Hydrology [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri

Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Precipitation
Precipitation replenishes surface water bodies, renews soil moisture for plants, and recharges aquifers Its principal forms are rain and snow Some of precipitated water may be intercepted, evaporated, infiltrated and/or become surface flow Precipitation is the primary input of the hydrologic cycle
2 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Hyetograph
A hyetograph is a graph that shows the temporal distribution of rainfall at a given location So it shows the relationship between rainfall depth and time
3 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Rainfall Measurements and Hydrologic Design

Rainfall measurements are seldom used directly in design applications Rather, the statistics of the rainfall measurements are typically used Rainfall statistics are most commonly presented in the form of intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves IDF curves express the relationship between rainfall maximum intensity and the time (duration) with a given probability of occurrence
4 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Time Series of Nablus Daily Rainfall

If we would like to consider the daily rainfall for a drainage system design, then which value to pick?

Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Important Definitions Related to Rainfall

Intensity: time rate of precipitation or depth of precipitation per unit time (mm/h) Duration: period of time (h) during which rainfall occurs Depth: the total amount of rainfall (mm) for a given period of time Frequency: the average length of time needed for at least one precipitation event to return with an intensity equals or exceeds a specific (maximum) value
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Return Period and Exceedance Probability

Frequency can be represented as exceedance probability and return period Exceedance Probability: the probability that rainfall intensity is being exceeded during a given time period Return Period: the event with a return period of N years is the event that is expected to be equaled or exceeded every N years

Frequency

Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Return Period
If a 100-year storm occurs this year then it is totally wrong to assume that this storm will return in 100 years Instead, the storm can have the chance for returning two successive years in the near future or may not return for another 150 years It should be noted that the relationship between return period (T) and exceedance probability (P) is given as follows:

P=
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1 T

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Intensity Duration Frequency Relationships

One of the first steps in many hydrologic design projects is the determination of the rainfall event or events to be used in the design The most common approach is to use a design storm or event that involves a relationship between rainfall intensity (or depth), duration, and the frequency appropriate for the facility and site location As such, the IDF curves can be used by hydrologists
9 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Intensity Duration Frequency Relationships

IDF curves enables the hydrologists to develop hydrologic systems that consider worst-case scenarios of rainfall intensity and duration during a given interval of time The idea here is that high intensity rainfall in short periods may cause catastrophic consequences For instance, in urban watersheds, flooding may occur such that large volumes of water may not be handled by the storm water system Thus, appropriate values of precipitation intensities and frequencies should be considered in the design of the hydrologic systems
10 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Intensity versus Depth of Rainfall

Intensity is expressed as:

i=

P Td

where P is the rainfall depth (mm) and Td is the duration (hr)

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Rainfall Intensity and Corresponding Depth

In general, we may have different rainfall intensities but with the same depth Apparently, rainfall duration plays an important role in determining rainfall depth
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Rainfall Intensity versus Duration

Apparently, with increasing the duration, Maximum rainfall intensity becomes less This is somehow a general trend but not a linear one
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Finding Intensities and Corresponding Durations

Running Totals

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Rainfall Intensity versus Duration

Recorded Total depth

15-min duration

0.46 0.48 0.33 0.71

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Rainfall Intensity versus Duration

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

A Typical IDF Curve

The interpretation of any point value obtained from the IDF curve is that on the average, for any given time duration, storms having an intensity (i) for that duration would have a recurrence interval equal to the corresponding curve value
17 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Interpretation of IDF Curves

For example, in any time duration of 90 minutes, a location could experience a peak 2 in/hr storm once every 20 years The 20-yr 90-min design storm for the location would have a depth of P = 3 in
18 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Interpretation of IDF Curves

A 20-yr 30-min design storm would have an intensity of 4.6 in/hr but with a depth of only 2.3 in Although the latter storm produces less depth, its high intensity could be the governing factor in determining the size of drainage works. The probability of occurrence of both storms would be the same
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Interpretation of IDF Curves

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Development of IDF Curves

Select a specific rainfall duration For each year and for the selected duration find the maximum rainfall Arrange the annual maximum precipitation in descending order The return period equals T = (n + 1) / m where m is the rank and n is the total number of years Repeat the above procedure but for different rainfall durations
21 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Development of IDF Curves

This table provides the maximum total rainfall depth for the years from 1949 to 1972 for different rainfall durations You need to compute the IDF curves
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Development of IDF Curves

Rank for each duration Compute the return period (frequency) The highlighted lines represent frequencies of interest Ep is the exceedance probability
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Development of IDF Curves

Compute intensities that correspond to the different durations then select for specific frequencies

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Development of IDF Curves

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Depth-Duration-Frequency Curve

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Intensity Versus Return Period for Different Durations

Apparently, as the return period increases, the intensity increases Also, low rainfall durations tend to have higher intensities compared to high rainfall durations
27 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Depth Versus Return Period for Different Durations

Apparently, as the return period increases, the depth increases Also, low rainfall durations tend to have low depths values compared to high rainfall durations
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Probable Maximum Precipitation

The Probable maximum precipitation (PMP) is theoretically the greatest depth of precipitation for a given duration that is physically possible at a specific location at a certain time of the year

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Gross and Net Precipitation

The net (excess) precipitation that contributes directly to surface runoff is equivalent to the gross precipitation minus losses to interception, evaporation, depression storage, and infiltration The relation between excess precipitation Pe and gross precipitation P is: Pe = P losses

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Areal Precipitation
It is important to know the areal distribution of precipitation In general, an average depth for the watershed is determined and used For this, point precipitation readings are utilized to develop average precipitation depth over an area There are different methods for finding the areal average rainfall for an area of interest
31 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

The Arithmetic-Mean Method

This is the simplest method of determining the areal average rainfall The average rainfall depth for an area is found by computing the average of the depth values for all the gages using the following formula:

Areal Rainfall

1 n P = Pi n i =1
where n is the number of gages and Pi is the rainfall recorded at gage i
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The Isohyetal Method

The isohyetal method is based on interpolation between gauges Plot the rain gauge locations and record the rainfall amounts Interpolation between gauges is performed Rainfall amounts at selected increments are plotted Identical depths from each interpolation are then connected to form isohyets (lines of equal rainfall depth)
33 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Areal Rainfall

Thiessen Method
The area is subdivided into subareas using rain gauges as centers The subareas are used as weights in estimating the watershed average depth The Thiessen network is fixed for a given gauge configuration, and polygons must be reconstructed if any gauges are relocated

Areal Rainfall

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Thiessen Method

Areal Rainfall

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Thiessen Method Faria Catchment

Areal Rainfall

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Thiessen Method Gaza City and Jabalia Camp

Areal Rainfall

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data

Rainfall data are generally collected at point locations (mainly at meteorological stations) However, rainfall data might be incomplete. Missing data therefore could be attributed to: Malfunctioning Mismanagement Inability to take the measurement Vandalism Therefore, when part of rainfall data is missing, then estimation of missing data should be made
39 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Station Average Method

Consider n rain gages present in a region with measured data for a given storm event The data at station X are missing for a storm event Then

Px =

1 n Pi n i =1

Use this method when the annual rainfall of any station is within the 10% of the average annual rainfall from the gages
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Station Average Method

Find the missing rainfall data at station D for the following storm events given the average annual rainfall data The average annual rainfall PD = (2.6 + 3.1 + 2.3) = 2.67 in 3 at the four gages is 40.7 in and thus all the annual readings are within 10% of 44.77 36.63 40.7 the average
1

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Normal Ratio Method

In regions where the annual average rainfall differs considerably between locations, the normal ratio method is preferred Px: missing rainfall data at x Ax: annual rainfall at x Ai: annual rainfall at i n: number of gages

Px =

Ax Pi i =1 nA i
n

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Normal Ratio Method

Find the missing rainfall data at station D for the following storm events given the average annual rainfall data

Px =

Ax Pi i =1 nA i
n

PD =

40 40 40 2.4 + 2.3 + 3.1 = 2.51 in 3 41 3 37 3 46

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

Changes in type, location, and/or environment of the gage are common Trees may grow up or buildings may be constructed around a gage So it is important for a hydrologist to determine if the precipitation record is affected by such artificial alterations of measurement conditions and to correct them if they are present The most common technique for detecting and correcting the inconsistent precipitation data is the double-mass curve
44 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

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Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

The double-mass curve is a plot of the successive cumulative annual precipitation collected at a gage where measurement conditions may have changed significantly versus the successive cumulative of average annual precipitation for the same period of years collected at several gages in the same region A change in the proportionality between the measurements at the suspect station and those of the region is reflected in a change in the slope of the trend of the plotted points

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

The problem is in station E Find the average for stations A to D and then the cumulative Find the cumulative for station E
47 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

Slope=0.77

Slope=1.05

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Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall

Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

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Checking Consistency of Point Measurements

Apparently, there is a slope difference The slope before the change is 0.77 while after the change it is 1.05 To reflect the conditions that exist before the break then multiply by 0.77/1.05 all the records after change To reflect the conditions that exist after the break then multiply by 1.05/0.77 all the records before the change
49 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

Rainfall Classification
Very light < 0.25 mm/hr Light 0.25 mm/hr - 1.0 mm/hr Moderate 1.0 mm/hr - 4.0 mm/hr Heavy 4.0 mm/hr - 16.0 mm/hr Very heavy 16.0 mm/hr 50 mm/hr Extreme > 50.0 mm/hr
50 Hydrology Fall 2007 [5] Rainfall Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University

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