Physics Exam Study Notes

1: Forces and Motion

Kinematics: study of motion Basic types of motion: o Uniform (constant speed in straight line) o Non-uniform Scalar quantity: with magnitude & no direction o Distance, average speed Vector quantity: with magnitude (arrow above it) & direction (in square brackets after unit) o Position, displacement, acceleration Velocity: o Rate of change of position o Average velocity: displacement divided by time interval for that change o 2-D motion: using GPS (global position system) N/S/E/W to communicate directions Ex: 5.0 cm [25 S of E] or [E25S] Acceleration: rate of change of velocity V-t graph to find other things: o Area under line gives displacement, slope gives acceleration Resultant displacement of 2 dimensions: o Vector sum of individual displacements o Use Pythagorean Theorem and SOH-CAH-TOA Relative motion: velocity of a body relative to a particular frame of reference Methods of writing direction: o GPS = [E25S] or [25 S of E] o Bearing = [N 160] (measure CW from North position)

2: Energy
Dynamics: causes of motion Force: push or pull, vector quantity o 4 fundamental forces: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear Unit of force: Newton (N) -> 1N = 1(kg x m)/s2 Net force/resultant force: vector sum of all forces acting on an object Mass: quantity of matter in an object (standard: kg) Weight: force of gravity on an object (Fg), measured in Newtons

Newtons Laws of Motion: 1. If the net force acting on an object is zero, the object will maintain its state of rest or constant velocity. 2. If the external net force on an object is not zero, the object will accelerate in the direction of that net force. The magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the net force and inversely proportional to the objects mass. 3. For every action force, there is a reaction force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Law of Universal Gravitation: Force of gravitational attraction between any two objects is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between their centres. Friction: Static friction (Fs): force that tends to prevent a stationary object from starting to move o Starting Friction: max static friction, amount of force to overcome to get object to move Kinetic friction (FK): force that acts against an objects motion in a direction opposite of the direction of motion o Sliding friction, rolling friction, fluid friction Coefficient of friction (): number that indicates the ratio of the magnitude of the force of friction (Ff) between 2 surfaces to the magnitude of the force perpendicular to these surfaces o K for FK, s for Fs; larger means more friction

Energy: Energy: capacity to do work o 1 J (joule) = 1 Nm = 1(kg x m2)/s2 o Forms: thermal, electrical, radiant, nuclear potential, gravitational potential, kinetic, elastic potential, sound, chemical potential Work: energy transferred to an object by an applied force over a measured distance o Power: rate of doing work or transforming energy 1 W = 1 J/s Gravitational potential energy: energy possessed by an object because of its position relative to a lower position Kinetic energy: energy possessed by an object due to its motion Law of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be created nor destroyed. When energy changes from one from to another, no energy is lost. o Valley problems, pendulum problems, objects dropped from a height (mvA2)/2 + mghA = (mvB2)/2 + mghB o Ramp problems

Moving up: (F Ff) d = mgh Moving down: mgh Ffd = mv2

Thermal Energy:

Thermal energy: total kinetic energy and potential energy (caused by electric forces) of the atoms or molecules of a substance Temperature: measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules of a substance Heat: transfer of energy from a warmer body to a cooler one 3 methods of heat transfer: o 1: Conduction: heat transferred through a material by collisions of atoms o 2: Convection: heat transferred by a circulating path of fluid particles called convection current o 3: Radiation: process of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves (requires no particles) 3 factors that determine how much energy it takes to heat up an object: o Objects mass, temperature change, and substances specific heat capacity Specific heat capacity: J/kgC Principle of heat exchange: when heat is transferred from one body to another, the amount of heat lost by the hot body equals the amount of heat gained by the cold body If enough change in thermal energy occurs, a substance will change states

Latent heat:

Extra stored heat when phase changes Latent: hidden During melting or vaporization, heat added wont cause a rise in temperature Temp. of a substance will change until a critical temp. is reached, at which the substance will change phase to facilitate the temp. change Latent heat of fusion (Lf): latent heat released during freezing

o Amount of heat energy needed to melt 1.0kg of material

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv): latent heat stored when heat is added during vaporization

o Amount of heat energy needed to vaporize 1.0kg of material

Nuclear energy:

Fission: split, fusion: join o Fission releases enormous amounts of energy in the form of heat or radiation o Fusion used in the sun, creates less radioactive material Nuclear isotopes: atoms of the same element with same # of protons, but diff. # of neutrons o Deuterium: hydrogen 2, tritium: hydrogen 3 Alpha particles: speed of about 107 m/s o Positively charged (+2) Helium nucleus, mass of 4 atomic mass units o Low charge, ionizes with other atoms strongly o Low penetrating power Beta particles: speed of about 108 m/s o Charge of -1, mass of about 1/2000th of a proton (same as electron)

o Ionizes atoms that they pass, but not as strongly as alpha particles o Medium penetrating power, stopped by aluminum foil
Gamma rays: waves o No mass or charge o Do not directly ionize other atoms o High penetrating power, would take a thick metal to stop them Law of Conservation of Mass-Energy: for an isolated system, the total amount of mass-energy remains constant Atomic mass (A) = # of protons (Z) + # of neutrons (N) o Naming convention: mass above # of protons; left of chemical symbol o Proton (11p), neutron (10n), electron (0-1e)

3: Waves and Sound

Vibrations: Vibration: periodic motion when it repeats a pattern of motion 3 types of vibrations: o Transverse: perpendicular to its axis at normal rest position (ex. pendulum) o Longitudinal: parallel to its axis of rest position (ex. pogo stick) o Torsional: around its axis at rest position (ex. motion of steering wheel) Cycle: 1 complete oscillation or 1 complete vibration/1 complete wave Frequency (f): # of cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz) Period (T): time for 1 cycle, measured in seconds Amplitude: distance in either direction from the rest position to an extreme position (max displacement) In Phase: objects have same period & pass through the rest position at the same time Out of Phase: objects dont have the same period & pass through the rest position at the same time Waves: Wave: vibration/disturbance that can transfer energy over a distance Transverse waves: particles in the medium vibrate at right angles to the direction in which the waves travel (ex. water waves/waves in a rope) o Crest/trough, node/antinode, amplitude, rest axis Longitudinal waves: particles vibrate parallel to the direction of wave motion (ex. sound waves/compress coils in a Slinky) o Compression/rarefaction Wave interference: occurs when 2 act simultaneously on the same particles of a medium o Constructive interference: creates supercrests and supertroughs (add 2 together) o Destructive interference: waves diminish one another, amplitude decreases Standing waves: special case of inference in a one-dimension medium

If colliding waves are controlled so they have the same amplitude and wavelength but in opposite directions, it results in a standing wave interference pattern Principle of Superposition: at any point, the resulting amplitude of 2 interfering waves is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves Resonance: response of an object that is free to vibrate to a periodic force with the same frequency as the natural frequency of the object o Mechanical resonance: if physical contact between the periodic force & the object o Ex: Tacoma Narrows bridge, rock a car stick in snow, child moving on swing

Sound: All sounds stimulate the auditory nerve Humans respond to sound frequencies between 20Hz 20,000Hz o Infrasonic: lower than 20Hz, ultrasonic: above 20,000Hz Produced by vibrating objects (ex. guitar string, throat vibrating, stereo speaker) Needs a material medium for transmission Sound waves are longitudinal waves Larger amplitude: louder sound, higher frequency: higher pitch Intensity of sound: o Sounds audible to humans can vary in intensity Loudness measured in bels (B), most people use decibel scale (dB) o 1dB = 1/10B or 10dB = 1B 0dB: threshold of hearing (10-12W/m2) 85dB: must wear eat protection for industrial safety 130dB: threshold of pain (101W/m2) 160dB: instant perforation of ear drum (104W/m2) o Each rise of 10dB: 10 fold increase in sound intensity Interference between identical sound waves: causes louder/softer sound regions o Can be done with 2 loudspeakers in phase Noise cancellation headphones use destructive interference (exactly out of phase with outside noise), can remove 70% of external noise Beat: periodic change in sound intensity Beat frequency: # of beats heard per second, in hertz Doppler Effect: observed frequency increases when source of sound approaches, and vice versa Sound Barrier: When flying at speed of sound, the wave fronts in the front of a plane pile up, producing an reap of very dense air/intense compression o Extra thrust required to break through barrier o Aircraft must be designed to cut through or it will be buffeted disastrously Speed of sound: 332m/s or 1200km/h or 750mi/h at 0C o Subsonic speeds: slower than speed of sound

o Supersonic speeds: faster than speed of sound Sonic boom: invisible cone behind aircraft, sound waves interfere constructively o Intense acoustic pressure waves sweeps along the ground o Occurs as 2 large cracks (like thunder or a muffled explosion)

Echolocation: Echoes: produced when sound is reflected by a hard surface Echolocation: location of an object using reflected sound SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging Music: Music: combination of musical notes o Musical notes originate from a source vibrating in a uniform manner with one or more constant frequencies o 3 main characteristics of musical sounds: pitch, loudness, quality Noise: originates from a source vibrating where frequencies are constantly changing in a random manner Pitch: related to frequency o Bass notes lower in pitch than treble notes o Bass notes have a longer wavelength than treble notes Note: a pure tone is a sound where only one frequency is heard Musical sounds usually combinations of sounds Chord: series of sounds where their frequencies are in simple ratios (4:5:6:8) o Sounds very pleasing or harmonious o Chords have a high level of consonance Unpleasant sounds have high dissonance or low consonance Octave: successive doubling of frequencies Scientific Musical Scale: middle C is 256Hz o C# and D arent the same frequency on the diatomic scale Musical/Equitempered Scale: A4 is 440Hz o C4 is 261.6Hz o Exactly 12 intervals per octave o Each note found by multiplying the previous by 1.059 (found by taking the 12th root of 2) o C# and D are the same frequency 4 factors that affect the frequency of a vibrating string: o Length (L), tension (F), diameter (d), density (D)

Quality of sound: In a vibrating stretched string and the fundamental mode of vibrating, the string vibrates in one segment with a node on each end and one antinode in the middle. This creates f0 or fundamental frequency. Different frequencies can be produced by forcing the string to vibrate in different patterns o Frequency produced depends on number of nodes/antinodes Second harmonic (2f0) same as first overtone, 3 f0 = second overtone, etc. o Frequencies of overtones are in simple whole numbered multiples of the fundamental and are called harmonics o Overtones can be more intense than fundamental in some instruments (ex. clarinet) Quality of a musical note depends on the # and relative intensity of the overtones it produces along with the fundamental Tuning fork only has one fundamental frequency Resonance in air columns: Closed air columns: o Caused by standing wave pattern with node at closed end & antinode at open end o For fixed length: resonance first occurs when air column is (wavelength) Then: 3/4 , 5/4 , 7/4 etc. Open air columns: o Created by standing wave patterns set up in a tube where an antinode exists at BOTH open ends o For fixed length open columns: resonance first occurs at /2 (first harmonic) o Then: , 3/2, 2 , etc.

4: Electricity and Magnetism

Electrostatics: Static electricity: a build-up of stationary electric charge o Charging by friction: rubbing 2 objects together Fundamental laws of electric charge: o Opposite charges attract, similar charges repel, charged objects attract some neutral objects Change in charge due to loss/gain of electrons only Conductors: solids in which charge flows freely (most metals, water) Insulators: solids that hinder the flow of charge (glass, rubber, wood, plastic, concrete) Electric fields and electric charge: Every charged object creates an electric field of force in the space around it o Relative distance between adjacent field lines at a given point is an indication of the strength of the electric field at that point Magnitude of the electric force of the attraction or repulsion is:

o Directly proportional to the product of the charges o Inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them One coulomb (C) of energy made up of 6.24x1018e-

Electric current: Rate of movement of electrically charged particles past a point When electric charges move from 1 place to another In metals: moving charges are electrons Measured in amperes (A) o 1A = 1C/s o Standard household fuse: 15A Conventional current: positive charge from + to (used in this course) o Electric flow: negative charge from to + Can flow in either direction in liquids & gases Batteries: DC, wall sockets: AC Ammeter: measures amount of electric current in a circuit Electrical potential difference: Amount of work required per unit of charge (coulomb) to move a positive charge from one point to another in the presence of an electric field A 1V battery performs 1J of work to move 1C of charge between its terminals o 1V = 1J/C Electrical resistance: Opposition experienced when charges pass through a material or device, resulting in a loss of electrical potential energy Ohms law: The potential difference between any 2 points in a conductor varies directly as the current between the 2 points as long as the temp. remains constant. Unit for resistance: ohm () o 1 = 1V/1A Electric circuits: Series: o VT = V1 + V2 + V3 o IT = I1 = I2 = I3 o RT = R1 + R2 + R3 Parallel: o VT = V1 = V2 = V3 o IT = I1 + I2 + I3 o RT-1 = R1-1 + R2-1 + R3-1

Kirchhoffs Laws: Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: as you move through a circuit, all of the voltage increases must equal all of the voltage decreases Kirchhoffs Current Law: at any junction point in an electric circuit, the total current into the junction is equal to the total current out of the junction Power in electric circuits: Measured in watts (W) o J/s = J/C x C/s Cost of electricity: Use kilowatt for power and hours for time o Unit used is kilowatt-hour (kWh) instead of joules, since its larger Better to send electrical energy at high voltages & low current to minimize power loss Electromagnetism: Poles: areas of concentrated magnetic force North pole: end of a magnet that seeks northerly direction Sound pole: end of a magnet that seeks southerly direction Law of Magnetic Poles: opposite poles attract, like poles repel Magnetic field of force: space around a magnet in which magnetic forces are exerted Characteristics of magnetic field lines: o Spacing of lines indicates relative strength of force (closer = stronger force) o Have direction (N S outside, S N inside a magnet) o Do not touch each other o Outside: magnet lines are concentrated at poles, inside: magnet lines are the closest together Compass needle always points in the direction the field lines are going outside the magnet Ferromagnetic substances can become magnetized o Iron, nickel, cobalt (or any alloy containing them) Whenever a current moves through a conductor, a magnetic field is created in the region around the conductor Domain Theory of Magnetism: Atoms of ferromagnetic substances are like tiny magnets o Called dipoles, interact with neighbouring dipoles o Groups line up with their magnetic axes in the same direction to form a magnetic domain Domains: clusters of 1017 atoms Non-magnetized: randomly pointing domains

Effects: o Magnetic induction Permanent magnet near iron nail: temporary magnet Field of perm. cause dipoles in nail to align momentarily Soft iron: if nail loses magnetism as moved away Hard iron: if nail retains magnetism as moved away o Demagnetization Aligned dipoles return to random directions Caused by dropping or heating Some materials revert when removed from magnetic field (i.e. pure iron) Materials that instantly demagnetize: soft ferromagnetic materials Alloys used to make hard ferromagnetic materials (use aluminum or silicon) o Reverse magnetization Poles reversed when magnet placed in a strong enough magnetic field with reverse polarity o Breaking a bar magnet Creates mini magnet with identical dipole alignment o Magnetic saturation Peak of magnets strength: when max # of dipoles aligned o Induced magnetism by Earth Dipoles will align if a piece of iron with agitated atoms by heating or mechanical vibration in Earths magnetic field Point north & at angle of inclination + tapping with a hammer Steel columns, hulls, and railroad tracks tend to magnetize o Keepers for bar magnets Bar magnets demagnetize over time as poles start to reverse the dipoles polarity (random thermal motion of atoms) Store in pairs with opposite poles adjacent & small pieces of soft iron (keepers) across ends to prevent demagnetization Keepers become strong induced magnets, form closed loops

Factors affecting the magnetic field of a coil: Coils magnetic field can be turned on/off & alter strength Strength related to degree of concentration of its magnetic field lines More current in the coil = greater concentration of magnetic field lines in the core o 2x current = 2x magnetic field strength Number of loops in the coil: o Each loop of wire produces its own magnetic field o Magnetic field of a coil: sum of the magnetic fields of all its loops o 2x loops in coil = 2x magnetic field strength Type of core material:

Material of core affects coils magnetic field strength Cylinder of iron (instead of air) = 1000+ times stronger Aluminum core = no effect o Core material becomes induced magnet, magnetic field strength increases Dipoles align with magnetic field of the coil o Relative magnetic permeability (K): factor by which a core material increases the magnetic field strength that would exist in the same region if a vacuum replaced it o 2x relative magnetic permeability of the core = 2x strength Ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism o Core materials divided into 3 groups according to their relative magnetic permeability o Ferromagnetic: high, strong induced magnets o Paramagnetic: slight increase, slightly greater than 1 Oxygen and aluminum o Diamagnetic: slight decrease, slightly less than 1 Copper, silver and water

Motor Principle: A current carrying conductor that cuts across external magnetic field lines, experiences a force perpendicular to both the field lines and the direction of the electric current Applications: moving coil loudspeaker, galvanometer (armature forced to pivot with increased current) o Voltmeter: galvanometer + high value resistor in series o Ammeter: galvanometer + low value shunt resistor in parallel Electric motor: device that can convert electrical potential energy into mechanical energy o DC motor: needs DC electricity, uses split right commutator to reverse current through armature o AC motor: needs AC electricity, uses slip rings attached to armature since current switches direction, no need for split ring Generator Principle: A current can be induced by moving a conductor through a magnetic field Right Hand Rules: Conductor (straight): o Thumb points in direction of current flow o Curled fingers point in direction of magnetic field lines Coil/solenoid: o Thumb points in direction of the field lines inside the coil (towards N) o Coil grasped with fingers pointing in direction of current flow Motor: o Thumb points in direction of current through straight conductor

o Fingers point in direction of external magnetic field lines o Palm shows direction of force on the conductor Generator: o Thumb points in direction of force o Fingers in direction of field lines o Palm shows direction of current

Electromagnetic Induction: An electric current produces a magnetic field, therefore reverse is true Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction: an electric current is induced in a conductor whenever the magnetic field in the region of the conductor changes Factors that affect magnitude of induced current: o Number of turns on coil, rate of change of inducing magnetic field, strength of inducing magnetic field Induced magnetic field of coil opposes the action of the external magnet o If bar magnet going in, coils N is at the top; and vice versa Lenzs Law: for a current induced in a coil by a changing magnetic field, the electric current is in such a direction that its own magnetic field opposes the change that produced it Transformers: (robots in disguise) An electrical device that can increase or decrease voltages Can only be AC, induction coils DC voltages (in automobiles) Step up transformer: o Used to increase AC voltages o As current supplied to primary coil reverses, it continually changes magnetic field of iron core o Induces a current to flow on the secondary coil o Have more coils on secondary coil than on primary coil Step down transformer: o Used to decrease AC voltages o Ex: train set, car race car transformers, power adapters Adapter : step down transformer + rectifier (AC to DC convertor) in series