste away from treatment works has the same removal eciency as a treatment work that removes 60% of TOC, 99% of total Nitrate and 72% of total Phosphate. Fig. 17 shows a comparison between a three-stage treatment works (WWTP) and separation of human waste (einblick, 1999). The euent that leaves a household with human waste separation is greywater, which has a signicantly lower nutrient content than normal blackwater. 5.4. Economic aspects As can be seen from Table 18, all water and waste reuse techniques are environmentally benecial, and can
be economically viable, provided appropriate consumer tari structures are in place, and that they are designed with reasonable payback periods in mind. 5.4.1. Rainwater According to Mustow et al. (1997), rainwater harvesting systems can cost anything between 20 for a water butt and 20003000 (retrot ats) for customised systems. Smerdon et al. (1997) estimate savings of 2050 per person and year. Mustow et al. (1997) calculate with a payback period between 6 and 210 years when rainwater is used for external purposes only and 2931 years when rainwater is used for external and internal purposes. For ats, Mustow et al. estimate a payback period of 2334 years when rainwater is used for external and internal purposes. An example from Switzerland (Brechbhl, 1995, 1998) estimates a payu back period of 50 years (external and internal use: garden watering, toilet ushing, washing machine). Payback periods depend on the following parameters: Amount of water saved. Water price (water metering). Standard of solution, plumbing. Number of uses, number of users per system. New or retrot system. 5.4.2. Greywater Large systems that serve several households and where installation cost can be saved are more cost effective than small systems that are installed in just one household. According to Smerdon et al. (1997) the costs of a retrotted greywater system costs up to 1000 or around 750 if installed during construction. The British systems from Aquasaver (Sims, 1998) and Water Dynamics (1998) are three times more expensive per household than the German system used in Berlin (Nolde, 1995), although dwelling type may account for this variation. The system in Berlin has the additional advantage of treating the greywater to a higher hygiene standard, which makes it less hazardous to health. Assuming that 33% of drinking water usage per year can be saved, a reduction in the water bill of 25 in Britain and 43 in Germany (1998 prices) can be achieved. Smerdon et al. (1997) estimate a reduction in the water bill up to 75. The payback period for systems serving several people is better, but due to the housing structure is more dicult to implement in Britain. The payback period for the German system is 8 years and for the British system 1046 years. Hence it may be viable to investigate ways of how to share greywater re-use systems in Britain. Greywater systems in the UK are not economic due to the low water prices (Naisby, 1997; Sayers, 1998b). Mustow et al. (1997) estimate a payback period for greywater and rainwater re-use system for internal and external use for houses of 3549 and 48890 years for external use only. For ats, the payback period for in-
Fig. 17. Removal eciency and euent quality of WWTP and separation techniques.
216 Table 18 Economic aspects of water and waste re-use Technique Greywater Rainwater harvesting Solid re-use Liquid re-use Capital cost Mediumhigh Lowhigh Lowmedium Medium
Operation and maintenance costs Lowmedium Lowmedium Lowmedium Lowmedium
Environmental nenet Positive Positive Positive Positive
Remarks Savings occur when water is metered Savings occur when water is metered Revenue possible Revenue possible
ternal use is 2833 years. However, the EA would like to see an increase in water prices to ease the pressure on the environment (Sayers, 1998b). Butler and Dixon (1997) suggest that greywater re-use (combined with rainwater) can signicantly contribute to water and cost savings. This scenario would be particularly applicable for areas where drinking quality water supply for all domestic use is metered. Greywater systems can be viable, as the German example has shown. 5.4.3. Human waste recycling Table 19 provides the price range of some compost toilet systems. Systems where user involvement is larger are cheaper, whereas the more luxurious ones are equipped with fans and electric motors, which inevitably push prices up. A study into recycling human waste by Rohrer and Geiger (1998) has shown that in the waste of the decentralised areas in Switzerland, there are SFr 0.2 million (approximately 88000) worth of nitrate and SFr 0.2 million worth of phosphate for agricultural use contained in approximately 2.4 million m3 wastewater per annum. According to Jenssen and Skjelhaugenen (1994) a reduction of 1520% of articial fertiliser imports for Norway's farmers can be achieved, if all human faeces of the whole Norwegian population are recycled into agriculture. A cost analysis between a sophisticated compost toilet produced by Peuser costs approximately 300, and a standard toilet sold by a local bathroom retailer that costs 120200. If the compost toilet is used, the savings in wastewater costs are around 80 per year (Band C wastewater charge of North of Scotland Water AuTable 19 Economic aspects of compost toilets Type Kompakt Humus-2000 Humus-exclusiv Self contained Self contained, mobile Central composting system Use Weekend Residential Residential Residential Weekend Residential No. of users 24 24 24 15 12 36
thority, NOSWA, 1999a). This means that in three years time, the rst one becomes nancially more sustainable. 5.5. Social aspects As can be seen from the list below, greywater and rainwater systems are more socially acceptable to the end-user than solid waste and liquid waste re-use systems. However, it should be stressed that ratings of acceptability, awareness, and other factors are highly subjective, and vary greatly depending on the commentators (see, for example, Griggs et al., 1997). Social acceptance. Naisby (1997) found that the public was generally accepting the idea of greywater and rainwater recycling, although such studies need replication. Results of a recent survey (Craig, 1999) also showed a general acceptance towards such systems, although people have concerns about using greywater in their gardens. Economic factors seem to have an inuence in both cases (Naisby, 1997; Craig, 1999). There is a scarcity of work in the area of solid and liquid waste reuse, but acceptability is arguably one of the biggest barriers to the implementation of such ecological systems (Shields, 1999; see also Fittschen & Niemczynowicz, 1997). Results of a recent survey (Craig, 1999) suggest a general interest in such new systems, but many concerns about odour, hygiene, and cleaning. Religious and cultural beliefs will also have an impact on acceptability (Warner, 1999). Amenity value. Not applicable on a household scale. Community participation. Examples of water and waste re-use systems in the UK tend to be small scale, with end-users usually consciously opting to install such
Price 120 300 420 820998 874902 8001195
Composting External compost External compost External compost Drum in toilet Drum in toilet Container in cellar
Source Peuser GmbH (1999) Peuser GmbH (1999) Peuser GmbH (1999) Sun-Mar (1998) Sun-Mar (1998) Sun-Mar (1998)
217
systems. Research needs to ascertain whether or not the general public would accept an extensive retrot programme of such systems (see, for example, Jarlv, 1996; o Fittschen & Niemczynowicz, 1997). All too often, only an interested minority of the public ever get involved in any form of water planning (Syme & Nancarrow, 1992), so extensive public education programmes would be required. Awareness. By their very nature, all water and waste re-use systems require more awareness than conventional systems, as they tend to require some change in behaviour. Greywater and rainwater harvesting can be a fairly passive intervention, whereas solid waste and liquid waste re-use would require something of a re-evaluation of cultural norms, and hence an increase in awareness. Institutional requirements. This depends largely on the scale of the system, although the environmental health department would most likely be involved in all cases. Local development. Local plumbers may benet from work involved in retrotting greywater systems, etc. Farmers and gardeners could benet from a local supply of cheaper fertiliser from urine separation toilets, although a lack of knowledge about urine probably plays a role in the acceptance of this idea. Stimulation of sustainable behavior. There is a large potential for environmental education, as the user is directly involved at source, and is thus empowered to some degree. Again though, the issue must be placed in its broader social context if it is to act as a form of educational catalyst (Uzzell, 1994). 6. Discussion and conclusions 6.1. Techniques With respect to planning for water and wastewater management, there is a wealth of techniques available and yet most of them are hardly known by the mainstream engineer. In civil engineering undergraduate courses in higher education, ecological treatment systems are not included in water modules and students study conventional techniques. Only in specialised courses, do students have a chance to learn about new techniques. This fact makes the application of ecologically sound solutions more dicult. Similar observations can be made for other people who inuence water and wastewater management, namely planners and site developers. Their attention is slowly drawn to these issues, but there is still a long way to go until there is greater awareness of water problems. That said, the UK Royal Academy of Engineering has recently decided to place ``sustainable design'' at the heart of its courses, to address social and environmental problems (THES,
1999). Similarly, a course was introduced almost three decades ago by the University of Connecticut's Civil Engineering Department (Laak, 1982) taking the above aspects into consideration. 6.2. Eciency Most ecological techniques match the performance of the well-established techniques. In some cases, they require more land, which can become a nancial issue. Looking at the eciency factor from a natural sustainability angle, the ecological techniques tend to fare better because they are designed to use less embodied energy in both building and running processes. Often, ecological techniques enhance the environment, create new habitats, replenish groundwater and can have a social function. Hence the eciency aspect could easily be expanded into these elds and may have to be considered. 6.3. Economic aspects Further investigations into cost and life cycle analysis regarding wastewater management options are necessary. This is the case for conventional treatment systems where costs are not entirely broken down. This is also the case for novel techniques where costs are often difcult to obtain. The construction costs may change considerably over the next few years as the implications of the greenhouse eects may start to be felt. This may result in rising prices for construction and transportation, in case carbondioxide taxes on fossil fuels are levied in future. Hence construction of wastewater treatment works, which consume a large amount of embodied energy, may turn out to be more costly than at present and this may tip the balance to less energy intensive ways of treating wastewater or even reducing domestic wastewater. Some techniques may even generate revenue and jobs. Looking at the economic issue from this angle, ecological techniques may be seen in a better light, especially when there is the chance to partially or wholly substitute non-renewable energy and fertilisers. Jobs may be generated in building and maintenance of these techniques (with money saved from investing in conventional techniques), in further development of techniques, and in the marketing of eventual by-products. 6.4. Social aspects Most conventional techniques have little or no inuence on the behaviour of users. For each of the areas discussed in this paper (rainwater management, domestic wastewater, and water-and-waste re-use), the more ecological techniques have a greater inuence on the end-user. While it is clear that ecological rainwater
218
management techniques are less likely to have an impact than for example compost toilets (apart from the earlier mentioned safety fears), the relationship between awareness and acceptance is not clear. Social acceptance and social sustainability are two areas in which further research is needed to ascertain the relative importance of the dierent criteria for the various techniques. The theory of participatory democracy holds that `ìndividuals and their institutions cannot be considered in isolation from one another'' (Pateman, 1970). Thus, a diverse range of opinions should be accommodated and considered within any planning decision. These opinions should include those which advocate the use of innovative ecological techniques, and also the multitude of views held in the public sphere. Moreover, public opinion should not only be sought out, but an attempt at understanding it should also be made, rather than simply dismissing it as ìrrational public opinion', as is so often the case. There is also a clear need to develop eective educational strategies to develop environmental awareness and action competence (having the understanding and the tools necessary for environmentally friendly behaviour) at all levels, be it at home, in a primary school, in higher education, in planning departments, or developers oces. Such attempts are actively made in Los Angeles, where demonstration gardens were set up to show residents that it is possible to have a nice garden without using excess water (Harasick, 1990). 6.5. Planning Alongside this need for greater public participation, consideration should also be given to the planning system as a whole if `holistic planning' is to be achieved. Thus, land use planning and control legislation which are sensitive to the requirements of such pollution prevention techniques such as those discussed herein will go a long way towards achieving sustainability, howsoever it is dened. Planning of integrated water and waste management requires thoughtful consideration, because of the complexity of the process. Asano (1991) listed elements of water re-use planning. However, to integrate all the above issues, a new planning approach has to be developed in the form of participatory integrated assessment, as suggested by Schlumpf, Behringer, Drrenberger, and Pahl-Wostl (1999). Smerdon et al. u (1997) show ways to plan and implement decentralised water supplies and sewage. They assess the application of ecological techniques to single units as well as clusters of houses, villages and towns and recommend the most appropriate technique for each size. To integrate all the above techniques and aspects, it is important to develop a tool that is capable of incorporating all aspects of water and wastewater management.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mr Graeme Slaver of Robert Gordon University who found the necessary nancial resources to fund this research.
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Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

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n m3 am3 Porosity of ll material (0.20.5)

i (m/h), D (h) Intensity and duration of rainfall events

Ad m2 Drainage area of inltration system

Fig. 1. Inltration basin (after AGW, 1991).

Literature source WEF (1998)

Luker and Montague (1994)

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Open water area `50% total wetland area

Length to width ratio b3:1, 2:1 recommended

Literature source WEF (1998)

Fig. 3. Removal eciency of rainwater control techniques: suspended solids (SS).

Rainfall eventa 10 Year RP

Soil type, k b Loamy sand, 0.3 m/h

Dwelling typec Detached, semidetached

Runo coecientc 0.45

Fig. 4. Land use of dierent BMP techniques.

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Fig. 6. Cesspool (after Grant, Moodie, & Weedon, 1996).

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Discharge Soakaway, watercourse

Literature source Klargester (1999)

Depends on size: every half year or annually

Fig. 9. Wetland for domestic wastewater treatment.

Depth (m) Horizontal: 0.5; vertical: 0.8

Literature source ATV (1998)

Gravel, pulverised fuel ash

45; f(sewage strength)

0.3 (inlet)0.6 (average)

surface: local soil subsur.: gravel Gravel sand

f(hydraulic conductivity; cross section; gradient) 0.1

surface ow: 0.100.45 subsur. ow: 0.30.6 0.30.8

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Other PE1 n/a n/a 400 (sand lters) n/a n/a

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Fig. 15. Greywater System (adapted from Nolde, 1995).

Fig. 16. Rainwater harvesting (after AGW, 1991).

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Concentration drinking waterb 0 0 n/a n/a 5.59

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

Operation and maintenance costs Lowmedium Lowmedium Lowmedium Lowmedium

Environmental nenet Positive Positive Positive Positive

Price 120 300 420 820998 874902 8001195

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

R. Burkhard et al. / Urban Water 2 (2000) 197221

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