Canonical Group Quantization, Foundations and Applications

Canonical Group Quantization:
Foundations and Applications

Juan Camilo Orduz B.
Physics Department
Universidad de los Andes
A thesis submitted for the degree of
Bachelor in Physics
November - 2010
Advisor: Andres Reyes Ph.D.
1. Reviewer: Alonso Botero, Ph.D.
2. Reviewer: Alexander Cardona, Ph.D.
Day of the defense: December 3 - 2010
Signature from Advisor:
ii
Abstract
We study one quantization scheme known as canonical group quantization
method developed by C.J. Isham. The idea behind this method is to consider
the action of a Lie group on the phase space to relate classical observables
with elements in the Lie algebra via a moment map. We use Mackeys
theory of representations of semidirect product to nd the representation
space, which will be the space of square integrable sections on some vector
bundle. The idea of this document is to explore this method trough explicit
examples where we are interested in the explicit form of the commutation
relations and their representations.
iv
Para estar...
Acknowledgements
Quiero agradecer principalmente a mi familia por su apoyo incondicional en
este proceso: A mi Mama y a mi Papa como ejemplo de trabajo, respons-
abilidad y dedicacion, denitivamente no hubiera podido hacer este trabajo
sin ellos. Quiero expresar un agradecimiento especial a mi hermano por
simples momentos, que para mi fueron (y son) muy valiosos. En general, a
toda mi gran familia solo quiero decirles: gracias.
Es com un hablar de lo difcil que fue este proceso, pero esta vez quiero
enfatizar en las cosas que fueron faciles: Fue muy facil encontrar amigos
especiales, de los cuales aprend muchas mas cosas de las que aprend en un
salon de clase; en particular que no hay nada que la risa no pueda curar.
Gracias por tan buenos momentos.
Fue muy facil encontrar profesores con los cuales pude aprender mucho mas
que solo fsica: Quiero dar un agradecimiento especial a mi asesor Andres
Reyes quien creyo en mi trabajo desde el principio y me apoyo durante toda
la carrera; este trabajo es fruto de su ejemplo y dedicacion. Quiero agrade-
cer tambien a Juan Carlos Sanabria, Alonso Botero y Francois Leyvraz
quienes tambien dejaron una huella importante en m.
Fue muy facil encontrar apoyo en toda la gente que estuvo alrededor mo.
Finalmente quiero agradecer al Grupo de Fsica Teorica de Altas Energas
(THEP) de la Universidad Johannes Gutenberg, en especial a Florian Scheck
y a Nikolaos Papadopoulos por su invitacion y calida acogida durante el mes
de Julio al Instituto en Mainz, Alemania.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Lie Group Actions on Symplectic Manifolds 5
2.1 Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 The Adjoint Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Symplectic Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Towards Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Cohomology of Lie Algebras 15
3.1 Preliminaries and Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Interpretation of H
1
(g, V ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2
(g, V ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Removing the Obstruction Cocycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4 Canonical Group Quantization: One-Dimensional Examples 33
4.1 Canonical Group Quantization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Q = 1 and the Heisenberg Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3 Semidirect Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 Q = 1
+
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Q = S
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6 Uncertainty Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 The General Case: Through Examples 63
5.1 Q = T
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Brief Discussion: The General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Q = G/H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
iii
CONTENTS
5.4 Induced Representations of Semidirect Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.5 Q = S
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6 The Riemann Hypothesis: Spectral Aproach 81
6.1 The Riemann Zeta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Landau Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3 Conclusions and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
A Principal Bundles 89
References 93
iv
1
Introduction
It is well known that classical mechanics can be modeled in the cotangent space T
Q
of the conguration space Q, taking advantage of the natural symplectic structure
= q
on T
Q. In this mathematical framework the classical observables are

functions on the cotangent bundle and Hamiltons equation take the compact form
i
X
= dH, where H C
(T
Q, 1) is the Hamiltonian of the system. Moreover, the

symplectic form of the cotangent bundle endows C
(T
Q, 1) with a Poisson algebra

structure, in the particular case where Q = 1
n
, the Poisson bracket is given by
q
, q
= 0 = p
, p
and q
, p
On the other hand, in quantum mechanics we work in a Hilbert space H and the
obserbables become self-adjoint operators on H which generally form a Lie algebra. In
the usual cases we have the following commutation relations
[ q
, q
] = 0 = [ p
, p
] and [ q
, p
] =
1
However, when the conguration space in not Euclidean, these commutation relations
are no longer valid. Therefore some questions arise:
If we start from a classical system modeled on a symplectic manifold, what is its
correspondent quantum model? Does it exist? Is it unique?
For example notice that, as Hilbert spaces, L
2
(1
2
, d
2
x)

= L
2
(S
1
, d), so where
does the topology of the conguration space appears in the corresponding quan-
tum model?
1
1. INTRODUCTION
How do the commutation relations depend on the topology of the conguration
space?
These are some questions that motivate the present work. The objective of this
document is to study a quantization programme called Canonical Group Quantization
Method, developed by C.J. Isham [Ish84]. This programme tries to answer this questions
trough the geometric and algebraic background of the physical system. There are two
basic steps in this quantization method:
1. Find a well-behaved action of a Lie group (the canonical group) on a symplectic
manifold to relate certain set of observables to elements in the Lie algebra.
2. Find unitary, weakly continuous and unitary representations of the canonical
group in some Hilbert space.
The idea of this document is to understand this method trough examples, so we are
strongly going to use geometric and algebraic tools to do explicit computations. Addi-
tionally we would like to give some perspectives on possible applications of this method
to study spectrums of certain operators in non-trivial conguration spaces.
This document is organized as follows. In the second chapter we will give a short
description of the geometric preliminaries: action of Lie groups on symplectic mani-
folds. The idea of this chapter is not to give an extensive treatment of this topics,
but rather establish notation and conventions that will be used in the rest of the work,
therefore we will assume basic knowledge on dierentiable manifolds, Lie groups, dier-
ential forms and de Rham cohomology. In the third chapter we will study the algebraic
framework of a obstruction dened by the action that arise when we want to lift certain
map (moment map). We will dene the Lie algebra cohomology and give interpreta-
tion to the particular groups H
1
(g, V ) and H
2
(g, V ). The fourth chapter is devoted
to describe the canonical group quantization method and to treat three explicit ex-
amples that will help to understand the spirit of this method. In the fth chapter
we will describe how to proceed for an arbitrary conguration space, however we will
be particularly interested in the case where this space can be seen as a homogeneous
space. In this part of the document we also describe (very briey) the formalism used
to study the representations of the canonical group. It should be mentioned that the
2
language of vector and principal ber bundles will be used in this chapter, that is why
we have included a short appendix treating these topics. Again, the purpose of this
appendix is to establish notation, conventions and important results; not to give an
extensive treatment of this powerful theory. The purpose of the nal chapter is to give
some results on a spectral approach to the Riemann hypothesis: these works study a
particular Hamiltonian which, as we will see, will appear in one of the worked examples
in this work.
I hope that this document gives a comprehensive introduction to these topics and
motivate other students to learn about these mathematical tools to attack dierent
physical phenomena.
3
1. INTRODUCTION
4
2
Lie Group Actions on Symplectic
Manifolds
The main goal of this chapter is to discuss the action of a Lie group over a smooth
manifold, particularly in the case when M carries a symplectic structure. This will be
a basic mathematical tool in the quantization scheme that we will study. The theory
of symplectic manifolds will not be discussed very deeply since we will assume basic
knowledge on this subject (for instance refer to [Ber87]), however we will recall some
denitions, notation and results that will be used in the rest of this work. The main
references for this chapter are [AM87] and [War83].
2.1 Group Actions
Denition 2.1.1. Let M be a smooth manifold. A left action of a Lie group G on
M is a smooth map : GM M such that:
1. (e, x) =
e
x = x x M. (where e is the identity of G)
2.
gh
x =
g
h
x g, h G x M.
Denition 2.1.2. Let be a left action of G on M. Let x M, we dene the orbit of
x by O
x
=
g
x [ g G. The action is said to be transitive if there is just one orbit.
Denition 2.1.3. A left action of G on M is said to be eective if
g
x = x x M
implies that g = e. Although we can consider a weaker condition: a left action is said
to be almost eective if
g
x = x x M implies that g D, where D is a discrete
5
2. LIE GROUP ACTIONS ON SYMPLECTIC MANIFOLDS
subgroup of G. Finally, a left action is said to be free if for each x M the map
g
g
x is one-to-one.
Remark 2.1.1. If we have an eective left action by G on M we can consider a covering
group

G of G acting on M. This action will be almost eective since its kernel is just
the kernel of the covering homomorphism

G G.
2.2 The Adjoint Representation
Theorem 2.2.1. Let : GM M be a left action of G on M. Assume that x
0
M
is xed by the action, that is,
g
x
0
= x
0
for each g G. Then the map
: G Aut(T
x
0
M)
dened by
(g) = d
g
[
T
x
0
M
is a representation of G
Proof. It follows essentially from the chain rule.
In particular, we can consider the case of a Lie group G acting on itself by the inner
automorphism a(g, h) = a
g
h = ghg
1
= r
g
1l
g
h. Since the identity is a xed point of
this action, last theorem asserts that the map
g da
g
[
TG
e
=g
is a representation of G into Aut(g) known as the adjoint representation denoted
by
Ad : G Aut(g).
If we denote by exp : g G the usual exponential map, for each g G we have
the following commutative diagram.
G
=
a
g
G
G
g
exp
y
Ad
g
G
g
exp
y
(2.2.1)
6
We can also consider its dierential ad = D(Ad), which makes the following diagram
commute:
G
=
Ad
G
Aut(g)
g
exp
y
ad
G
End(g)
exp
y
(2.2.2)
Now we will show an explicit expression for ad(X) = ad
X
, which will be an impor-
tant tool to compute the commutators.
Proposition 2.2.1. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g, and let X, Y g. Then
ad
X
Y = [X, Y ].
Proof. We compute
ad
X
Y =
_
d
dt
t=0
Ad
exp tX
_
Y
=
d
dt
t=0
Ad
exp tX
(Y )
=
d
dt
t=0
D(a
exp tX
)(Y ).
It suces to prove it at the identity so, if
X
t
denotes the 1-parameter group of
dieomorphisms associated with X, then
ad
X
Y (e) =
d
dt
t=0
D(r
exp(t)
)D(l
exp tX
)Y (e)
=
d
dt
t=0
D(r
exp(t)
)Y (exp tX)
=
d
dt
t=0
D(
X
t
)Y (
X
t
(e))
= L
X
Y (e)
= [X, Y ](e),
where L
X
denotes the Lie derivative in the direction of the vector eld X.
7
Remark 2.2.1 ([Sch10]). Let T
j
n
j=1
be a basis for g, then there exist constants C
k
ij
,
called structure constants, such that
[T
i
, T
j
] = iC
k
ij
T
k
, (2.2.3)
where there is a sum over repeated indices. The following relation can be easily shown,
as a result of the Jacobi identity on the Lie bracket,
C
m
ij
C
l
mk
+C
m
jk
C
l
mi
+C
m
ki
C
l
mj
= 0.
We can dene a representation U of g on C
n
by
U
lm
(T
k
) = iC
m
kl
. (2.2.4)
The only non-trivial thing to verify is that this representations preserves de Lie bracket,
U
lm
([T
i
, T
j
]) = iC
k
ij
U
lm
(T
k
)
= C
k
ij
C
m
kl
= C
k
jl
C
m
ki
C
k
li
C
m
kj
= (i)C
k
il
(i)C
m
jk
(i)C
k
jl
(i)C
m
ik
= U
lk
(T
i
)U
km
(T
j
) U
lk
(T
j
)U
km
(T
i
)
= [U(T
i
), U(T
j
)]
lm
.
This representation is actually the derivative of the adjoint representation, that is
U = ad. However it may not be clear how U(A) End(g) for each A g. To see this
just express A as a linear combination in the basis T
j
n
j=1
, then put the associated
coecients as a row vector and then operate by matrix multiplication on the right. For
example, let us evaluate U(T
i
)T
j
: In this basis T
j
is represented by the column vector
e
T
j
, seen as an element of the canonical basis of 1
n
. Therefore, in the chosen basis we
have
(U(T
i
)T
j
)
k
=
mj
U
mk
(T
i
) = U
jk
(T
i
) = iC
k
ij
= ([T
i
, T
j
])
k
.
This result should be compared with Proposition (2.2.1).
Example 2.2.1. Now we are going to consider the explicit example g = su(2). We
choose the basis T
i
=
i
/2, where the s are the Pauli matrices
1
=
_
0 1
1 0
_

2
=
_
0 i
i 0
_

3
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
8
In this case we have that [T
i
, T
j
] = i
ijk
T
k
, therefore the representation discussed
above can be written as
U(T
1
) =
_
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 i
0 i 0
_
_
_
U(T
2
) =
_
_
_
0 0 i
0 0 0
i 0 0
_
_
_
U(T
3
) =
_
_
_
0 i 0
i 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
_
Denition 2.2.1. Let : G M M be a left action of G on M. Let A g, then
t (exp tA,x) denes a curve on M. The corresponding vector eld dened by
(A)(x) =
A
(x) =
d
dt
t=0
(exp tA, x) (2.2.5)
is called the innitesimal generator of the action corresponding to A.
Proposition 2.2.2. For every g G and A, B g we have
1. (Ad
g
A) = d
g
1(A).
2.
[A,B]
= [
A
,
B
].
Proof. 1. We compute
(Ad
g
A)(x) =
d
dt
t=0
(exp tAd
g
A, x)
=
d
dt
t=0
(g(exp tA)g
1
, x)
=
d
dt
t=0
g
(exp tA,
g
1x)
= d
g,
g
1
(x)
d
dt
t=0
(exp tA,
g
1x)
= d
g,
g
1
(x)
(A)(
g
1x)
= (d
g
1(A))(x)
2. In particular, take g = exp tB in 1.,
(Ad
exp tB
A) = d
exp(tB)
(A). (2.2.6)
If we take the derivative with respect to t at t = 0, the left-hand side last equation
is
[B,A]
. Notice that
exp(tB)
is the ow of
(B)
so
9
d
dt
t=0
d
exp(tB)
(A)(x) =
d
dt
t=0
d
exp tB,
exp(tB)
x
(A)(
exp(tB)
x)
= [
B
,
A
](x).
We can state this last result in other terms
Proposition 2.2.3. The map : g (TM) dened by
A
=
A
is a Lie algebra
homomorphism.
A natural question is under which circumstances this map one-to-one. This will
fail when there are elements A g such that on a neighborhood around t = 0 we have
(exp tA, x) = x x M. A strong condition to ensure that is one-to-one is that the
action is eective. However we will only require this to happen locally around t = 0,
so actually it is sucient to consider an almost-eective action.
2.3 Symplectic Manifolds
Denition 2.3.1. Let M be a smooth manifold and a 2-form over M such that
it is closed and non-degenerate. Then, the pair, (M, ) will be called a symplectic
manifold.
Denition 2.3.2. Let (M, ) and (

M, ) be two symplectic manifolds. A smooth map
f : M

M is called symplectic if f
= . In particular a left action : GM M

of a Lie group G on M is said to be symplectic if the map
g
: M M is symplectic
for each g G.
Example 2.3.1 (Phase Space). Let Q be a smooth manifold (the conguration space),
we shall see that the cotangent bundle T
Q (the phase space) has a natural symplectic

structure: Let T
Q and v T
(T
Q), then we dene the Liouville 1-form

on T
Q by
, v) = , (
v)). Where
denotes the pushforward of the projection

: T
Q Q.
Then we can take the exterior derivative two obtain the symplectic form = d. In
local coordinates q
1
, ..., q
n
, p
1
, ..., p
n
it can be written as = dq
i
dp
i
.
Now, if Di(Q) clearly the pullback
Di(T
Q), but there is an additional

10
2.3 Symplectic Manifolds
nice property:
preserves the Liouville 1-form. To prove it let us denote =
and
compute for a vector eld v on T
Q:
(
, v
) =
()
,
) = (),
v) =
(),
1
) = ,
) =
, v
)
where we have used the fact that (
) =
1
(()).
Symplectic geometry arises naturally in classical mechanics since, if H is the Hamil-
tonian of a classical system (which is a function in the phase space),the equations of
motion of a free system are given by i
X
= dH, where is the symplectic form of the
cotangent bundle of the conguration space mentioned above.
Denition 2.3.3. Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold, and f C
(M, 1). Then

X
f
(TM) is said to be (globally) Hamiltonian with respect to f if
i
X
f
= df. (2.3.1)
The set of Hamiltonian vector elds over M is denoted by HamVF(M).
Remark 2.3.1. Notice that the Hamiltonian vector eld X
f
always exists since is
non-degenerate.
Example 2.3.2. Consider the symplectic manifold (T
R, dq dp) (T
1)
= 1
2
and let
f be a real smooth function over T
1. Notice that
(dq dp)(
p
f
q
q
f
p
) =
p
dp +
q
fdq = df,
hence X
f
= pf
q
q
f
p
is the corresponding Hamiltonian vector eld.
The following is a remarkable useful theorem
Theorem 2.3.1 ([Ber87]). Let X
f
be a Hamiltonian vector eld, and
X
f
t
be its ow.
Then
X
f
t
is symplectic. In particular L
X
f
= 0.
Moreover, if X is a vector eld over M such that
X
t
is symplectic then L
X
= 0,
which implies that i
X
is closed since di
X
= (L
X
i
X
d) = 0. In this case, does the
vector eld X is Hamiltonian? In general the answer is no. However, in the particular
case where H
1
dR
(M), the rst cohomology group of M, vanishes then X is always
Hamiltonian. Nevertheless, X is always locally Hamiltonian (as a result of Poincare
Lemma) and will show a nice property of these vector elds:
Proposition 2.3.1. Let X and Y two be locally Hamiltonian vector elds, then [X, Y ]
is globally Hamiltonian.
11
Proof. Recall form Cartans formulas
i
[X,Y ]
= L
X
i
Y
i
Y
L
X
= (di
X
+i
X
d)i
Y
i
Y
(di
X
+i
X
d)
= d(i
X
i
Y
).
Now we will recall a familiar concept from classical mechanics.
Denition 2.3.4. The map , : C
(M, 1) C
(M, 1) C
(M, 1) dened by
f, g = (X
f
, X
g
) is called the Poisson Bracket.
Among other reasons, the importance of the Poisson bracket is given by the following
two propositions.
Proposition 2.3.2 ([Ber87]). The pair (C
(M), , ) has a Lie algebra structure.

Proposition 2.3.3. The pair (HamVF(M), [, ]) has a Lie algebra structure. Moreover,
let j : C
(M) HamVF(M) be the map dened by j(f) = X

f
, then j is a Lie
algebra homomorphism.
Proof. Notice that L
X
f
g = g, f, so if we compute df, g = L
X
g
(i
X
f
) = i
[X
g
,X
f
]
.
Now, suppose that X
f
= X
g
, then f and g must dier by a constant. Hence we can
construct the following short exact sequence of Lie algebras:
0
G
1

G
C
(M, 1)
j
G
Ham VF(M)
G
0. (2.3.2)
2.4 Towards Quantization
We would like to restrict ourselves to an action of a Lie group G on a symplectic
manifold (M, ) such that
A
is a globally Hamiltonian vector eld for each A g.
The reason is that we would like to relate classical observables with the elements of g
via the homomorphism j. Two common cases would be when H
1
dR
(M) = 0 or when
g = [g, g] as seen by Proposition 2.3.1.
In this context it is natural to ask when does the dotted lift P : g C
(M1) in the
diagram (2.4.1) exist such that it is a linear Lie algebra homomorphism and makes the
12
2.4 Towards Quantization
diagram commute (this map is known as a momentum map for the action), that is
A
= j(P
A
) = X
P
A:
0
G
1
i
G
C
(M, 1)
j
G
Ham VF(M)
G
0.
g
y
P
hP
P
P
P
P
P
P
(2.4.1)
It is not dicult to nd a linear map that does this job. However the Lie homo-
morphism requirement would need a little work. For instance, if we compute
j(P
[A,B]
) =
[A,B]
= [
A
,
B
] = [j(P
A
), j(P
B
)] = j(P
A
, P
B
), (2.4.2)
we notice that the problem may be solved up to a constant. Dene z(A, B) 1 by
z(A, B) = P
A
, P
B
P
[A,B]
. (2.4.3)
Can we make this constant vanish for all A, B g? This question and the meaning
of this constant will be treated more carefully in the next chapter where we will develop
some algebraic language to understand the problem.
Suppose that two linear maps P, P
: g C
(M, 1) are given such that the diagram

(2.4.1) commutes. Then there exists h g
such that
P
= P +h. (2.4.4)
Is it possible to choose h such that P
A
, P
B
= P
[A,B]
? Let us compute
P
A
, P
B
P
[A,B]
= P
A
+h(A), P
B
+h(B) P
[A,B]
h([A, B])
= P
A
, P
B
P
[A,B]
h([A, B])
= z(A, B) h([A, B]).
We see that the problem will be solved if we could nd h g
such that z(A, B) =

h([A, B]) for all A, B g. The existence of such h will depend on purely algebraic
properties of g that should become clear at the end of the following chapter.
From the time being, we will end this section with some properties of this bilinear
map z : g g 1:
13
Proposition 2.4.1. Let A, B, C g, then
1. z(A, B) = z(A, B).
2. z(A, [B, C]) +z(B, [C, A]) +z(C, [A, B]) = 0 (Jacobi Identity).
Proof. The proof of 1. is trivial. For 2. we compute
z(A, [B, C]) +z(B, [C, A]) +z(C, [A, B])
= P
A
, P
[B,C]
P
[A,[B,C]]
+P
B
, P
[C,A]
P
[B,[C,A]]
+P
C
, P
[A,B]
P
[C,[A,B]]
= P
A
, P
[B,C]
+P
B
, P
[C,A]
+P
C
, P
[A,B]
P
[A,[B,C]]+[B,[C,A]]+[C,[A,B]]
= P
A
, P
[B,C]
+P
B
, P
[C,A]
+P
C
, P
[A,B]
= P
A
, (P
B
, P
C
z(B, C)) +P
B
, (P
C
, P
A
z(C, A)) +P
C
, (P
A
, P
B
z(A, B))
= P
A
, P
B
, P
C
+P
B
, P
C
, P
A
+P
C
, P
A
, P
B
= 0.
14
3
Cohomology of Lie Algebras
This chapter is devoted to study the algebraic interpretation of the obstruction z for
the moment map discussed before. We will dene cohomology groups for Lie algebras
and study the interpretation of the rst two groups (namely H
1
(g, V ) and H
2
(g, V )),
in particular we will understand how H
2
(g, V ) will help us classify central extensions.
The main references for this part of the work are the lecture notes of B. Dietrich [Die05]
and the classic article of Chevalley and Eilenberg [CE48].
3.1 Preliminaries and Denitions
Denition 3.1.1. Let g be a Lie algebra and V a nite dimensional vector space over
a eld K (which for simplicity will be taken of characteristic zero). We say that V is a
g-module if there exists a map
g V
G
V
(g, v)

G
g m
(3.1.1)
such that for r, s K, and x, y g and v, w V we have
1. (rx +sy) v = rx v +sy v.
2. x (rv +sw) = rx v +sy w.
3. [x, y] v = x (y v) y (x v).
15
3. COHOMOLOGY OF LIE ALGEBRAS
Now we will recall some properties of the tensor product: We will use the following
notation
V
r,s
= V V V
. .
r
V
V
s
. .
s
.
M
r,s
(V ) = T : V V V
. .
r
V
V
s
. .
s
K[ T multilinear.
M
r,s
(V, W) = T : V V V
. .
r
V
V
s
. .
s
W [ T multilinear,
where W is any vector space.
From the universal property that denes the tensor product if T M
r,s
(V ), then
there is a unique linear lift

T that makes the following diagram commute for any other
vector space W:
V V V V
T
G
W
V
r,s
T
R
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
(3.1.2)
Then we can construct an isomorphism M
r,s
(V, W)
= Hom(V
r,s
, W).
If we consider the particular case where r = n and s = 0
V
n
T
G
W
n
V
T
S
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
(3.1.3)
and consider Alt(V
n
, W) = T M
n,0
(V, W) [ T alternating, then we will have
an induced isomorphism Alt(V
n
, W)
= Hom(
n
V, W).
Denition 3.1.2. Let g be a Lie algebra and V a g-module, then for each p Z we
dene the space of p-chains by
C
p
(g, V ) =
_
_
Hom
K
(
p
g, V ) p > 0,
V p = 0,
0 p < 0.
16
3.1 Preliminaries and Denitions
Clearly C
p
(g, V ) has a vector space structure but moreover it actually has a g-module
structure.
Notice that C
p
(g, V ) = Hom
K
(
p
g, V )
= Alt(g
p
, V ).
Denition 3.1.3. For each p Z we dene the coboundary operator d
p
: C
p
(g, V )
C
p+1
(g, V ) by
(d
p
)(x
0
x
p
) =
p
i=0
(1)
i
x
i
((x
0
x
i
x
p
))
+
0i<jp
(1)
i+j
([x
i
, x
j
] x
0
x
i
x
p
).
Notice that d
p
is a linear transformation and in particular we have (d
0
v)x = x v.
Denition 3.1.4. For each x g we dene the contraction operator i
x
: C
p
(g, V )
C
p+1
(g, V ) by
(i
x
)(x
1
x
p1
) = (x x
1
x
p1
).
Denition 3.1.5. For each x g we dene a linear transformation (x) : C
p
(g, V )
C
p
(g, V ), which will be the analogue of the Lie derivative on dierential forms, by
((x))(x
1
x
p
) = x (x
1
x
p
)
p
j=1
(x
1
[x, x
j
] x
p
).
Notice that the formulas that we have obtained are exactly the same as the formulas
for dierential forms, for this reason is not surprising that we have the following results.
The proofs in the case of dierential forms can be found in [Mor01].
Proposition 3.1.1. For all x, y g and if we denote d
p
just by d, we have the following
relations:
1. d
2
= 0.
2. ([x, y]) = [(x), (y)] for all x, y g.
3. (x) = d i
x
+i
x
d.
4. [(x), d] = 0.
5. i
[x,y]
= [i
x
, (y)].
As in the case of dierential forms we can denote Z
p
(g, V ) = Ker(d
p
) the set of
p-cocycles and B
p
(g, V ) = Im(d
p1
) the set of p-coboundaries. Since d
2
= 0 we
can consider the quotient space H
p
(g, V ) = Z
p
(g, V )/B
p
(g, V ) which will be called the
cohomology group at level p of g with coecients in V .
17
1
(g, V )
Denition 3.2.1. Let V
1
, V and W be nite dimensional vector spaces. Consider the
following short exact sequence
0
G
W

G
V
1
G
V
G
0 (3.2.1)
(that is, is one-to-one, is onto and Im() = Ker()). We say that the sequence
splits if there exists a linear transformation : V V
1
such that = id
V
.
Proposition 3.2.1. The short exact sequence (3.2.1) splits if and only if then V
1

=
W V .
Proof. Clearly if V
1

= WV the sequence splits. For the other direction dene a linear
transformation : W V V
1
by (w, v) = (w) +(v). We want to show that this
map is an isomorphism. Suppose that (w, v) = 0, then 0 = (0) = ((w) + (v)) =
0 +v, hence v = 0 and since is one-to-one it follows that w = 0.
To show that this map is onto let v
1
V
1
, then v
1
= (v) for some v V . Since
v
1
(v) Ker() there exists w W such that (w) = v
1
(v), hence v
1
=
(w, v).
Proposition 3.2.2. Every short exact sequence of vector spaces splits.
Proof. If we consider the short exact sequence (3.2.1) we want to show that V
1

= WV .
Let w
1
, , w
m
a basis for W, since is one-to-one it follows that (w
1
), , (w
m
)
is a basis for Im() V
1
. We can complete this set (w
1
), , (w
m
), x
1
, ..., x
k
to
make it a basis for V
1
, so if x V
1
it can be written uniquely as x =

m
i=1
a
i
(w
i
) +
k
j=1
b
j
x
j
. Now we will dene a linear transformation : V
1
V W by (x) =
(
m
i=1
a
i
(w
i
),
k
j=1
b
i
(x
i
)). We want to show that this map is an isomorphism.
Suppose that (x) = 0, then since w
i
m
i=1
is a basis for W it follows that a
i
= 0
for i = 1, , m. On the other hand there exists w =

m
i=1
i
w
i
W such that
k
j=1
b
j
x
j
= (w) since (
k
j=1
b
j
) = 0. This implies that all b
j
and
i
should be zero
by linear independence. We have shown that is one-to-one.
To show that is onto notice that if n = dimV then k n since if c
1
(x
1
) + +
c
k
(x
k
) = 0 implies that c
1
x
1
+ +c
k
x
k
= (w) for some w W. But since is onto
we have k = n.
Denition 3.2.2. Let V and W be g-modules. A g-module V
1
is said to be an ex-
tension of V by W if there exists a short exact sequence like (3.2.1) where the maps
and are g-module homomorphisms.
18
1
(g, V )
Notice that, a priori, not every short exact sequence of g-modules splits since
should be itself a homomorphism.
Denition 3.2.3. If V
1
and V
2
are extensions of V by W we say that these extensions
are equivalent if there exists a g-module homomorphism : V
1
V
2
such that the
following diagram commutes:
0
G
W
id
G
V
1
G
V
id
G
0
0
G
W

G
V
2
G
V
G
0
(3.2.2)
(this denes an equivalence relation).
Denition 3.2.4. Ext(V, W) = equivalence classes of extension of V by W
We will consider the special case V = K as a trivial g-module, that is, x = 0
for all x g, K. If W is a g-module we would like to show a bijective relation
H
1
(g, W) Ext(K, W).
Remark 3.2.1. Let C
1
(g, W) = Hom(g, W), then for all x, y g we have
d(x, y) = x ((y)) y ((x)) ([x, y])
Then Z
1
(g, W) = C
1
(g, W)[([x, y]) = x ((y)) y ((x)) x, y g
So if Z
1
(g, W) we can consider the associated cohomology class [] H
1
(g, W).
Suppose that
[] then (x)
(x) = x v for some v W.

Fix [] H
1
(g, W), we would like to associate it an extension of K by W. Let us
dene a g-module W
= (KW, ) by
g (KW)
G
KW
(x, (, w))

G
x (, w) = (0, x w +(x))
.
First of all we should make sure that this denition only depends on the cohomology
class: Choose
[], we need to construct a g-module homomorphism : KW

KW such that the following diagram commutes:
0
G
W
id
G
W
G
K
id
G
0
0
G
W

G
W
G
K
G
0,
(3.2.3)
19
where (w) = (0, w) and (, w) = .
Since id = we have (0, w) = (0, w). In the same way id = implies
that = (, w) = ( )(, ) so must have the form (, w) = (, f(, w)) where
f(0, w) = w. Now we will explore the homomorphism condition of :
(x (, w)) = (0, x w +(x))
= (0, x w +(x))
= x (, w) (homomorphism condition)
= x (, f(, w))
= (0, x f(, w) +
(x))
= (0, x f(, w) +(x) +x v). (by Remark 3.2.1)
So for instance if we choose f(, w) = w v we are sure that W
is well dened.
However we still need to show that indeed W
is a g-module. Conditions 1 and 2

are easy to prove, we will work out condition 3.
x (y (, w) y (x (, w) = x (0, y w +(y)) y (0, x w +(x))
= (0, x y w +x (y)) (0, y x w +y (x))
= (0, x y w y x w +(x (y) y ((x)))
= (0, [x, y]w ([x, y])) (by Remark 3.2.1)
= [x, y] (, ).
We have constructed a map : H
1
(g, W) Ext(K, W) which associates to each
cohomology class [] the equivalence class of the extension
0
G
W

G
W
G
K
G
0. (3.2.4)
Now we will construct a map in the other direction: Consider an extension
0
G
W

G
V
1
G
K
G
0 . (3.2.5)
Let v V such that (v
1
) = 1. Since K is a trivial g-module then for every x g we
have 0 = x 1 = x (v
1
), but we know that is an homomorphism so there exists
20
1
(g, V )
w W such that (w) = x v
1
. Notice that this element is unique since is one-to-one
and obviously depends on x and v so we will denote it by w = w(x, v
1
).
Dene
1
: g W by
1
(x) = w(x, v). First of all we will show that this map denes
a cohomology class in H
1
(g, W).
(
1
([x, y]) x
1
(y) +y
1
(x)) = (
1
([x, y])) (x
1
(y)) +(y
1
(x))
= [x, y] v x (y v) +y (x v)
= 0.
We will now make sure that the cohomology class that
1
denes does not depend
on v
1
, that is, if (v
2
) = 1 then [
1
] = [
2
]. Since (v
1
v
2
) = 0 there exists u W
such that v
1
v
2
= (u), so
(
1
(x)
2
(x)) = x (
1
2
)
= x (u)
= (x u).
Notice that since is one-to-one and it we take into account Remark 3.2.1 we are
done.
Finally will show that [
1
] does not depend on the representative of the equivalence
class of (3.2.5). Consider the following commutative diagram
0
G
W
id
G
V
1
G
K
id
G
0
0
G
W

G
V
2
G
K
G
0
, (3.2.6)
we can associate to each vertical level of the diagram two cohomology classes [
1
]
and [
2
] with v
1
V
1
and v
2
V
2
. Notice that we can choose v
2
= (v
1
) since
(v
2
) = (
)(v
1
) = (v
1
) = 1, hence
(
2
(x)
1
(x)) = x v
2
(
1
(x))
= x (v
1
) ( )(
1
(x))
= x (v
1
) (x v
1
)
= 0.
21
and again, since
is one-to-one we have shown that

2
(x) =
1
(x).
We have constructed a well dened map : Ext(K, W) H
1
(g, W) which asso-
ciates to the equivalence class of (3.2.5) the cohomology class [
1
].
Recall that our objective is to show the correspondence between H
1
(g, W)
Ext(K, W), we will do so by checking that = id and = id.
= id
Lets start with an extension like (3.2.5), then we can construct [
1
] as we described
before. We need to construct a homeomorphism : W
1
V
1
such that the following
diagram commutes
0
G
W
id
i
G
W
1
G
K
id
G
0
0
G
W

G
V
1
G
K
G
0,
(3.2.7)
where i(w) = (0, w) and
1
(, w) = .
Dene (, ) = v
1
+(w). We need to check that it is actually an homomorphism:
(x (, w)) = (0, x w +
1
(x))
= (x w +
1
(x))
= x (w) +x v
1
= x ((w) +v
1
)
= x (, w).
Finally we should verify that the diagram commutes:
( i)(w) = (0, w) = (w).
( )(, ) = (v
1
+(w)) = (v
1
) + 0 = = (id
1
)().
= id
Let [] H
1
(g, W). Then we can associate it an extension like (3.2.4) via . Using
22
2
(g, V )
the notation on the construction of we can choose v
1
= (1, 0) and therefore we have
(w) = x (1, 0) = (0, x w + 1(x)) = (0, x w +(x)). Finally, if we compute:
( (x) (x)) = x (1, 0) ((x))
= (0, x w +(x)) (0, (x))
= (0, x w)
= (x w).
So we conclude that [] = [
1
] again by Remark 3.2.1.
2
(g, V )
Now we would like to give an interpretation to H
2
(g, V ) in a similar way that we did
in the last section.
Denition 3.3.1. Let g be a Lie algebra. A linear map : g g is said to be a
derivation if
([x, y]) = [(x), y] + [x, (y)] x, y g (3.3.1)
We dene Der(g) = : g g [ is a derivation.
Proposition 3.3.1. Der(g) has a Lie algebra structure with respect to the commutator.
Proof. We already know that gl(g) has a Lie algebra structure, so it suces to show
that Der(g) is closed under the commutator:
[,
]([x, y]) =(
([x, y]))
(([x, y]))
=([
(x), y] + [x,
(y)])
([(x), y] + [x,
(y)])
=[(
(x)), y] + [
(x), (y)] + [(x),
(y)] + [x, (
(y))]
[
((x)), y] [(x),
(y)] [
(x), (y)] [x,
((y))]
=[[,
](x), y] + [x, [,
](y)].
Denition 3.3.2. We dene a the adjoint representation ad : g Der(g) by
ad(x)(y) = [x, y].
23
Denition 3.3.3. Consider the following short exact sequence of Lie algebras
0
G
h

G
g

G
q
G
0. (3.3.2)
We say that the sequence splits if there exists a Lie algebra homomorphism : q g
such that = id. The notion of equivalent sequences is similar to the case of
g-modules.
Denition 3.3.4. Ext(q, h) = equivalence classes of extensions of q by h that split
Remark 3.3.1. Since [(h), x] = 0 for all n n and x g then (h) is an ideal of g,
that is [(h), g] (h). However, since is one-to-one, we can identify (h) h and
rephrase the last result as: [h, g] h.
The objective of this section is to show the correspondence between Ext(q, V ) and
H
2
(q, V ). We will need to introduce the notion of semidirect sum of Lie algebras to
achieve our goal. This will be also helpful since it is very similar to the notion of
semidirect products of groups, that will be essential in the quantization scheme that
we will discuss in the next chapter.
Denition 3.3.5. Let q and h be two Lie algebras and : q Der(h) a Lie algebra
homomorphism. Dene a bracket bilinear [, ]
on q h by
[(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
)]
= ([x
1
, x
2
], [y
1
, y
2
] +(x
1
)(y
2
) (x
2
)(y
1
)). (3.3.3)
Proposition 3.3.2. The pair q
h = (q h, [, ]
), which is a semidirect sum, has

a Lie algebra structure.
Example 3.3.1. Let q = (TM) the set of vector elds over a smooth manifold M
with the usual Lie bracket, h = (T
M) the set of 1-forms with a trivial Lie bracket

and (X) = L
X
the Lie derivative in the direction of the vector eld X. Then we have
[(X, ), (Y, )]
= ([X, Y ], L
X
L
Y
).
However, if we add a new term:
[(X, ), (Y, )]
c
= ([X, Y ], L
X
L
Y

1
2
d(i
X
i
Y
))
it denes what is known as the Courant bracket which determines the integrability
condition of Dirac structures over manifolds. However, this new bracket is not a Lie
bracket. (The relevance and meaning of this example is explained in detail in the
authors Mathematics Bachelor Thesis [Ord10]).
24
2
(g, V )
Lemma 3.3.1. Every short exact sequence of Lie algebras that splits is equivalent to
an extension of a semidirect q
h of q by h.
Proof. Consider a short exact sequence like (3.3.2) that splits. Dene
: q Der(h)
by
(x)(h) =
1
([(x), (h)]) = [(x), h], where the last equality follows from the
identication of Remark 3.3.1.
Now we can dene a map : q
h g by (x, h) = (x) +(h). Notice that is

an homomorphism
([(x
1
, h
1
), (x
2
, h
2
)]
)
= ([x
1
, x
2
], [h
1
, h
2
] +
(x
1
)(h
2
)
(x
2
)(h
1
))
= ([x
1
, x
2
]) +([h
1
, h
2
] +
(x
1
)(h
2
)
(x
2
)(h
1
))
= ([x
1
, x
2
]) +([h
1
, h
2
] +
1
([(x
1
), (h
2
)])
1
([(x
2
), (h
2
)]))
= ([x
1
, x
2
]) +([h
1
, h
2
]) + [(x
1
), (h
2
)] [(x
2
), (h
2
)])
= [(x
1
), (x
2
)] + [(h
1
), (h
2
)] + [(x
1
), (h
2
)] + [(h
2
), (x
2
)])
= [(x
1
) +(h
1
), (x
2
) +(h
2
)]
= [(x
1
, h
1
), (x
2
, h
2
)].
Consider now the following diagram
0
G
h
id
i
G
q
1
G
q
0
o
id
G
0
0
G
h

G
g

G
q
o G
0,
with
0
(x) = (x, 0).
Remark 3.3.2. Let V a q-module. Then V can be viewed as an Abelian Lie algebra
if we set [a, b] = 0 a, b V .
Lemma 3.3.2. Let V a q-module and C
2
(q, V ). Dene a bracket on q V by
[(x, a), (y, b)]
= ([x, y], x b y a +(x, y)).

Then we have the following properties:
1. [, ]
is a Lie bracket if and only if Z

2
(q, V ).
2. In such a case we obtain a short exact sequence of Lie algebras
0
G
V
i
G
q
1
G
q
G
0, (3.3.4)
where q
= (q V, [, ]
).
25
3. The last sequence splits if and only if B
2
(q, V ).
Proof. Recall that
d(x, y, z) = x (y, z) y (x, z) +z (x, y) ([x, y], z) +([x, z], y) ([y, z], x).
So if we compute
[(x, a), [(y, b), (z, c)]] = [(x, a), ([y, z], y c z b +(y, z))]
= ([x, [y, z]], x (y c z b +(y, z)) [y, z] a +(x, [y, z])),
[(y, b), [(z, c), (x, a)]] = [(y, b), ([z, x], z a x c +(z, x))]
= ([y, [z, x]], y (z a x c +(z, x)) [z, x] b +(y, [z, x])),
[(z, c), [(x, a), (y, b)]] = [(z, c), ([x, y], x b y a +(x, y))]
= ([z, [x, y]], z (x b y a +(x, y)) [x, y] c +(z, [x, y])),
we have then
[(x, a), [(y, b), (z, c)]] + [(y, b), [(z, c), (x, a)]] + [(z, c), [(x, a), (y, b)]] = (0, d(x, y, z)).
Now suppose Z
2
(g, V ), we want to nd a Lie algebra homomorphism : q qV
such that = id. Suppose is of the form (x) = (f
1
(x), f
2
(x)), we require
([x, y]) = (f
1
([x, y]), f
2
([x, y]))
= [(x), (y)]
= [(f
1
(x), f
2
(x)), (f
1
(y), f
2
(y))]
= ([f
1
(x), f
1
(y)], f
1
(x) f
2
(y) f
1
(y) f
2
(x) +(f
1
(x), f
1
(y))).
But, since = id we must have f
1
= id. Finally we conclude that
f
2
([x, y]) = x f
2
(y) y f
2
(x) +([x, y]).
Hence = df by Remark 3.2.1.
Proposition 3.3.3. Suppose that the sequence (3.3.4) splits, then q
is equivalent to
a semidirect sum of q and V .
26
2
(g, V )
Proof. Let : q q
be such that
1
= id. Dene
: q Der(V ) and
: q
V q
by
(x)(v) = i
1
([(x), i(v)]
) = i
1
([(x, f
2
(x)), (0, v)]
) = i
1
(0, x v) = x v
and
(x, a) = (x) +i(a) = (x, f
2
(x)) + (0, a) = (x, f
2
(x) +a).
We will show that is a homomorphism
[(x, a), (y, b)]
= [(x, f
2
(x) +a), (y, f
2
(y) +b)]
= ([x, y], x (f
2
(y) +b) y (f
2
(x) +a) +(x, y))
= ([x, y], x (f
2
(y) +b) y (f
2
(x) +a) df
2
(x, y))
= ([x, y], x b y a +f
2
([x, y]))
= ([x, y]) +i(x b y a)
= ([x, y], x b y a)
= ([(x, a), (x, b)]
).
Remark 3.3.3. Consider the short exact sequence (3.3.2) of Lie algebras and suppose
h is Abelian. We can induce a q-module structure on h by q h =
1
([
1
(q), (h)]).
This denition makes sense by Remark 3.3.1, but we need to check that is well dened:
Let x
1
, x
2

1
(q), then x
1
x
2
= (
h) for some h h. So if we compute

(
1
([x
1
, (h)])
1
([x
2
, (h)])) = [
1
(x
1
), h] [
1
(x
2
), h] = [
h, h] = 0.
Theorem 3.3.1. There is a one-to-one correspondence between Ext(q, V ) and H
2
(q, V ).(Here
V is viewed as a q-module as seen in Remark 3.3.3)
Proof. Consider an extension of q by g like (3.3.2) (with h = V ). Choose a linear
transformation : q g such that = id and dene C
2
(q, V ) by
(x, y) = (x, y) =
1
([(x), (y)] ([x, y])).
Notice that [(x), (y)] ([x, y] Ker() = Im(), so the denition of makes sense.
Our next step is to show that Z
2
(q, V ). In Remark 3.3.3 we can choose
1
(x) as
27
(x), so if we compute
d(x, y, z) =x (y, z) y (x, z) +z (x, y) ([x, y], z) +([x, z], y) ([y, z], x)
=
1
([(x), ((y, z))])
1
([(y), ((x, z))]) +
1
([(z), ((x, y))])
([x, y], z) +([x, z], y) ([y, z], x)
=
1
([(x), [(y), (z)]])
1
([(x), ([y, z])])
1
([(y), [(x), (z)]])
+
1
([(y), ([x, z])]) +
1
([(z), [(x), (y)]])
1
([(z), ([x, y])])
1
([([x, y]), (z)]) +
1
(([[x, y], z])) +
1
([([x, z]), (y)])
1
(([[x, z], y]))
1
([([y, z]), (x)]) +
1
(([[y, z], x]))
=0.
Now suppose that we choose a dierent
: q g such that
= id and let
=
, then = 0, which implies that (q) (V ). Since

1
Hom(q, V )
we have
d(
1
)(x, y) = x (
1
)(y) y (
1
)(x) (
1
)([x, y]).
If we compute
(
)(x, y) =
1
([(x), (y)] ([x, y]))
1
([
(x),
(y)]
([x, y]))
=
1
([(x), (y)] [
(x), (y)] + [
(x), (y)]
([x, y]) [
(x),
(y)] +
([x, y]))
=
1
([(x), (y)] + [
(x), (y)] ([x, y]))

=
1
([(x), (y)] + [( )(x), (y)] ([x, y]))
=
1
([(x), (y)] + [(x), (y)] ([x, y]))
=x (
1
)(y) y (
1
)(x) (
1
)([x, y])
=d(
1
)(x, y)
We see that
and
belong to the same cohomology class. Recall that by Proposi-

tion 3.3.3 and lemmas 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 we have associated to each equivalence class of
sequences that split a cohomology class in H
2
(q, V ).
Now suppose that , Z
2
(g, V ) are given. By Lemma (3.3.2) we have a short
exact sequence of Lie algebras like (3.3.4) associated to and . We want to show that
if the extensions are equivalent, then [] = [ ]. Suppose that the following commutative
28
3.4 Removing the Obstruction Cocycle
diagram is given:
0
G
V
id
i
G
q
1
G
q
id
G
0
0
G
V

G
q

G
q
G
0.
There exists a linear map

: q V such that (x, a) = (x, a+

(x)). Now we explore
the homomorphism condition of : by one hand
[(x, a), (y, b)] = ([x, y], x b y a +(x, y))
= ([x, y], x b y a +(x, y) +

(x, y)).
and on the other
[(x, a), (y, b)] = [(x, a +

(x)), (y, b +

(y))]
= ([x, y], x (b +

(y)) y (a +

(x)) + (x, y)).
So we conclude that
( )(x, y) = x

(y) y

(x) +

([x, y]) = d
(x, y).
Therefore [] = [ ].
Remark 3.3.4. As a result of the last theorem we conclude that the elements of
H
2
(q, K) classify the central extensions of q by K, which are extension where V = K
is considered as a trivial q-module:
0
G
K
i
G
q
1
G
q
G
0.
The Lie bracket in this case is given by (see Lemma 3.3.2)
[(x, r), (y, s)] = ([x, y], (x, y)). (3.3.5)
Notice that the image of i lies in the center of q
.
Recall from last chapter that the obstruction for the lift map P : g C
(M, 1) to
be a Lie algebra homomorphism is measured by a bilinear map z : g g 1 which
29
is antisymmetric and satises the Jacobi identity.
If we consider 1 as a trivial g-module, then is easily seen that z C
2
(g, 1) and there-
fore it denes a cohomology class in H
2
(g, 1). We showed that this 2-cocycle can be
made to vanish if we could nd an element h g
such that z(A, B) = h([A, B]) for all

A, B g, however this equivalent as requiring that the cohomology class dened by z
is the zero class.
If the cohomology class dened by the action of the group G is not the zero class
(as it will be the case for Q = 1 as the conguration space) we can make a little trick,
as Isham says: we can enlarge the group in such a way that the Poisson algebra bracket
the new group does close. More precisely, we can consider a central extension of g by
1.
0
G
1

G
id
g 1

G
P
g
G
0
0
G
1
i
G
C
(M, 1)
j
G
Ham VF(M)
G
0,
(3.4.1)
where (r) = (0, r) and (A, r) = A.
Notice that the Lie bracket of g 1 is given by equation (3.3.5):
[(A, r), (B, s)] = ([A, B], z(A, B)). (3.4.2)
If we denote the original map dened in the last chapter by

P : g C
(M, 1) ,
then the new map P is dened by P
(A,r)
=

P
A
+ r. Clearly, this denition makes the
above diagram commutative, but we need to make sure that this time P is indeed a
Lie algebra homomorphism:
P
(A,r)
, P
(B,s)
=
P
A
+r,

P
B
+s
=
P
A
,

P
B
=

P
[A,B]
+z(A, B)
= P
([A,B],z(A,B))
= P
[(A,r),(B,s)]
.
30
Remark 3.4.1. In the where we require to do a central extension to nd the desired
moment map, the new canonical group will be the unique simply connected Lie group
whose Lie algebra is g 1 with the Lie bracket dened above.
31
32
4
Canonical Group Quantization:
One-Dimensional Examples
The goal of this chapter is to describe the Canonical Group Quantization Method and
illustrate it by means of three examples in which the conguration space is a one-
dimensional manifold. The notion of semidirect product is introduced in this chapter
too, since it is essential for the understanding of the general case.
4.1 Canonical Group Quantization Method
We are going to describe the quantization method presented by C.J Isham in a beautiful
text [Ish84] that we highly recommend to refer for further details and remarks. We are
going to describe the main points on this quantization scheme, although it is expected
to be understood through the worked examples that we will explore afterwards.
We will develop the method for a given symplectic manifold (M, ), but it is helpful
to think of M as a cotangent bundle of a conguration space. The scheme is divided,
as Isham points out, in two main parts:
1. The rst one has a purely geometric point of view: we are going to look for a
connected Lie group G, which we will call the canonical group that will act
(appropriately) on M such that its Lie algebra g is:
(a) a sub-algebra of the Poisson algebra on smooth real functions on M (under
an appropriate identication) and
33
4. CANONICAL GROUP QUANTIZATION: ONE-DIMENSIONAL
EXAMPLES
(b) big enough (this is to be dened properly) to generate a suciently class of
classical observables.
2. The second part is focused on representation theory: we will nd irreducible,
weakly continuous, unitary representations of G to use the self-adjoint generators
to provide representations of g on some Hilbert space.
We have been unprecise with some notions on the discussion above. We will now
explain the scheme, step by step, in a similar way Isham does it in his text. Again,
we highly recommend to go to the primary source [Ish84] to have a long and detailed
description of the quantization programme, since it is not out purpose to rewrite com-
plete text but rather make some comments and be more explicit in some computations.
Step 1: We are given a symplectic manifold (M, ) and we need to nd a con-
nected nite-dimensional Lie group G that acts via symplectic transformations on M.
Nevertheless, we will impose some restrictions on this action:
1. We want a transitive action: If this were not the case we could decompose M
into G-orbits and construct a quantum theory on each one and it will not be clear
how to treat them as a whole global theory.
The transitivity of the action will also be justied when we discuss the size of the
family of the chosen observables.
2. We want an eective action: We can require this without lost of generality since,
if the action is not eective, we can work with the quotient G/K, where
K = g G[
g
x = x x M (which is a normal subgroup).
3. For each A G we require that
A
Ham VF(M). (Recall the denitions
presented in Chapter 2).
4. We want that the map to be one-to-one, thus we can relax condition 2 and ask
for an almost-eective action.
Step 2 We want to construct a moment map P : g C
(M, 1) such that it is a

34
4.1 Canonical Group Quantization Method
Lie algebra homomorphism and makes the following diagram commute:
0
G
1
i
G
C
(M, 1)
j
G
Ham VF(M)
G
0.
g
y
P
hP
P
P
P
P
P
P
(4.1.1)
We have seen that this is possible if the cohomology class in H
2
(g, 1) dened by the
action is the zero class. If it is not the case we have to perform a central extension of
g, as we presented in Chapter 3.
Step 3 This is not actually a step on the programme but rather a discussion on the
notion of a big enough family of observables. We will discuss two possible approaches:
1. Strong Generating Principle (SG): Let A
1
, ..., A
k
be a basis for g. Given
any function f C
(M, 1) there exists a function F

f
C
(1
k
, 1), where
k = dim(g), such that f(s) = F
f
(P
A
1
(s), ..., P
A
k
(s)). This requirement is equiv-
alent to the existence of a smooth embedding F : M 1
k
, dened by
F(s) = (P
A
1
(s), ..., P
A
k
(s)), such that f factors trough F via F
f
.
Recall that by the Whitney embedding theorem if dim(M) = 2n, then such em-
bedding always exists if k 4n, however the family of chosen observables may
not close, in general, under the Poisson bracket.
As Isham points out, we have no a priori physical knowledge of what the gener-
ating principle should be, he proposes a local point of view.
2. Local Generating Principle (LG): Around any point s
0
M there exists an
open neighborhood U
s
0
such that, given any f C
(M, 1) whose support is con-

tained in U
s
0
, there exists a function F
f
C
(1
k
1) such that, for all s U
s
0
we have f(s) = F
f
(P
A
1
(s), ..., P
A
k
(s)). This is equivalent to that the map F is a
local embedding, that is, a local dieomorphism onto its image.
We will now justify why a transitive action implies (LG). When G acts transitively
on M, the vector elds
A
will span T
s
M. Suppose that this were not the case,
35
EXAMPLES
then we would not be able to construct a 1-parameter subgroup of G to move
the points in the missed direction that is not spanned by the
A
s, which will
contradict the transitivity of the action.
Notice that, since i
A = dP
A
, and is non-degenerate, the 1-forms dP
A
[A g
will span the cotangent space T
s
M. This means that the map F : M 1
k
has
maximal rank k, so it follows that it is an immersion. Finally, by the implicit
function theorem we know that every immersion in a local embedding.
Step 4 This is where representation theory becomes essential: we want to nd
irreducible, weakly continuous, unitary representations U : G H, where H is a
Hilbert space. Recall tat a weakly continuous representation means that the maps
g , U(g)) and g U(g), ) are continuous for all , H and g G. This
conditions guarantee the existence of self-adjoint operators U(exp(A)) = exp(i

K
A
)
for all A g. Notice that
[i

K
A
, i

K
B
] =
d
dt
t=0
Ad
exp(it

K
A
)
(i

K
B
)
=
d
dt
t=0
Ad
U(exp(tA))
(i

K
B
)
=
d
dt
t=0
Ad
U(exp(tA))
d
d
=0
U(exp(B))
= i

K
[A,B]
.
So [

K
A
,

K
B
] = iK
[A,B]
, therefore we can dene a quantizing map:
P
A

1
i
K
A
, (4.1.2)
which is consistent between the Poisson bracket and the operator commutator:
P
A
, P
B
=

P
[A,B]
=
1
i
K
[A,B]
= [

K
A
,

K
B
]
=
_
1
i
K
A
,
1
i
K
B
_
= [
P
A
,

P
B
].
36
4.2 Q = 1 and the Heisenberg Group
Our rst example for the quantization method that we discussed is the topologically
trivial conguration space Q = 1. The cotangent bundle is trivial, that is T
1 = 11.
We can use global coordinates (which, in general, is not always possible):
q(s) = pr
1
(s) p(s) = pr
2
(s) s T
1, (4.2.1)
where pr
1
is the projection onto the rst component and pr
2
is the projection onto the
second component. As we saw, the symplectic form on T
1 is given by = dq dp.
A natural choice for the canonical group is 1 1 acting on T
1 by
(u,v)
(p, q) = (q +u, p v). (4.2.2)
Notice that this action is clearly transitive and eective. To show it is symplectic
we compute
(u,v)
=
(u,v)
(dq dp)
= d(
(u,v)
q) d(
(u,v)
p)
= d(q
(u,v)
) d(p
(u,v)
)
= d(q +v) d(p v)
= dq dp
= .
Now let us denote the Lie algebra of 1 1 by L(1 1) = 1 1. So the one
parameter subgroup generated by (a, b) L(11) is just t (ta, tb). Hence the its
associated innitesimal generator is obtained by
(a,b)
(p, q) =
d
dt
t=0
(ta,tb)
(p, q)
=
d
dt
t=0
(q +ta, p tb)
= a

q
+b

p
.
37
EXAMPLES
We need to verify that this vector eld is Hamiltonian, but this is not a problem
since H
1
dR
(T
1) = 0. But actually observe that if we dene f : T
1 1 by f(s) =
ap(s) +bq(s) then
i
(a,b) = i
(a,b) (dq dp)

= (dq dp)
_
a

q
+b

p
_
= adp bdq
= df.
So we have shown that the map : L(1 1) Ham VF(T
1) is well dened.
Now we need to compute the cohomology class dened by the action. A natural
map P : L(1 1) C
(T
1, 1) to choose is P
(a,b)
(s) = ap(s) + bq(s). First of all
we compute the Poisson bracket
P
(a
1
,b
1
)
, P
(a
2
,b
2
)
= a
1
p +b
1
q, a
2
p +b
2
q
= (dq dp)
_
a
1
q
b
1
p
, a
2
q
b
2
p
_
= b
1
a
2
b
2
a
1
.
On the other hand, since L(1 1) is Abelian ,we conclude that
z((a
1
, b
1
), (a
2
, b
2
)) = b
1
a
2
b
2
a
1
. (4.2.3)
The cohomology class dened by this 2-cocycle is not the zero class since for all
h L(1 1)
we have h([(a
1
, b
1
), (a
2
, b
2
)]) = 0.
As discussed in the last section, to continue with the quantization scheme we need
to employ a central extension of L(11). In this case the new Lie bracket on the Lie
algebra L(1 1) 1 is given by
[(a
1
, b
1
, c
1
), (a
2
, b
2
, c
2
)] = (0, 0, b
1
a
2
b
2
a
1
), (4.2.4)
and the new momentum map is then
P
(a,b,r)
(s) = ap(s) +bq(s) +r. (4.2.5)
38
It is natural to ask which is the (simply connected) Lie group whose Lie algebra is
given by (4.2.4). As we will see, this group is known as the Heisenberg group, which
we will describe following Guillemins approach. [GS84].
Denition 4.2.1. Let (V, ) a symplectic vector space and S
1
C. We dene a group
structure on V S
1
by
(v
1
, z
1
)(v
2
, z
2
) =
_
v
1
+v
1
, z
1
z
2
exp
_
i
2
(v
1
, v
2
)
__
. (4.2.6)
This group is called the Heisenberg group and will be denoted by Heis
(V ).
We can identify the its Lie algebra L(Heis
(V ))

= V i1 since the most general
1-parameter subgroup is given by t (tv, exp(it)).
(tv, exp(it))(sv, exp(is)) = (tv +sv, exp(it) exp(is) exp((i/2)(tv, sv))
= ((t +s)v, exp(i(t +s))).
Now we want to compute the explicit form of the Lie bracket on L(Heis
(V )) using
the formulas of the adjoint representation presented in Chapter 2. First of all we need
to explore the conjugation on the group
(v
1
, z
1
)(v
2
, z
2
)(v
1
, z
1
)
1
= (v
1
, z
1
)(v
2
, z
2
)(v
1
, z
1
1
)
= (v
1
, z
1
)(v
2
v
1
, z
2
z
1
1
exp((i/2)(v
2
, v
1
)))
= (v
2
, z
2
exp((i/2)(v
2
, v
1
)) exp((i/2)(v
1
, v
2
v
1
)))
= (v
2
, z
2
exp(i(v
2
, v
2
))).
Now we nd an explicit formula for the adjoint representation
Ad
(v
1
,z
1
)
(u
2
, i
2
) =
d
dt
t=0
(v
1
, z
1
)(tu
2
, exp(it
2
))(v
1
, z
1
)
1
=
d
dt
t=0
(tu
2
, exp(it
2
) exp(i(v
1
, tu
2
)))
=
d
dt
t=0
(tu
2
, exp(it(
2
+(v
1
, u
2
))))
= (u
2
, i(
2
+(v
1
, u
2
))).
39
EXAMPLES
Finally we compute its derivative
[(u
1
, i
1
), (u
2
, i
2
)] = ad
(u
1
,i
1
)
(u
2
, i
2
)
=
d
dt
t=0
Ad
(tu
1
,exp(it
1
))
(u
2
, i
2
)
=
d
dt
t=0
(u
2
, i(
2
+(tu
1
, u
2
)))
= (0, i(u
1
, u
2
)).
Keep on mind that we are looking for a simply connected Lie group, one realizes
that V S
1
will not work. However, we can go to the universal cover: Recall that 1
is the universal cover of S
1
and the covering map is given by exp(i ) : 1 S
1
. So
the Heisenberg group structure on 1 1 1 (taking V = T
1 = 1 1) induced by
equation (4.2.6) is
(u
1
, v
1
, t
1
), (u
2
, v
2
, t
2
) =
_
u
1
+u
2
, v
1
+v
1
, t
1
+t
2
+
1
2
(v
1
u
2
v
2
u
1
)
_
, (4.2.7)
which is the denition that Isham gives arguing that with the Baker-Cambell-Hausdor
formula and exp(A) exp(B) = exp(A+B+(1/2)[A, B] +higher order commutators) it
can be shown that its Lie algebra structure is given by equation (4.2.4).
The second part on the quantization programme is to nd weakly continuous, ir-
reducible and unitary representations g U
(g). We will now dene the operators

U(a) = U
(exp(a, 0, 0)) V (b) = U
(exp(0, b, 0)) (4.2.8)

Notice that for 1, the central subgroup, the irreducible representations are of the form
U
(exp(0, 0, r)) = exp(ir) for some 1 (4.2.9)

Now we will prove the following formulas which are known as Weyl commutation
relations:
Proposition 4.2.1. The operators dened above satisfy the following relations
1. U(a
1
)U(a
2
) = U(a
1
+a
2
).
2. V (b
1
)V (b
2
) = U(b
1
+b
2
).
40
3. U(a)V (b) = V (b)U(a) exp(iab).
Proof. The rst two relations are easy to prove, we will work the last one: Notice that
from equation (4.2.7) we have
(u
1
, 0, 0)(0, v
2
, 0) = (u
1
, v
1
, (1/2)v
2
u
1
)
= (0, v
2
, 0)(u
1
, 0, 0)(0, 0, u
1
v
2
).
Choose in particular (u
1
, 0, 0) = exp(a, 0, 0) = (a, 0, 0) and (0, v
2
, 0) = exp(0, b, 0) =
(0, 0, b).
Now we will rewrite those operators in terms of exponentials of self-adjoint operators
and nd their the commutation relation
U(a) = exp(ia p) V (b) = exp(ib q) (4.2.10)
Proposition 4.2.2. The commutation relation of the self-adjoint operators dened by
equation (4.2.10) is
[ q, p] = i. (4.2.11)
Proof. We will use, as usual, the formulas for the adjoint representation and Proposition
4.2.1. First of all we compute
Ad
V (b)
1(i p) =
d
dt
t=0
V (b)
1
U(t)V (b)
=
d
dt
t=0
U(t) exp(itb)
= i p +ib.
Hence,
[i q, i p] =
d
dt
t=0
Ad
V (t)
1(i p)
=
d
dt
t=0
(i p +it)
= i.
Notice that this commutation relation is consistent with the quantizing map
P
(a,b,r)
= ap +bq +r
1
i
(a p +b q +r). (4.2.12)
41
EXAMPLES
Remark 4.2.1. If we compute from equation (4.2.4)
[(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)] = (0, 0, 1),
we see that the commutation relation [ q, p] = i could be read o from the bracket
of the Lie algebra.
We have not talked at all about the role of Plancks constant /. This constant will
arise when we x the dimensions. Notice that we can dene new operators with, as
Isham says, dimensional eigenvalues:
q
phys
= q
0
q p
phys
= p
0
p (4.2.13)
Thus [ q
phys
, p
phys
] = iq
0
p
0
, and therefore we can identify q
0
p
0
= /. So Planks con-
stant parameterizes a one-parameter family of unitary representations of the central
group 1.
The following is a very important remark:
Remark 4.2.2. There is an extremely powerful result which is known as the Stone-
von Newmann theorem that asserts that, up to an unitary equivalence, there is
a unique weakly continuous, irreducible representation of the Weyl relations given by
Proposition 4.2.1. The representation space is H = L
2
(1, dq) and the explicit expres-
sions are:
(U(a))(q) = (q a) (V (b))(q) = exp(ibq)(q) (4.2.14)
Now we will work out how to obtain the action of the self-adjoint operators:
( q)(q) =
d
dt
t=0
iV (t)(q)
=
d
dt
t=0
i exp(itq)(q)
= q(q),
in the same way
( p)(q) =
d
dt
t=0
iU(t)(q)
=
d
dt
t=0
i(q t)
= i
d
dq
(q).
42
4.3 Semidirect Products
Finally we will quote a comment made by Isham [Ish84] that exhibits the importance
of this result: It can be said that the Stone-Von Newmann theorem lies at the heart of
the success of quantum theory. If there were many irreducible representations, each one
would generate dierent physical predictions and the rules of quantum mechanics would
need to be supplemented with a specication of how the correct representation was to be
selected.
This section is based on my lecture notes of the course Particles and Fields II given by
professor Dr. Andres Reyes, at Universidad de los Andes, in the rst semester of 2010.
The motivation for discussing semidirect products was the study of the representation
of the Poincare group. I want to thank again professor Dr. Andres Reyes for a com-
prehensive introduction to these topics.
Denition 4.3.1. Let N and K be two groups and : K Aut(N) a group homo-
morphism. Then can induce a group structure on N K given by the multiplication
rule
(n, k)( n,
k) = (n
k
( n), k
k). (4.3.1)
The group under this operation is called the semidirect product of N and K and will
be denoted by N
K.
This denition of semidirect product seems a little strange, however in the next
example we will see that it arises naturally from a physical point of view.
Example 4.3.1 (Poincare Group). Consider the proper orthochronous Lorentz group
L
+
. Let a 1
4
be a four vector and L
+
be a Lorentz transformation. We would
like to give a group structure to the product 1
4
L
+
such that (a, ) x = a + x is
an action on the Minkowski space. If we compute
((a
1
,
1
)(a
2
,
2
)) x = (a
1
,
1
) (a
2
+
2
x)
= a
1
+
1
(a
2
+
2
x)
= (a
1
+
1
a
2
) +
1
2
x,
we can read that the group structure should be
(a
1
,
1
)(a
2
,
2
) = (a
1
+
1
a
2
,
1
2
), (4.3.2)
43
EXAMPLES
which is nothing more that the semidirect product 1
4
+
, where () = . This
group is known as the Poincare group.
The last example illustrates a particular interesting case of semidirect products
where N = V is a vector space and K = G is a Lie group, and therefore the map
: G Aut(V ) can be seen as a representation.
In this case the product on V
G is given by
(v
1
, g
1
)(v
2
, g
2
) = (v
1
+(g
1
)v
2
, g
1
g
2
). (4.3.3)
We would like to study the Lie bracket of L(V
G)

= V g induced by the
semidirect product. Let J
n
=1
a basis for g and e
i
m
i=1
be a basis for V (which is
its same Lie algebra). We want to compute the bracket [(e
i
, J
), (e
j
, J
)].
We will prove one technical lemma, which for simplicity, will be the special case
where the Lie group is a subgroup of M
n
(1), the group of n n matrices over 1.
Lemma 4.3.1. Let H M
n
(1) be a Lie group and h its Lie algebra, then for all
x, y h we have
[x, y] = lim
0
1
2
(exp(x) exp(y) exp(y) exp(x)), (4.3.4)
where exp : h H is the usual exponential map for matrices.
Proof. We just compute
exp(x) exp(y) exp(y) exp(x)
=(1 +x +
1
2!
2
x
2
+ )(1 +y +
1
2!
2
y
2
+ )
(1 +y +
1
2!
2
y
2
+ )(1 +x +
1
2!
2
x
2
+ )
=
2
(xy yx) +O(
3
).
Remark 4.3.1. We will assume that there exists a representation the Lie algebra (see
diagram (2.2.2)) : g End(V ) such that
(exp(x)) = exp (x) x g. (4.3.5)
44
We will use the above results and the fact that for 1 we can approximate
exp(x) 1 +x to compute the following commutator:
[(e
1
, 0), (0, J
)] = lim
0
1
2
(exp((e
i
, 0))(exp((0, J
))) exp((e
i
, 0))(exp((0, J
))))
= lim
0
1
2
((e
i
, e)(0, exp(J
)) (0, exp(J
))(e
i
, 0))
= lim
0
1
2
((e
i
+(0), exp(J
)) (0 +(exp(J
))(e
i
), exp(J
)))
= lim
0
1
2
((e
i
, exp(J
)) ((exp(J
))(e
i
), exp(J
)))
lim
0
1
2
((e
i
, 1 +J
) ( (1 +J
)(e
i
), 1 +J
))
lim
0
1
2
(
2
(J
)(e
i
), 0)
( (J
)(e
i
), 0).
Now we are ready to compute a general commutator
[(e
i
, J
), (e
j
, J
)] = [(e
i
, 0) + (0, J
), (e
j
, 0) + (0, J
)]
= [(e
i
, 0), (e
j
, 0)] + [(e
i
, 0), (0, J
)] + [(0, J
), (e
j
, 0)] + [(0, J
), (0, J
)]
= ( (J
)(e
i
), 0) + ( (J
)(e
j
), 0) + (0, [J
,J
])
= ( (J
)(e
j
) (J
)(e
i
), [J
, J
]).
The following equation will be continuously used during the next sections:
[(e
i
, J
), (e
j
, J
)] = ( (J
)(e
j
) (J
)(e
i
), [J
, J
]) (4.3.6)
Example 4.3.2 (Poincare Group II). If we denote by J
1
, J
2
and J
3
the generators of
rotations in three dimensions, and by K
1
, K
2
and K
3
the generator of boosts, we have
the following commutation relations for the Lie algebra of L
+
:
[J
i
, J
j
] =
ijk
J
k
[J
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
K
k
[K
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
J
k
Using equation (4.3.6) we nd that the commutation relations for the Lie algebra of
the Poincare group are
[J
i
, J
j
] =
ijk
J
k
[J
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
K
k
[K
i
, K
j
] =
ijk
J
k
[e
, e
] = 0
[J
i
, e
j
] =
ijk
e
k
[J
i
, e
0
] = 0 [K
i
, e
j
] =
ij
e
0
[K
i
, e
0
] = e
i
45
EXAMPLES
4.4 Q = 1
+
We are going to discuss another example to illustrate the quantization method. The
conguration space is going to be Q = 1
+
= r 1 [ r > 0. We could attempt to
impose the commutation relations [ x, p] = i/ and dene operators (which are actually
the unique operators that satisfy the commutation relation in the representation space
H = L
2
(1
+
, dx)) by
( x)(x) = x(x) ( p)(x) = i/
d
dx
(x) (4.4.1)
but there would be important inconsistencies:
1. There would be a whole family of square integrable functions,
k
(x) = exp kx
with k > 0, such that are eigenvectors of p
with purely imaginary eigenvalues.

2. Suppose p is self-adjoint, then U(a) = exp(ia p) would be a unitary operator
that would act over functions as a translation operator (U(a))(x) = (x /a).
This will be impossible since we could take a suciently large value of a to take
the function out the conguration space.
This is why we should be careful in the choice of the commutation relations. Notice
that 1 is also topologically trivial (it is contractible) but it is not a vector space. This
global property aects its quantum theory.
We will now proceed with the quantization program step by step: The cotangent
bundle of 1
+
is trivial, T
1
+
= 1
+
1, and therefore we can also consider a global
system of coordinates
x(s) = pr
1
(s) p(s) = pr
2
(s) s T
1
+
, (4.4.2)
where pr
1
is the projection onto the rst component and pr
2
is the projection onto
the second component, and therefore the symplectic form on T
1
+
ca be written as
= dx dp.
The canonical group will be choose to the semidirect product 1
1
+
, where :
1
+
Aut(1) is dened by ()(x) =
1
x, and the multiplication law (given by
equation (4.3.3))
(v
1
,
1
)(v
2
,
2
) = (v
1
+
1
1
v
2
,
1
2
). (4.4.3)
46
4.4 Q = 1
+
The action of 1
1
+
on T
1
+
is dened by
(v,)
(x, p) = (x,
1
p v). (4.4.4)
First of all we need to check that this actually denes an action:
(v
1
,
1
)
(v
2
,
2
)
(x, p) =
(v
1
,
1
)
(
2
x,
1
2
p v
2
)
= (
1
2
x,
1
1
(
1
2
p v
2
) v
1
)
= (
1
2
x, (
1
2
)
1
p (v
1
+
1
1
v
2
))
=
(v
1
,
1
)(v
2
,
1
)
(x, p).
Notice the action is clearly transitive and eective since
(v
1
,
1
)(
1
(v
2
v
1
),
1
1

2
) = (v
2
,
2
).
Finally we need to show that the action is symplectic
(v,)
(dx dp) = d(
(v,)
x) d(
(v,)
p)
= d(x) d(
1
p v)
= (dx) (
1
dp)
= dx dp.
Now we will nd the commutation relations of the the Lie algebra L(1
1
+
) using
the equation (4.3.6). Therefore we need to compute explicitly : L(1
+
) End(1)
rst. Notice that
(exp(r))(s) = exp(r)(s) = exp( (r))(s) (r)(t) = rt t 1,
so the commutation relation is given by
[(b
1
, r
1
), (b
2
, r
2
)] = ( (r
1
)(b
2
) (r
2
)(b
1
), [r
1
, r
2
]) = (b
1
r
2
b
2
r
1
, 0), (4.4.5)
where we have used the fact that L(1
+
) = 1 is an Abelian Lie algebra.
Now we need to consider the one-parameter subgroups of 1
1
+
.
t exp(tb, 0) = (tb, 1) t exp(0, tr) = (0, exp(tr)) (4.4.6)
47
EXAMPLES
to compute the vector eld associated with (b, 0) L(1
1
+
).
(b,0)
(x, p) =
d
dt
t=0
(tb,1)
(x, p)
=
d
dt
t=0
(x, p tb)
= b

p
,
and with (0, r) L(1
1
+
).
(0,r)
(x, p) =
d
dt
t=0
(0,exp(tr))
(x, p)
=
d
dt
t=0
(exp(tr)x, exp(tr)p)
= rx

x
+rp

p
.
Hence,
(b,r)
= rx

x
+ (b +rp)

p
. (4.4.7)
We need to check that this vector eld is globally Hamiltonian, however since
H
1
dR
(T
1
+
) = 0 this is always the case. Moreover, if we dene f : T
1
+
1
by f(s) = bx(s) +rx(s)p(s) and compute
i
(b,r) (dx dp) = (dx dp)

_
rx

x
+ (b +rp)

p
_
= rxdp (b +rp)dx,
= df
we ensure the desired condition. As we saw in our rst example, it is natural to
dene
P
(b,r)
(s) = bx(s) +rx(s)p(s). (4.4.8)
To compute the cohomology class dened by the action we compute the Poisson
bracket rst
P
(r
1
,b
1
)
, P
(r
2
,b
2
)
= b
1
x +r
1
xp, b
2
x +r
2
xp
= (dx dp)
_
r
1
x

x
(b
1
+r
1
p)

p
, r
2
x

x
(b
2
+r
2
p)

p
_
= r
1
x(b
2
+r
2
p) +r
2
x(b
1
+r
1
p)
= (b
1
r
2
b
2
r
1
)x.
48
4.4 Q = 1
+
And on the other hand
P
[(b
1
,r
1
),(b
2
,r
2
)]
= P
(b
1
r
2
b
2
r
1
,0)
= (b
1
r
2
b
2
r
1
)x,
therefore, for this action, the cohomology class vanishes.
Now we should focus on the representations of 1
1
+
). If we consider a weakly
continuous, irreducible and unitary representation (v, ) U(v, ) it is convenient to
dene operators
U() = U(0, ) V (b) = U(exp(b), 1) (4.4.9)
Proposition 4.4.1. The operators dened above satisfy the following relations
1. U(
1
)U(
2
) = U(
1
2
).
2. V (b
1
)V (b
2
) = V (b
1
+b
2
).
3. U()V (b) = V (
1
b)U().
Proof. The rst two relations are easy to see. We will only discuss the last relation.
One hand we have
U()V (b) = U(0, )U(exp(b), 1)
= U((0, )(exp(b), 1))
= U(
1
exp(b), )
= U(
1
b, ),
and on the other
V (
1
b)U() = U(exp(
1
b), 1)U(0, )
= U(exp((
1
b), 1)(0, ))
= U(exp(
1
b), )
= U(
1
b, ).
Now we will work out the commutation relations of the associated self-adjoint op-
erators. Dene x and by
U(exp r) = exp(ir ) V (exp b) = exp(ib x) (4.4.10)
49
EXAMPLES
Proposition 4.4.2. The commutation relation of the self-adjoint operators dened by
equation (4.4.10) is
[ x, ] = i x. (4.4.11)
Proof. We proceed as we did before
Ad
U()
(i x) =
d
dt
t=0
U()V (t)U()
1
=
d
dt
t=0
V (
1
t)
= i
1
x.
Hence,
[i , i x] =
d
dt
t=0
Ad
U(exp t)
(i x)
=
d
dt
t=0
(i exp(t) x)
= i x
Again, this commutation relations is compatible with the quantizing map
P
(b,r)
= bx +rxp
1
i
(b x +r ). (4.4.12)
There is a very rich theory on representations of semidirect products developed by
Mackey in [Mac68] and in [Mac78], that we will try to explore later. For now, as Isham
suggests, we will guess a representation in terms of wave functions dened on the con-
guration space.
We might try a similar approach inspired on equation(4.2.14) dening for x 1
+
(U())(x) = (
1
x). (4.4.13)
However, this operator in not unitary since the Lebesgue measure is not scale invariant,
but on L
2
(1
+
, dx/x) this operator is unitary. For the other operator, we should take
(V (b))(x) = exp(ibx)(x). (4.4.14)
50
4.4 Q = 1
+
These operators dene a unitary, weakly continuous irreducible representations of 1
1
+
. For instance,
(U()V (b))(x) = U() exp(ibx)(x)
= exp(ib
1
b)(
1
x)
= V (
1
b)(
1
x)
= (V (
1
b)U())(x).
Now we will derive the action of the self-adjoint operators
( x)(x) =
d
dt
t=0
iV (exp t)(x)
=
d
dt
t=0
i exp(itx)(x)
= x(x)
and
( )(x) =
d
dt
t=0
iU(exp t)(x)
=
d
dt
t=0
i(exp(t)x)
= ix
d
dx
(x).
Remark 4.4.1. When Mackeys theory is applied to 1
1
+
it shows that there
are three irreducible representations that are described as follows: Notice that the
commutation relation of Proposition 4.4.2 is preserved by the dilation x t x for
t 1. So we can dene a one-parameter of representations of 1
1
+
by
(U
(t)
())(x) = (
1
x) (V
(t)
(b))(x) = exp(itb)(x) (4.4.15)
However, for t > 0 al these representations are unitarily equivalent since
U(t)
1
V (b)U(t) = V (tb).
By the same argument, for t < 0 all these representations are unitarily equivalent, but
a type t > 0 can not be equivalent to a type t < 0 since the spectrum of x diers in
each case, for t > 0 the spectrum is 1
whereas for t < 0 is 1

+
.
The third case is the trivial case where t = 0, and since 1
+
is an Abelian group we
know that all its irreducible represenatations are one-dimensional, son we obtain
(U
(0)
())(x) = (x) (V
(0)
(b))(x) = (x) (4.4.16)
51
EXAMPLES
Finally we are going to discuss how does Plancks constant makes it appearance.
The main idea is that locally, we should recover the Q = 1 theory. We can consider
the canonical group 1 1 acting on a neighborhood of the point (x
0
, 0) T
1
+
and
therefore, we could nd some preferred observables that will be common to both ac-
tions. For these observables we require that the same operator is assigned for both
cases. This consistency requirement will serve to x dimensions in the global theory.
For a point (x
0
, 0) T
1
+
consider the exponential map and its inverse i : 1 1
+
and j : 1
+
1 dened by
i(q) = x
0
exp(q/q
0
) j(x) = q
0
log(x/x
0
) (4.4.17)
These maps induce dieomorphisms i
: T
1
+
T
1 and j
: T
1 T
1
+
. To
nd explicit expressions for these maps we proceed as follows: We can write
i
_

q
_
= f

x
,
from which we can determine f by
f = i
_

q
_
x =

q
x
0
exp(q/q
0
) =
x
0
q
0
exp(q/q
0
),
and on the other hand
j
_

x
_
= h

q
,
from which we can determine h by
h = j
_

x
_
q =

x
q
0
log(x/x
0
) = q
0
1
x
.
So we can compute
i
(pdp)
_

q
_
= pdp
_
i
_

q
__
= pdp
_
i
_
x
q
0
j
_

x
___
=
xp
q
0
52
4.4 Q = 1
+
and
j
(pdp)
_

x
_
= pdp
_
j
_

x
__
= pdp
_
i
_
q
0
x
0
exp(q/q
0
)j
_

q
___
=
q
0
x
0
exp(q/q
0
)p,
which in coordinates can be written as
i
(x, p) = (q
0
log(x/x
0
), xp/q
0
) j
(q, p) = (x
0
exp(q/q
0
), q
0
exp(q/q
0
)p/x
0
)
Since i
and j
are symplectic dieomorphisms, we can dene an action

on T
1
+
induced by the group 1 1 by
(u,v)
(x, p) = (j

(u,v)
i
)(x, p)
= (j

(u,v)
)(q
0
log(x/x
0
), xp/q
0
)
= j
(q
0
log(x/x
0
) +u, xp/q
0
v)
= (xexp(u/q
0
), exp(u/q
0
)(p q
0
v/x
0
)).
The associated vector eld of (a, b) L(1 1) is given by
(a,b)
(x, p) =
d
dt
t=0
(ta,tb)
(x, p)
=
d
dt
t=0
(xexp(ta/q
0
), exp(ta/q
0
)(p q
0
tb/x
0
))
=
a
q
0
x

x
+
_
a
q
0
p +
q
0
b
x
_

p
.
We already know that this vector eld is globally Hamiltonian since H
1
dR
(T
1
+
) is
trivial, but moreover, if we dene f : T
1
+
1 by
f(s) =
a
q
0
x(s)p(s) +q
0
b log
_
x(s)
x
0
_
,
we have explicitly that i
(a,b) (dx dp) = df.

Now we need to take care about the obstruction cocycle:
Dene a map P : L(1 1) C
(T
1)
+
, 1 by
P
(a,b)
(s) =
a
q
0
x(s)p(s) +q
0
b log
_
x(s)
x
0
_
. (4.4.18)
53
EXAMPLES
Now we compute
P
(a
1
,b
1
)
, P
(a
2
,b
2
)
=
_
a
1
q
0
p +
q
0
b
1
x
__
a
2
q
0
x
_
_
a
2
q
0
p +
q
0
b
2
x
__
a
1
q
0
x
_
= (b
2
a
1
b
1
a
2
)
and
P
[(a
1
,b
1
),(a
2
,b
2
)]
= P
(b
2
a
1
b
1
a
2
,0)
= (b
2
a
1
b
1
a
2
)
xp
q
0
.
So in this case, the obstruction cocycle does not vanish and wee need to do a central
extension with moment map
P
(a,b,t)
(s) =
a
q
0
x(s)p(s) +q
0
b log
_
x(s)
x
0
_
+t. (4.4.19)
Notice that the operator xp appears in the set of preferred observables of both
actions. By comparing with the momentum map for Q = 1 given by equation (4.2.5)
we can read that
q = q
0
log
_
x
x
0
_
p =
1
q
0
(4.4.20)
If we impose that [ q, p] = i/ and realizing that for n > 0 we have [ q
n
, p] = ni/ q
n1
we conclude that
[ x, ] = x
0
q
0
[exp( q/q
0
), p]
= i/ x.
4.5 Q = S
1
This is our rst topologically non-trivial conguration space, for instance its fundamen-
tal group is
1
(S
1
) = Z and its rst de Rham cohomology group is H
dR
(S
1
, 1) = 1.
Nevertheless, the cotangent bundle is still a product T
S
1
= S
1
1. On a local coor-
dinate system we can write the symplectic form as = d dl, where 0 < < 2 is
the usual angle in S
1
and l is the projection on the second component of S
1
1.
A natural choice for the canonical group would be 1 SO(2) acting by
(n,)
(, l) = (( +)mod2, l n),
which would generate vector elds
(n,0)
= n

l

(0,t)
= t

.
54
4.5 Q = S
1
However,
(n,0)
is not globally Hamiltonian: even since i
(n,0) = d(n), we need to

keep in mind that is not a continuous function from T
S
1
to 1.
The problem arises mainly because S
1
needs at least two charts to be covered, hence
we could try to consider a group with three parameters. Our candidate will be the Eu-
clidean group E
2
= 1
2
SO(2), which is a semidirect product of a vector space and a Lie
group. As we discussed before, the group product is given by (m
2
, n
2
,
2
)(m
1
, n
1
,
1
) =
(m
, n
, (
2
+
1
)mod2), where
_
m
_
=
_
m
2
n
2
_
+
_
cos
2
sin
2
sin
2
cos
2
__
m
1
n
1
_
(4.5.1)
We are going to study now its Lie algebra. We can identify L(1
2
SO(2)) with 1
3
,
and the commutator induced by the semidirect product can be found using equation
(4.3.6) and using the fact that
so(2) =
__
0
0
_
M
2
(1)
1
_
,
one can verify that
[(b
1
, d
1
,
1
), (b
2
, d
2
,
2
)] =
__
0
1
1
0
__
b
2
d
2
_
_
0
2
2
0
__
b
1
d
1
_
, 0
_
= (
2
d
1
1
d
2
,
1
b
2
2
b
1
, 0).
Now we will dene the action of E
2
on T
S
1
by
(m,n,)
(, l) = (( +)mod2, l +msin( +) ncos( +)). (4.5.2)
An easy computation shows that this denition denes an action which is eective
and transitive, however is instructive to show that the action is symplectic:
(m,n,)
(d dl) = d(
(m,n,)
) d(
(m,n,)
l)
= d(
(m,n,)
) d(l
(m,n,)
)
= d(( +)mod2) d(l +msin( +) ncos( +))
= d (dl +mcos( +)d +nsin( +)d)
= d dl.
55
EXAMPLES
To nd the innitesimal generator associated with (b, d, ) L(E
2
) we compute, as
usual,
(b,d,)
(, l) =
d
dt
t=0
(tb,td,tmod2)
(, l)
=
d
dt
t=0
(( +t)mod2, l +tb sin( +t) td cos( +t))
=

(b sin d cos )

l
.
Now we will verify that this vector eld is indeed Hamiltonian. Dene f C
(T
S
1
, 1)
by
f(s) = l(s) +b cos (s) +d sin (s),
then
i
(b,d,) (d dl) = dl + (b sin d cos )d = df.

So our natural candidate to be the moment map P : L(E
2
) C
(T
S
1
, 1) is dened
by
P
(b,d,)
(s) = l(s) +b cos (s) +d sin (s). (4.5.3)
The next step is to compute the obstruction cocycle. The Poisson bracket is given by
P
(b
1
,d
1
,
1
)
, P
(b
2
,d
2
,
2
)
= (d dl)
_
+ (b
1
sin d
1
cos )

l
,
2
+ (b
2
sin d
2
cos )

l
_
=
1
(b
2
sin d
2
cos ) (b
1
sin d
1
cos )
2
= (
2
d
1
1
d
2
) cos (
2
b
1
1
b
2
) sin .
And on the other hand
P
[(b
1
,d
1
,
1
),(b
2
,d
2
,
2
)]
(, l) = P
(
2
d
1
1
d
2
,
1
b
2
2
b
1
,0)
(, l)
= (
2
d
1
1
d
2
) cos + (
1
b
2
2
b
1
) sin ,
so there in no obstruction cocycle.
Now we are going to work out the representations. Denote by (m, n, )
U
(m, n, ) a unitary, weakly continuous, irreducible representation of E

2
and consider
in particular the operators
V (b, d) = U
(exp b, exp d, 0) U() = U
(0, 0, ) (4.5.4)
56
4.5 Q = S
1
Proposition 4.5.1. The operators dened by equation (4.5.4) satisfy the following
relations
1. U(
1
)U(
2
) = U((
1
+
2
)mod2).
2. V (b
1
, d
1
)V (b
2
, d
2
) = V (b
1
+b
2
, d
1
+d
2
).
3. U()V (b, d) = V (b
, d
)U().
where
_
b
d
_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
__
b
d
_
.
Proof. Au usual, the two rst two relations are easy to prove, the last relation is follows
immediately from the multiplication law of E
2
.
Now we are going to work out the commutation relations of the self-adjoint operators
dened by
V (b, d) = exp(i(b c +d s)) U(mod2) = exp(i

J) (4.5.5)
Proposition 4.5.2. Tho commutator relations of the self-adjoint operators dened by
equation (4.5.5) are given by
1. [ c, s] = 0.
2. [ s,

J] = i c.
3. [ c,

J] = i s.
Proof. For the rst relation we compute, as usual,
Ad
V
(b,0)
(i s) =
d
dt
t=0
V (b, 0)V (0, t)V (b, 0)
1
=
d
dt
t=0
V (0, t)
= i s,
which implies that [ c, s] = 0 since Ad
V
(t,0)
(i s) does not depend on t.
For the second relation we compute
Ad
U()
(i s) =
d
dt
t=0
U()V (0, t)U()
1
=
d
dt
t=0
V (t sin , t cos )
= i sin c i cos s,
57
EXAMPLES
therefore
[i

J, i s] =
d
dt
t=0
Ad
U(t)
(i s)
=
d
dt
t=0
i sin
t i cos
t
= i c.
The third case follows from an analogue calculation.
Remark 4.5.1. In this example the quantizing map is given by
P
(b,d,)
= l +b cos +d sin
1
i
(

J +b c +d s).
Remark 4.5.2 (Helicity). The commutation relations obtained in Proposition 4.5.2
are the same ones obtained in the context of the classication of massless particles
made by Wigner, studying the irreducible representation of the Poincare group:
Particles are classied by eigenvalues of mass and spin, i.e. by the eigenvalues of
e
2
= e
i
e
i
(see Example 4.3.2) and of W (spin vector of Pauli and Lubanski), the
spin taking only integer or half-integer values. The dynamical states of free particles
can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the four operators P of the energy and the
momentum, and by one component of spin. (see [Sch07]).
Since E
2
is a semidirect product, it representations can be studied using Mackeys
theory. In this case we will also try to guess them. Our candidate for the representation
space will be L
2
(S
1
, d) and the action of E
2
on functions will be given by
(U())() = (( )mod2) (4.5.6)
(V (b, d))() = exp(i(b cos +d sin ))() (4.5.7)
which induce the following action at the level of the self-adjoint operators
(

J)() =
d
dt
t=0
i(U(t))()
=
d
dt
t=0
i(( t)mod2)
= i
d
d
()
and
( c)() = cos () ( s)() = sin ()
58
4.5 Q = S
1
Remark 4.5.3. The commutation relations of Proposition 4.5.2 are unchanged by
c, s c, s, so actually we have a one-parameter family of representations
(U
()
())() = (( )mod2) (4.5.8)
(V
()
(b, d))() = exp(i(b cos +d sin ))() (4.5.9)
However notice that U
()
()V
()
(b, d)U
()
()
1
= V
()
(b, d) = V
()
(b, d), there-
fore the and () representations are unitarily equivalent. For the case were ,
0
and ,=
the associated representations are inequivalent.

In the next chapter, we will discuss in a little detail the origin of these expressions form
Mackeys theory.
Remark 4.5.4. The way in which / will come out in this case will be by ensuring that
locally, we recover the commutation relations of the case Q = 1, or as we will see later,
when the radius of the circle is made innitely large we should recover this case too.
Notice that c
2
+ s
2
=
2
, therefore for consistency, if we x
2
= = /, we can convince
ourselves that the physical operators should be
c
phys
= c( c
2
+ s
2
)
1
s
phys
= s( c
2
+ s
2
)
1
(4.5.10)
Remark 4.5.5 (Contraction of a Lie Algebra). For each > 0 dene a Lie bracket on
1
3
by
[(b
1
, d
1
,
1
), (b
2
, d
2
,
2
)]
=
_
2
d
1
1
d
2
,

1
b
2
2
b
1
, 0
_
(4.5.11)
( will represent the radius of the circle), and a map A
: L(E
2
) L(E
2
) by
A
(b, d) = (b, d, /). (4.5.12)

A straight computation shows that [X, Y ]
= A
1
([A
(X), A
(Y )]) for X, Y L(E

2
).
Now we can take the limit and obtain the contraction of the Lie algebra L(E
2
)
whose bracket is given by
[(b
1
, d
1
,
1
), (b
2
, d
2
,
2
)]
= (
2
d
1
1
d
2
, 0, 0), (4.5.13)
which should be familiar to us, since it is the Heisenberg Lie algebra.
We can also contract the self-adjoint operators if we dene q
= s and p
=

J/, which
on the limit satisfy
[ c, q
] = 0 [ q
, p
] = i c [ c, p
] = 0 (4.5.14)
At this point we should give a more clear interpretation to what we have done. Dene for
each > 0, the a W
: L
2
(S
1
, d/2) L
2
([0, 2], dx/2) by W
()(x) = (x/).
59
EXAMPLES
We will explore concrete the representations of the contracted operators trough next
proposition.
Proposition 4.5.3. From the representations discussed in Remark 4.5.3 we have the
following relations
1. (W
W
1
)(x) = sin(x/)(x).
2. (W
cW
1
)(x) = cos(x/)(x).
3. (W

JW
1
)(x) = i
d
dx
(x).
Proof. Just compute
1. (W
W
1
)(x) = W
(x) = W
sin(x)(x) = sin(x/)(x).
2. (W
W
1
)(x) = W
(x) = W
cos(x)(x) = cos(x/)(x).
3. (W
W
1
)(x) = W
(x) = W
(i)
d
d(x)
(x) = i
d
dx
(x).
So here we see explicitly that, as , c tends to a multiple of the identity map.
Moreover, we can dene the dimensioned operators by
q = q
0
q
p = p
0
p
(4.5.15)
and conclude that [ q, p] = i
2
= i/. Notice also that, for consistency, the operators p
and p
should agree on the limit , this forces that

J
phys
= /
J.
4.6 Uncertainty Relations
In order to study experimental evidence of the commutation relations it is useful to
work out the uncertainty relations. The main purpose of this section is to nd a general
formula for these expressions. Our main reference for this section is [Sha94].
We are going to start with two Hermitian operators A and B and a general form of
a commutation relation [A, B] = iC to derive the associated uncertainty relation.
Remark 4.6.1. Notice that C is Hermitian too since
iC
= [A, B]
= [A, B] = iC.
60
4.6 Uncertainty Relations
Recall that we dene the expectation value by
A) = [A[)
and the variance
(A)
2
= A
2
) A)
2
.
We want to compute
(A)
2
(B)
2
= [A
2
A)
2
[)[B
2
B)
2
[)
= [
A
2
[)[
B
2
[)
=
A[
A)
B[
B),
where we have dened

A = A
2
A)
2
(and clearly [

A,

B] = iC). Now we can apply
Schwartz inequality to obtain
(A)
2
(B)
2
[
A[
B)[
2
[[
A

B[)[
2
[[
1
2
[

A,

B]
+
+
1
2
[

A,

B][)[
2
,
where [

A,

B]
+
=

A

B +

B,

A is the anti-commutator, which is clearly Hermitian.
Remark 4.6.2. Since C is Hermitian then [

A,

B]) is purely imaginary, therefore
[[[

A,

B]
+
[) +i[C[)[
2
= [[

A,

B]
+
[)
2
+[C[)
2
.
So nally we obtain
(A)
2
(B)
2
1
4
[[

A,

B]
+
[)
2
+
1
4
[C[)
2
. (4.6.1)
Example 4.6.1. In the case Q = 1 we have that [ q, p] = i/, so in this case equation
(4.6.1) becomes
( q)
2
( p)
2
1
4
[[ q, p]
+
[)
2
+
/
2
4
.
However, since the rst term is positive denite, we conclude that
q p
/
2
. (4.6.2)
which is Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
61
EXAMPLES
Example 4.6.2. Now we are going to explore the uncertainty relations for Q = S
1
.
Recall that [ s,

J] = i c and [ c,

J] = i s, therefore the associated uncertainty relations
are
( c)(

J)
1
4
s)
2
( s)(

J)
1
4
c)
2
(4.6.3)
We want to nish this chapter with a strong recommendation: to refer to the work
done by J. Rehacek, Z. Bouchal, R. Celechovsky Z. Hradil, and L. L. Sanchez-Soto
[RBC
+
08] where they nd experimental evidence supporting equation (4.6.3).
62
5
The General Case: Through
Examples
The goal of this section is to study the quantization method of the general case. How-
ever, since we have worked some explicit examples, the arguments and constructions
given in this chapter should not be strange. In particular we are going to explore the
construction of the representations of the canonical group. At this point it should be
mentioned that we only are looking for the motivation and spirit of the method, since
the mathematical and technical details (that we do not need to take for granted) are
beyond the scope of this work.
5.1 Q = T
2
In this rst section we are going to give a brief description of a work done by Z.
Hishamuddin [His89] where he works out the canonical group quantization method for
the 2-torus T
2
= S
1
S
1
. As we shall see, this case is simply an extension of the case
Q = S
1
, that is why, in addition, Hishamuddin works the case where there is a presence
of a magnetic eld.
The cotangent space of the conguration space Q = T
2
is trivial, T
T
2
= T
2
1
2
.
The symplectic form is given by = d
1
dl
1
+d
2
dl
2
, where (
1
,
2
) are the angles
on T
2
and (l
1
, l
2
) are the coordinates in 1
2
. Form our discussion in the case Q = S
1
, a
natural choice for the canonical group is E
2
E
2
which acts on T
T
2
in a natural way
63
5. THE GENERAL CASE: THROUGH EXAMPLES
(like equation (4.5.2) in each component). This action is clearly symplectic, transitive
and eective. Moreover, since we can reproduce what we did for Q = S
1
on each
component it is not surprising to nd commutation relations of the form
[ c
a
, s
b
] = 0 = [

J
a
,

J
b
] [ s
a
,

J
b
] = i c
a
ab
[ c
a
,

J
b
] = i s
a
ab
(5.1.1)
To make this problem more interesting, what Hishamuddin proposed was to consider
the same conguration space with a constant magnetic eld. To model this situation
he modify the symplectic form adding a new term
F
= +F, (5.1.2)
where F is the eld strength 2-form
F
12
d
1
d
2
. (5.1.3)
If we denote an element (m
1
, n
1
,
1
, m
2
, n
2
,
2
) E
2
E
2
by ( m, n, ) we see that
the action is still symplectic:
( m,n, )
F
12
d
1
d
2
=
1
2
F
12
d((
1
+
1
)mod2) d((
2
+
2
)mod2) =
F
.
The innitesimal generator with respect to (b, d, t, , , ) L(E
2
E
2
) is
(b,d,t,,,)
= t

1
(b sin
1
d cos
1
)

l
1
2
( sin
2
cos
2
)

l
2
.
We need to check that these vector elds are Hamiltonian. We compute
i
(b,d,t,,,) (d
1
dl
1
+d
2
dl
2
) =tdl
1
+ (b sin
1
d cos
1
)d
1
dl
2
+ ( sin
2
cos
2
)d
2
and
i
(b,d,t,,,) (F
12
d
1
d
2
) = F
12
(td
2
+d
1
),
so the natural candidate to be the moment map would be
P
(b,d,t,,,)
(s) =tl
1
(s) +b cos
1
(s) +d sin
1
(s)
+l
2
(s) + cos
2
(s) + sin
2
(s) +F
12
(t
2
(s)
1
(s)).
64
5.1 Q = T
2
Be careful! Recall that
1
(s) and
2
(s) are not smooth functions on T
2
, so what we
need to do is to modify the innitesimal generator:
(b,d,t,,,)
=t

1
(b sin
1
d cos
1
+F
12
)

l
1
2
( sin
2
cos
2
F
12
t)

l
2
,
and leave the moment map as
P
(b,d,t,,,)
(s) =tl
1
(s) +b cos
1
(s) +d sin
1
(s) +l
2
(s) + cos
2
(s) + sin
2
(s).
To study the obstruction cocycle we only need to compute the term
(F
12
d
1
d
2
)(
(b
1
,d
1
,t
1
,
1
,
1
,
1
)
,
(b
2
,d
2
,t
2
,
2
,
2
,
2
)
) = F
12
(t
1
2
t
2
1
),
so we see that the obstruction cocycle does not vanish, therefore we need to make a
central extension of the Lie algebra and dene a new bracket by
[(b
1
, d
1
, t
1
,
1
,
1
,
1
, r
1
), (b
2
, d
2
, t
2
,
2
,
2
,
2
, r
2
)]
= (t
2
d
1
t
1
d
2
, t
1
b
2
t
2
b
1
, 0,
2
2
,
1
1
, 0, F
12
(t
1
2
t
2
1
)).
We are not going to go further in this example, however we will point out two
important remarks.
Remark 5.1.1. In this article they give arguments to show that the appropriate new
canonical group will be

E
2
(

E
2
U(1)), where

E
2
is the universal cover 1
2
1.
Remark 5.1.2. We can read from the bracket of the central extension that the
only commutator that is going to change from equation (5.1.1) will be the commutator
between

J operators. This can be seen since the new term only contains t
i
and
i
,
hence is not surprising to nd out that [

J
1
,

J
2
] = iF
12
It should be mentioned that this article works out the representations, so we en-
courage to refer to it.
We will stop here working out explicit examples to start describing the general case,
however we will develop a nal example (the sphere S
2
) to expose the techniques that
we are going to study in the following sections.
65
5.2 Brief Discussion: The General Case
Since we have explored various examples, the spirit of this quantization method should
be clear by now, even if we have not been totaly explicit in some aspects (for instance
the study of the representations of the canonical group). Having these examples in
mind, we will discuss how to proceed in the general case.
Let Di(Q), then we can dene an action of Di(Q) on T
Q by
, for
each T
Q. This action is not transitive since each zero element in each bre remains
unaected. To obtain a transitive action we are going to dene dieomorphisms up to
bres as follows: Let (T
Q) and dene for T
Q
() =
()
,
where : T
Q Q is the natural projection. Notice that is a well dened

dieomorphism on each bre, that is = , so we would like to nd conditions on
this action to be symplectic. For v T
(T
Q) we compute
, where is the Liouville

1-form,
(
, v)
=
()
,
v)
()
= (),
v)
(())
= (
()
),
v)
()
= ,
v)
()
()
,
v)
()
=
, v)
, v)
.
Thus, we can conclude that
, and if we apply the exterior derivative we

obtain
= + d, where = d is the natural symplectic form on T
Q. There-
fore, the action is symplectic if, and only if, is a closed form, in particular if = dh
for h C
(Q, 1).
We would like to dene an action of C
(Q, 1)/1 Di(Q) on T
Q by
(h,)
= (
1
)
(dh)
(q)
. (5.2.1)
Remark 5.2.1. To avoid a heavy notation it should be noticed that h C
(Q, 1)/1
actually denotes an equivalence class.
66
5.3 Q = G/H
The group operation on C
(Q, 1)/1 Di(Q) should satisfy, for T
q
Q,
(h
2
,
2
)
(h
1
,
1
)
=
(h
2
,
2
)
((
1
1
)
(dh
1
)
1
(q)
)
= (
1
2
)
((
1
1
)
(dh
1
)
1
(q)
) (dh
2
)
2
(
1
(q))
= ((
2

1
)
1
)
d(h
2
+h
1

1
2
)
(
2
1
)(q)
= (h
2
+h
1

1
2
,
2

1
)
to dene an action. Therefore, we see that we need to work with the semidirect product
C
(Q, 1)/1Di(Q), where the product rule, which should be familiar for us, is given
by
(h
2
,
2
)(h
1
,
1
) = (h
2
+h
1

1
2
,
2

1
). (5.2.2)
Remark 5.2.2. We already know that this action is symplectic, transitive and eec-
tive, and it can be shown that the action is Hamiltonian. Moreover, the obstruction
cocycle vanishes if we restrict ourselves to Di(M), but on the C
(Q, 1)/1 this it not

guaranteed in general. For the discussion on these aspects please refer to [Ish84].
Remark 5.2.3. We need to point out that both, C
(Q, 1)/1 and Di(Q) are innite-

dimensional Lie groups. The study of these objects is beyond the scope of this work.
However, for a wide family of examples, it is enough to consider a nite-dimensional
subgroup of C
(Q, 1)/1Di(Q) of the form V G, where V is a nite-dimensional

vector space and G is a Lie group acting on Q.
5.3 Q = G/H
In this section we are going to discuss the case where the conguration space is a ho-
mogeneous space. However, as you will see, we will describe the procedure backwards.
To start suppose that we are given a nite dimensional vector space V and a nite
dimensional Lie group G endowed with a representation R : G Aut(V ). Recall
that the dual representation R
: G Aut(V
) is dened by R
(g), v) = , R(g)v)
for v V and V
. Since there is a natural identication between T
V and V V
,
we can dene a left action of the semidirect product V
G on T
V by
(,g)
(w, ) = (R(g)w, R
(g
1
) ), (5.3.1)
where the group product on V
G is given by (
2
, g
2
)(
1
, g
1
) = (
2
+R
(g
1
2
)
1
, g
2
g
1
).
67
Remark 5.3.1. Notice that R
(g
2
)R
(g
1
), v) = R
(g
1
), R(g
2
)v) = , R(g
1
g
2
)v),
therefore R
(g
2
)R
(g
1
) = R
(g
1
g
2
), which is why we have used R
(g
1
) instead of
R
(g) in the denition of the action.

If A g, then R(A) End(V ) will be dened by R(exp(A)) = exp(R(A)) (No-
tice that R
(A) = R(A)). We can also dene a moment map P : L(V
G)
C
(T
V, 1) by
P
(,A)
(p, q) = p(R(A)q) +p(q). (5.3.2)
Remark 5.3.2. From our study in semidirect products we have the following Lie
bracket on L(V
G)
[(
1
, A
1
), (
2
, A
2
)] = (R
(A
1
)
2
R
(A
2
)
1
, [A
1
, A
2
]). (5.3.3)
It can be shown that this action is symplectic and that the cocycle obstruction
vanishes for the map dened above. Instead of proving this for the general case, we
are going to work out a concrete example. Consider V = 1
n
and G = SO(n) and let
R : SO(n) Aut(1
n
) be the identity map. We will treat vectors in 1
n
as column
vectors and covectors in (1
n
)
treated as row vectors, so that the pairing between 1

n
and (1
n
)
is just matrix multiplication. In this context, the dual representation is given

by R
(g) = R(g) for (1

n
)
, therefore the action given by equation (5.3.1) is then
(,g)
(w, ) = (R(g)w, R(g)
T
). (5.3.4)
If we give coordinates to V by q
1
, q
n
and associate its dual basis p
1
, p
n
then the symplectic form can be written as = dq
dp
, where, in order to avoid

heavy notation, we omit the sum over repeated indices. To show that the action is
symplectic we compute
(,g)
(q, p)(dq
dp
) = d(q

(,g)
) d(p

(,g)
)
= d(R(g)
) d(p
(R(g)
T
)
)
= (R(g)
dq
) (dp
(R(g)
T
)
)
= (R(g)
T
)
R(g)
dq
dp
= (R(g)
T
R
g
)
dq
dp
dq
dp
= dq
dp
.
68
5.3 Q = G/H
Now we will compute the obstruction cocycle. If we compute the Poisson bracket
P
(
1
,A
1
)
, P
(
2
,A
2
)
(p, q)
=
P
(
1
,A
1
)
q
j
P
(
2
,A
2
)
p
j

P
(
1
,A
1
)
p
j

P
(
2
,A
2
)
q
j
=(p
R(A
1
)
j
+ (
1
)
j
)(R(A
2
)
j
) (R(A
1
)
j
)(p
R(A
2
)
j
+ (
2
)
j
)
=p
(R(A
1
)R(A
2
))
+ (
1
)
j
R(A
2
)
j
(R(A
2
)R(A
1
))
(
2
)
j
R(A
1
)
j
=p(R([A
1
, A
2
])q) + (
1
(R(A
2
))
2
(R(A
1
)))q
=p(R([A
1
, A
2
])q) + (R
(A
1
)
2
R
(A
2
)
1
)q
=P
[(
1
,A
1
),(
2
,A
2
)]
(p, q).
Hence, the obstruction cocycle vanishes.
Remark 5.3.3. For V
we can associate a function f

()
C
(V, 1) by f
()
v =
(v). In this case the restriction of action dened by equation (5.3.1) to V
can be
written as
(,e)
(v, ) = (u, ) = (u, ) (0, ) = (u, ) (df
()
)
u
(5.3.5)
and therefore we see that the action if of the form equation (5.2.1).
The action dened by (5.3.1) satises almost all the conditions that we want. How-
ever the action is not transitive. Recall that if we x v V , then its orbit is de-
ned by O
v
= R(g)v [ g G, so clearly G acts transitively on O
v
. Moreover,
there is a smooth group isomorphism O
v

= G/H
v
given by R(g)v [g]
H
v
, where
H
v
= g G[ R(g)v = v is the isotropy group or the little group of v. This means
that we can regard G/H
v
as a submanifold of V with embedding
v
: G/H
v
G
V
[g]
H
v
G
R(g)v
We would like to see if there exists a well-behaved action of V
G on T
(G/H
v
) keeping
in mind our previous construction. The natural action of G is given by g
[g] = [g
g].
On the other hand, motivated on the construction above we dene, for each V
, a
smooth function h
()
C
(G/H
v
, 1) by
h
()
([g]) = f
()
(
v
([g])) = (
v
([g])) = (R(g)v),
69
which we will use to dene the V
G-action on T
(G/H
v
) by
(,g
)
= (g
1
)
(dh
()
)
[g
g]
for T
[g]
G/H
v
. (5.3.6)
What is important is that it can be shown than for this action the obstruction
cocycle vanishes too, and therefore it satises all the conditions that we require for the
quantization programme.
Remark 5.3.4. As Isham recalls, in practice we are given a conguration space of the
form G/H, therefore the rst step of this procedure is to nd the smallest-dimensional
real vector space V that carries a linear representation of G with the property that there
is a G-orbit in V that is dieomorphic to G/H. This leads to the canonical group being
the semidirect product V
G.
5.4 Induced Representations of Semidirect Products
We are going to discuss in a little detail the problem of the representations of the
canonical group. The rst part is devoted to study representations induced by an action,
and in particular to describe the representation space as sections on some Hermitian
vector bundle.
To start suppose we are given a (connected) Lie group G acting on manifold M, we
would like to nd unitary representations of G derived from the action. Our rst candi-
date for being the representation space would be some Hilbert space H = L
2
(M, C, d)
where is a measure on X. The inner product would be
, ) =
_
M
(x)(x)d(x). (5.4.1)
A natural representation of G on H is (U(g))(x) = (g
1
x), in this case, since we
want unitary representations, we require that
U(g), U(g)) =
_
M
(g
1
x)(g
1
x)d(x) =
_
M
(x)(x)d
g
(x),
where roughly speaking, d
g
(x) = d(g
1
x). This actually means that we dene
g
(B) = (g
1
B), where B is a Borel subset on M (this measure is known as the
push-forward of by f). We will call a measure G-invariant if
g
= for all g G.
Now we state the following important result:
70
Theorem 5.4.1. Suppose that the measure is G-quasi-invariant, that is, for all g
G, both and
g
have the same sets of measure zero, then there exists a positive (-a.e)
continuous function on M, denoted by d
g
/d and known as the Radon-Nikodym
derivative of
g
with respect to , such that
g
(B) =
_
B
_
d
g
d
(x)
_
d(x)
for all Borel sets B.
With this result in mind, we can dene a unitary representation of G on H by
(U(g))(x) =
_
d
g
d
(x)
_
1/2
(g
1
x). (5.4.2)
We can extend our framework of the representations space to consider, instead of
H = L
2
(M, C, d), the completion of the space of sections of some vector bundle E on
M endowed with a Hermitian metric , ).
Remark 5.4.1. We will not discuss here the theory of ber bundles, you can refer to
Appendix (A) for the main denitions. However, we highly recommend to go to the
references proposed, since this appendix is far away from a comprehensive treatment
on this theory, and instead its purpose is to establish the main denitions, conventions
and notation.
We can dene for
1
,
2
(E) an inner product by
1
,
2
) =
_
M
1
(x),
2
(x))
x
d(x)
and complete this space to get the Hilbert space L
2
((E), d). A rst approach to
dene a representation would be as equation (5.4.2), however in this new context this
equation does not make sense, since each side of the equation lies in a dierent bre.
This motivates or following denition.
Denition 5.4.1. Let : G M M be a left right action on M, we say that an
action
: GE E covers if for each g G we have the following commutative

diagram:
E
=
g
G
E
g
G
M
(5.4.3)
71
Under this scenario, the representation should be given by
(U(g))(x) =
_
d
g
d
(x)
_
1/2
g
(g
1
x). (5.4.4)
Notice that if we want unitary operators we require the following condition for lift
action:
g
u,
g
v)
x
= u, v)
x
for all u, v E
x
, where E
x
denotes the bre over x M.
Remark 5.4.2. There are important comments and remarks in our main reference,
[Ish84], about the irreducibility of this representation and other technical aspects on
the existence and classication of lifts on a vector bundle. We will not go deeper into
those aspects, however it is important to comment that they exist and should not be
treated lightly.
There is a common way of constructing Hermitian vector bundles: Suppose we are
given P a principal K-bundle and a unitary representation U : K Aut(C
m
), then
we can construct the associated bundle P
U
C
m
, which is a vector bundle with ber
C
m
. On each ber we can dene an inner product by
[p, u], [pk, v])
x
= u, U(k)v)
C
m for p
1
(x) (5.4.5)
Notice that [p
k, U(
k
1
)u], [(p
k)(
k
1
k), v])
x
= U(
k
1
)u, U(
k
1
k)v)
C
m = u, U(k)v)
C
m,
therefore the inner product is well dened.
There is an other advantage of working with the associated bundle: we can dene
the inner product on equivariant functions. Recall that the space of sections can be
seen as (Appendix (A)),
(P
U
C
m
)
= C
(P, C
m
) [ (pk) = U(k
1
)(p) k K. (5.4.6)
Under this identication the inner product becomes
_
M
1
(p
x
),
2
(p
x
))
C
md(x) for p
x

1
(x), x M (5.4.7)
which is well dened since the representation U is unitary:
_
M
1
(p
x
k),
2
(p
x
k))
C
md(x) =
_
M
U(k
1
)
1
(p
x
), U(k
1
)
2
(p
x
))
C
md(x)
=
_
M
1
(p
x
),
2
(p
x
))
C
md(x).
Now we are going to describe how to construct form a lift in the associated bundle
form a lift in the principal bundle.
72
Denition 5.4.2. A family of dieomorphisms t
g
[ g G of a principal K-bundle is
said to be a G-lift of the G-action if, for each g G, the following conditions hold:
1. The following diagram commutes
P
=
t
g
G
P
g
G
M
(5.4.8)
2. t
g
2
t
g
1
= t
g
2
g
1
for all g
1
, g
2
G.
3. t
g
is a bre preserving map such that t
g
(pk) = t
g
(p)k for all k K.
Proposition 5.4.1. Given such a G-lift, a lift
g
in the associated bundle P
U
C
m
can be dened by
g
([p, u]) = [t
g
(p), u]
Proof. It is easy to see that the lift is well dened and that
g
=
g
. We remain
to check the G acts invariantly on the inner product, that is,
g
([p, u]),
g
([pk, v]))
x
= [t
g
(p), u], [t
g
(pk), v])
x
= [t
g
(p), u], [t
g
(p)k, v])
x
= [p, u], [pk, v])
x
.
Consider a section (G
U
C
m
) of the form ((p)) = [p, (p)], where (pk) =
k
1
(p) for all k K, then if we compute
(U(g))((p)) =
_
d
g
d
((p))
_
1/2
g
(g
1
(p))
=
_
d
g
d
((p))
_
1/2
g
((t
g
1p))
=
_
d
g
d
((p))
_
1/2
g
[t
g
1p, (t
g
1p)]
=
_
d
g
d
((p))
_
1/2
[p, (t
g
1p)]
73
we see that, in this context, the representation given by equation (5.4.4) can be written
in terms of equivariant functions C
(P, C
m
) as
(U(g))(p) =
_
d
g
d
((p))
_
1/2
(t
g
1g). (5.4.9)
Using what we have done in this section, we are now ready to describe (briey)
Mackeys theory on induced representations of semidirect products for the particular
case V
G, which is the general form of the canonical groups that we have studied.
Denition 5.4.3. Let V be a nite dimensional vector space, we dene the set of
characters of V to be the set of all continuous homomorphisms from W into the
complex numbers. There is a one-to-one correspondence between Char(V ) and V
which associates to each covector V
the character
(w) = exp(i((w)).
The homomorphism : G Aut(V ) induces a left action of G on the character
group given by (
g
)() = (R
(g
1
)). The main idea of this formalism is to associate,
to each orbit O
g
, a family of irreducible representations of V
G: Choose
0
O
g
,
denote its isotropy group by H
0
and let U be an irreducible unitary representation of
H
0
on C
m
(for simplicity). We can consider the vector bundle : G
U
C
m
G/H
0
and dene a representation of G on L
2
((G
U
C
m
), d)

= : G C
n
[ (gh) =
U(h
1
)(g), h H
0
by
(U(g))() =
_
d
g
d
(x)
_
g
(g
1
). (5.4.10)
Remark 5.4.3. Notice that we are evaluating the section in a character: we are using
the fact that O
= G/H
0
.
For the V part we dene for each v V ,
(V (v))() = (v)(). (5.4.11)
At rst sight this procedure seems complicated, therefore we are going to study an
explicit example to see this method in action:
Example 5.4.1. We are going to work out the representations obtained in Section 4.5
for the conguration space Q = S
1
, using this formalism. The canonical group in this
example is E
2
= 1
2
SO(2). We can represent each element SO(2) as
R
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
.
74
Notice that Char(1
2
)

= (1
2
)

= 1
2
, where the last identication is induced by the
canonical inner product , ) in 1
2
. For an element (1
2
)
and v 1
2
we compute
(

)(v) = exp(i , R
1
v)) = exp(iR
, v)) =
R

(v),
so we conclude that

=
R

. This shows that the orbits of the SO(2)-action in
Char(1
2
) are labeled by 0, and are given by
O
= (
1
,
2
) 1
2
[
2
1
+
2
2
=
2
.
For the case > 0 equations (5.4.10) and (5.4.1) become
(U
())(
1
,
2
)(
1
cos +
2
sin ,
1
sin +
2
cos )
(V
()
(v)) = exp(i(v
1
1
+v
2
2
))(
1
,
2
)
where v = (v
1
, v
2
). The Radon-Nikodym is one since the Lebesgue measure is rotational
invariant.
We can parametrize each O
with an angle as
1
= cos
2
= sin
Notice that
1
cos +
2
sin = (cos cos + sin sin )
= cos( )
and
1
sin +
2
cos = (cos sin + sin cos )
= sin( ).
Thus, we recover the form of the representation discussed in Section 4.5 (equations
(4.5.8) and (4.5.9))
(U
()
())() = (( )mod2) (5.4.12)
(V
()
(v))() = exp(i(v
1
cos +v
2
sin ))() (5.4.13)
75
5.5 Q = S
2
In this section we are going to give a brief look to the work done by C. Benavides and
A. Reyes in [BR08] where they apply this formalism to the sphere S
2
. If we consider the
U(1)-bundle S
3
S
2
(which known as the Hopf bundle and is discussed in Appendix
(A) as SU(2) SU(2)/U(1), a natural choice for the canonical group would be
(1
3
)
SU(2).
Remark 5.5.1. Recall that SU(2) is the universal (2-sheeted) cover of the rotation
group SO(3), therefore the orbits of the natural action of SO(3) on 1
3
are concentric
spheres centered at the origin and the origin itself. So we see that the form of the
canonical group is of the form discussed in section 5.3.
In this work they are particularly interested in the construction of the U operators,
in this case the Radon-Nikodym factor is one since the Lebesgue measure induced on S
2
is rotationally invariant. The rst step is to construct unitary irreducible representation
of U(1). This can be easily done: For each integer n we dene
U
n
: U(1)
G
GL(C)
e
i

G
e
in
(5.5.1)
Then we can consider the associated bundle L
n
= SU(2)
U
n
C.
Remark 5.5.2. There is a useful way to regard U(1) as a subgroup of SU(2): For
each U(1) dene a matrix in SU(2) by
_
0
0

_
Therefore, the right action of U(1) on SU(2) can bee seen just as matrix multiplication.
Moreover, since each element of SU(2) can be written of the form
_
z
0
z
1
z
1
z
0
_
for z
0
, z
1
C such that [z
0
[
2
+[z
1
[
2
= 1, then the right action can be seen as (z
0
, z
1
)
(z
0
, z
1
)
Remark 5.5.3. Recall that S
2
= CP
1
, so we can see the projection map of the
principal U(1)-bundle SU(2) CP
1
as (z
0
, z
1
) = [z
0
: z
1
]. In this context, the
76
5.5 Q = S
2
action of SU(2) on CP
1
can be written (under the appropriate identications discussed
above) as
(,)
([z
0
: z
1
]) =
_

__
z
0
z
1
z
1
z
0
_
= [z
0

z
1
: z
0
+ z
1
]. (5.5.2)
This action can be lifted to the line bundle L
n
by
(,)
([(z
0
, z
1
), v]) = ([(, )(z
0
, z
1
), v]), (5.5.3)
for g = (, ), (z
0
, z
1
) SU(2) and v C, as seen by Proposition 5.4.1.
SU(2)
U
n
C
g
G
SU(2)
U
n
C
S
2

g
G
S
2
(5.5.4)
The nice characteristic of this article is that they do explicit calculations. For this
purpose lets construct local charts on S
2
by dening open sets
U
N
= S
2
/north pole U
S
= S
2
/south pole
and the stereographic projection onto C
N
: U
N
C
S
: U
S
C
It is easy tho show that, in spherical coordinates, these projections take the form
N
(, ) =
e
i
sin
1 cos

S
(, ) =
e
i
sin
1 + cos
(5.5.5)
Remark 5.5.4. Under the identication S
2
= CP
1
we can also dene local charts by
dening open sets U
0
= [z
0
: z
1
] [ z
1
,= 0 and U
1
= [z
0
: z
1
] [ z
0
,= 0 and functions
0
: U
0
C and
1
: U
1
C by
0
([z
0
: z
1
]) =
z
0
z
1
1
([z
0
: z
1
]) =
z
1
z
0
(5.5.6)
In this case we can identify (U
N
,
N
) and (U
S
,
S
) with (U
0
,
0
) and (U
1
,
1
) respectively.
77
Now we are going to construct local trivializations of the line bundle L
n
using these
open sets. Dene maps
0
:
1
(U
0
) U
0
C
1
:
1
(U
1
) U
1
C
by
0
([(z
0
, z
1
), v]) =
_
[z
0
: z
1
],
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
_
(5.5.7)
1
([(z
0
, z
1
), v]) =
_
[z
0
: z
1
],
_
z
0
[z
0
[
_
n
v
_
(5.5.8)
Hence, the composite map is given by
(
1

1
0
)([z
0
: z
1
], v) =
1
__
(z
0
, z
1
),
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
__
=
_
[z
0
: z
1
],
_
z
0
[z
0
[
_
n
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
_
=
_
[z
0
: z
1
],
_

0
[
0
[
_
n
v
_
.
Remark 5.5.5. Notice that the transition function of L
n
is given by g
10
= (
0
/[
0
[)
n
.
This means that its rst Chern number of is n, therefore the label of each unitary
irreducible representation of U(1) determines the topology of the line bundle. Hence,
if n ,= n
, then L
n
and L
n
are inequivalent. (See Appendix A)
Without loss of generality we are going to work on the local chart U
0
. Consider the
following diagram:
SU(2)
U
n
C
g
G
SU(2)
U
n
C

0
%
U
0
S
2

g
G
U
0
S
2
U
0
C

g
G
U
0
C
(5.5.9)
We would like to nd an explicit expression for
g
=
0

g

1
0
, in an proper
domain where this expression makes sense. If we let g = (, ), we have
78
5.5 Q = S
2
(
0

g

1
0
)([z
0
: z
1
], v) = (
0

g
)
__
(z
0
, z
1
),
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
__
=
0
__
(, )(z
0
, z
1
),
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
__
=
0
__
(z
0

z
1
, z
0
z
1
),
_
z
1
[z
1
[
_
n
v
__
=
_
[z
0

z
1
: z
0
z
1
],
_
[z
1
[(z
0
+ z
1
)
z
1
[z
0
+ z
1
[
_
n
v
_
=
_
[z
0

z
1
: z
0
z
1
],
_

0
+
[
0
+ [
_
n
v
_
.
Notice that any local section s
0
: U
0
L
n
can be written in the form s
0
(x) =
(x,
0
(x)) where
0
C
(U
0
, C). Using one this local section we can nd a local
expression for the U operator,
(U
loc
(g)s
0
)(x) =
g
(s
0
(g
1
x)) = (g
1
x,
0
(g
1
x)) = (x,
n
(x, g)
0
(g
1
x)),
where we dene
n
(x, g) =
_

0
(x) +
[
0
(x) + [
_
n
. (5.5.10)
As usual, to nd the expressions for the innitesimal generators, we take a curve that
passes trough the identity and take the derivative with respect to the curve parameter
and evaluate at t = 0,
(Js
0
) = i
d
dt
t=0
(U
loc
(g(t))s
0
)(x). (5.5.11)
This generator can always be written as J = +

L, where depends on x and

L
is a dierential operator, this can be seen explicitly since,
i
d
dt
t=0
n
(x, g(t))
0
(g
1
(t)x) =
_
i
d
dt
n
(x, g(t))
_
. .
=
n
(x)
0
(x) +i
d
dt
t=0
0
(g
1
(t)x)
. .
=
L
0
(x)
.
The generator of rotations around the z-axis can be obtained if we consider the
curve t ((t), (t)) = (e
it/2
, 0). In this case

L = L
(z)
, the orbital angular momentum
operator. For the other summand we have

(z)
n
= i
d
dt
t=0
n
(x, g(t)) = i
d
dt
t=0
e
int/2
=
n
2
.
79
For the generator of rotations around the y-axis we consider the curve t ((t), (t)) =
(cos t/2, sin t/2), therefore

(y)
n
= i
d
dt
t=0
n
(x, g(t)) = i
d
dt
t=0
_
cos t/2 +
0
(x) sin t/2
cos t/2 +

0
(x) sin t/2
_
n/2
= i
n
4
(
0
(x)

0
(x)) = i
n
4
_
(e
i
e
i
) sin
1 cos
_
=
n
2
_
sin sin
1 cos
_
=
n
2
_
y
1 z
_
.
Remark 5.5.6 (Magnetic Monopole). In this article they explore the relation between
these results and the quantization of the electric charge via the existence of the magnetic
monopole. Classically, one can show that the conserved quantity associated to the
rotational symmetry of the magnetic monopole system can be written as a vector
J =

L
eg
2

K
N
, (5.5.12)
where

L = q p, is the orbital angular momentum.

B = g r/r
2
, and we dene r
2
= [q[
2
and r = q/r.

K
N
= g
1
(q

A
N
) + r = (q r z)/(r z), where

A
N
is a (local) vector potential
dened by

A
N
(q) = (q
2
, q
1
, 0)/(r(r +q
3
)).
On the other hand, the quantum generators discussed above can be also written in the
form of a vector
J =

L
n
2

K
N
. (5.5.13)
Therefore, taking into account equations (5.5.12) and (5.5.13), we need to impose that
2eg = n/c (recall n Z) in order to obtain a consistent quantum theory.
To end this chapter we will mention an important comment about the origin of the
construction introduced here:
The power of Mackeys work lies not so much in the actual construction of the
representations (which is a direct extension of Wigners work on the Poincare group)
but in the subtle measure theoretic arguments that are needed to prove their
irreducibility and uniqueness.[Ish84]
80
6
The Riemann Hypothesis:
Spectral Aproach
The objective of this chapter is to explore some possible applications of the quantization
method studied in this work.
6.1 The Riemann Zeta Function
This section is devoted to a brief discussion on the denition and its appearance in
physics of the Riemann zeta function. The main reference of this part of the work is
[Edw74].
Denition 6.1.1. The complex variable function which is the analytic continuation
of the series
(s) =
n=1
1
n
s
, (6.1.1)
which converges for Re(s) > 1, is known as the Riemann Zeta Function.
Remark 6.1.1. The origins of the Rieman zeta function lie in the study of the distri-
bution of prime numbers. In 1737 Euler proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the
prime number diverges. Later on, he also proved the product formula
n=1
1
n
s
=
p prime
1
1 p
s
.
There is a functional expression for the Riemann zeta function:
(s) = 2
s
s1
sin
_
s
2
_
(1 s)(1 s).
81
6. THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS: SPECTRAL APROACH
It is a known fact that the Euler gamma function has simple poles in each non-positive
integer, so the last equation shows that, for Re(s) < 0, the Riemmann zeta function
has zeros at each s = 2n for n N
+
, which are known as the trivial zeros of (s).
The Riemann hypothesis is a conjeture about the other zeros of (s): the non-
trivial zeros of (s) have real part 1/2. The Riemann hypothesis is still an open problem
and is part of Hilberts list of unsolved problems.
Now we are going to give some examples where the Riemann zeta function appears
in physics:
In a Bose-Einstein gas, the pressure can be written in the form [Rie98]:
P =
k
B
T
V
ln(1 z) +
k
B
T
3
T
g
5/2
(z) I
P
_
z,

T
L
_
,
where z is the fugacity. The function g
5/2
(z) is given by
g
5/2
(z) =
n=1
z
n
n
5/2
.
Therefore g
5/2
(1) = (5/2).
The Riemann zeta function appears in the context of random matrices: more
specically, in the distribution of the values taken by the characteristic polyno-
mials of random unitary matrices.
In the context of quantum eld theory: The Casimir eect.
At this point it might not be clear what is the relation of the quantization method
we have studied and the Riemann zeta function. To begin we should mention some
works on the Riemann hypothesis from a spectral point of view: Hilbert and Polya
conjectured that the imaginary part of the Riemann zeta function are the eigenvalues
of a self-adjoint operator. Important work has been done in this direction by M. Berry
and J. Keating [BK99]: they worked on a semiclassical model of one particle in one
dimension with classical Hamiltonian H = xp. The idea is to nd the number of states
N(E) with energy less than E, however there is a problem: the orbits on the phase
82
6.2 Landau Levels
space of this system are unbounded hyperbolae so

N(E) is not nite. To make this
number nite they work with a regularized model where they restrict the particle in a
nite region. In this work Berry and Keating found that
N(E)
E
2
log
_
E
2
_
E
2
. (6.1.2)
What is the relation of this result with the Riemann hypothesis? If we denote by N(E)
the number of complex zeros of the Riemann zeta function with imaginary part less
than E, the Riemann-van Mangoldt formula states that
N(E) =

N(E) +
1
log
_
1
2
+iE
_
where

N(E) has an asymptotic expression given by equation (6.1.2).
Remark 6.1.2. Notice that the classic Hamiltonian H = xp studied in these works
quantizes to in the example where the conguration space is Q = 1
+
.
In the next section we are going to study an approach developed by German Sierra
[ST08] in which similar expressions are obtained studying Landau levels of a particular
physical system.
6.2 Landau Levels
First of all we will describe the idea behind Landau levels. Consider a particle of mass
and charge q moving in the xy-plane under the inuence of a constant magnetic eld
along the z-axis. The Hamiltonian of the system is given by
H =
1
2
(p
x
+qBy/2c)
2
+
1
2
(p
y
qBx/2c)
2
, (6.2.1)
where we have used the vector potential
A =
B
2
(y x +x y).
We can perform a canonical transformation
Q =
cp
x
+qBy/2
qB
P = p
y
qBx/2c
83
P
=
cp
x
qBy/2
qB
Q
= p
y
+qBx/2c
and obtain the transformed Hamiltonian
H =
1
2
P
2
+
1
2
2
c
Q
2
, (6.2.2)
where
c
= qB/c is known as the cyclotron frequency. We can see that the
Hamiltonian can be written as
H = [a
a + 1/2]/
c
, (6.2.3)
where
a =
_
c
2/
_
1/2
Q+i
_
1
2
c
/
_
1/2
P. (6.2.4)
Hence, the energy levels are given by E
n
= (n +1/2)/
c
, which are known as Landau
Levels.
Remark 6.2.1. Notice that the variables Q
and P
are cyclic, we will see that this

is reected by the fact that the Landau levels are innitely degenerated. Let [0) be
the Lowest Landau Level (LLL), hence it satises a[0) = 0. If we take p
x
= i/
x
and
p
y
= i/
y
and work in complex coordinates z = x + iy and z = x iy, we have in
coordinate representation
_

z
+
qB
4/c
z
_
0
(z, z) = 0. (6.2.5)
If we suppose
0
of the form
0
(z, z) = exp
_
qB
4/c
z z
_
u(z, z)
we have
0
(z, z) =
qB
4/c
z
0
(z, z) + exp
_
qB
4/c
z z
_

z
u(z, z).
Equation(6.2.5) implies that
z
u(z, z) = 0. (6.2.6)
So u belongs to the vector space of analytic functions, which has the set of monomials
z
m
[ m = 0, 1, 2, as a basis.
84
6.2 Landau Levels
Now we are going to consider the case studied by [ST08]. This time we have an
external electric potential of the form (x, y) = xy, where > 0. Working with a
particle of charge q = e and in the Landau gauge,

A = Bx y, the Lagrangian of the
system can be written as
L =

2
( x
2
+ y
2
)
eB
c
x y exy.
This Lagrangian has two normal modes given by
c
=
eB
c
cosh
h
= i
eB
c
sinh ,
where sinh(2) = (2c
2
)/(eB
2
) and the Landau levels are also given by E
n
= (n +
1/2)/
c
. In the limit where
c
[
h
[ they approximate to
c

eB
c

h
i
c
B
.
To vanish the high energy levels, since the gap is given by /eB/c, we can take the
limit 0. In this context, we have an eective Lagrangian given by
L
LLL
=
eB
c
x y exy = p x [
h
[xp, (6.2.7)
where we have dened
p =
/y
2
and
2
=
/c
eB
Remark 6.2.2. Each level has an associated quantum magnetic ux given by
0
=
2/c/e, that occupies an area 2
2
in the xy-plane.
The quantum magnetic ux
0
appears naturally in the context of the Aharonov-Bohm
eect treated with the path-integral formalism: an integral multiple of
0
will not make
any observable dierence to the quantum mechanics of the particle, i.e. the interference
pattern (relative to the two paths) will not be aected. (see [Sha94]).
Remark 6.2.3. In the limit we are working on, the zero point energy of the system
diverges, therefore we need subtract this term form the Lagrangian, which explains the
change of sign of the rst term in equation (6.2.7). (for details see [Sha94]).
Therefore we see that the Hamiltonian H = xp follows naturally from this model
in the appropriate approximations.
85
As we discussed above, the number of states in the lowest Landau level is innite
(in this case too). One way of making the number of states nite at each level is to
restrict the particle motion to the square [x[ < L and [y[ < L. Under this restriction
there is a maximum magnitude for the energy
[E[ = [
h
[[xp[ /[
h
[
L
2
2
.
Remark 6.2.4. We will use units such that /[
h
[ = 1, this will x the value of .
If we take large values of L/, in the semiclasical limit the number of quantum
states allowed is less than L
2
/2
2
. For a xed value of admitted energy E the classical
trajectory for the particle will be the hyperbola xy = E
2
, so the number of semiclasical
quantum states N
sc
(E) with energy less that E will be the area between the two
branches of the hyperbola divided by 2
2
. However, since the Lagrangian is invariant
under (x, y) (x, y), the double degeneracy of the energy levels implies that we
only need to consider the region 0 < x < L. The area A(E) of this region is calculated
as follows
A(E) = x
0
L +
_
L
x
0
E
2
x
dx
= E
2
+E
2
log
_
L
2
2
2
_
E
2
log
_
E
2
_
,
where x
0
satises L = E
2
/x
0
. Hence, N
sc
(E) is given by
N
sc
(E) =
E
2
+
E
2
log
_
L
2
2
2
_
E
2
log
_
E
2
_
. (6.2.8)
This equation should be compared with equation (6.1.2). Notice that the second term
is actually the regularization term since it diverges as we take L . Moreover, as
Sierra itself explains, this term may be interpreted as a regularization of the continuum
of states in the lowest Landau level for a particle free to move on the entire xy-plane.
6.3 Conclusions and Perspectives
The main motivation behind the canonical group quantization method developed by
Isham was the understanding of the canonical structure of classical gravity and its
possible implications for a quantum theory of gravity (this original program has been
86
6.3 Conclusions and Perspectives
superseded by e.g. loop quantum gravity). In the context of the canonical group ap-
proach, Isham gives some arguments -which are beyond the scope of this work- to state
that the conguration space that should be studied is of the form C
(, GL
+
(3, 1))
where space-time is modeled as 1 with an oriented compact 3-manifold. The
complications that arise in this context are mainly due to the diculty of the repre-
sentation theory of the corresponding canonical group. In any case, in order to attack
complicated problems like this one it is always a good strategy to start from the begin-
ning: studying simple models!
When discussing about quantization, there are dierent points of view that can be
taken. From the point of view of high energy physics, it is very important to have a real
understanding of the underlying (if any) classical theory. For instance, the unavailabil-
ity of enough experimental data pertaining to ultra-high energies, forces theoreticians
to try out quantum models based on the only premise that, at low energies, one should
get the classical theory. This is one of the few routes available for those cases! One can
also consider another point of view: quantum theory stands on its own, and there is
no need to seek any functorial properties relating quantum and classical phenomena.
In any case, in most cases both the quantum and the classical description of a given
system is given in terms of the same background (space-time structure, symmetry
groups, etc.). It is this common ground which is, in the end, more important and for
which a rigorous quantization method can be of help. These points are without doubt
interesting, controversial, and deserve further consideration. But that was not our main
concern here. Rather, the objective of this work was to study an interesting proposal
from which we could compute explicit quantities and consider further applications of
the method. As we saw explicitly with some toy models, the soul of this quantization
method lies in the geometric and algebraic skeleton of physical theories: Evidence of
how to pass from a classical theory to its associated quantum model was encoded in
the symmetries of the classical system.
More concretely, we studied three one-dimensional examples: 1, 1
+
and S
1
where we
did explicit computations using the geometric tools that we introduced at the beginning
of the work. On each case we computed the commutation relations and guessed their
correct representations. What was also interesting for these case was the analysis of the
appearance of Plancks constant in each model: we wanted all these theories to agree
87
locally. We also illustrated some works done on two-dimensional conguration spaces:
T
2
and S
2
. The rst one gave us an idea of how to employ this method in presence of
external elds and the second gave us to recover Diracs argument for the quantization
of the electric charge via the magnetic monopole, but within a representation-theoretic
context. Finally, we discussed the formalism to nd the irreducible representations
of the canonical group, for which we needed to introduce some basic theory on ber
bundles.
We hope the reader become curious about the possible applications and perspectives
of this quantization method, since there are still a lot of questions to answer. We will
focus on two of them:
1. It is not clear how to employ this formalism for a constrained classical system.
There are some mathematical structures, called Dirac structures, that were born
from the study of constrained systems by Dirac. Today, this is an active research
area and there has been work on prequantization of these structures. It is not
clear, however, if there could an analogue for this quantization method in that
direction.
2. We have included in this chapter some works motivated by Polyas conjeture
to study the spectrum of certain operators. Motivated by the work done by
Sierra and keeping in mind our work in curved conguration spaces, one could be
tempted to study Landau levels, with appropriate potentials, in these surfaces. If
for example we choose the 2-sphere, since this space is compact the regularization
procedure might be skipped.
88
Appendix A
Principal Bundles
The idea of this appendix is to give a quick review on ber bundles, and in particular to
the construction of associated bundles. We strongly recommend refer to other sources
to complement the contents of this section. We we are going to follow the text of M.
Nakahara [Nak03] (which we strongly recommend since is full of examples).
Denition A.0.1. A smooth ber bundle consists of the following elements:
1. Smooth manifolds E, M and F called total space, base space and ber re-
spectively.
2. A smooth surjection : E M, called the projection, for which the inverse
image of a point p M is dieomorphic to the bre, that is,
1
(p) = F
p

= F.
3. A Lie group G that acts on F on the left.
4. An open covering U
j
jI
of M and dieomorphisms
j
: U
i
F
1
(U
i
)
such that (
j
)(p, f) = p and that the restriction map
j
[
p
: p F F is
a dieomorphism too. The pairs (U
j
,
j
)
jI
are called local trivializations.
5. On U
j
U
k
,= we require that g
jk
(p) =
1
j
[
p

k
[
p
be an element of G. These
maps g
jk
: U
j
U
k
G are called transition functions.
Remark A.0.1. On U
j
U
k
U
l
the transitions functions satisfy the cocycle condi-
tions:
g
jj
= id g
jk
= g
1
kj
g
jk
g
kl
g
lj
= id (A.0.1)
Denition A.0.2. A smooth map s : M E is called a local section if s = id.
The space of sections of the ber bundle is denoted by (E).
89
A. PRINCIPAL BUNDLES
Denition A.0.3. Let (E, , M, F, G) and (E
, M
, F
, G
) be two ber bundles and

h : M M
be a smooth map. We say that

h : E E
is a smooth bundle map

over h if

h(F
p
) = F
h(p)
.
Denition A.0.4. A vector bundle is a ber bundle whose ber has a vector space
structure, for instance C
k
, and whose structure group in this case is GL(k, C).
Denition A.0.5. A principal bundle is a ber bundle whose bre is the same
structure group G. A principal bundle is often called a G-bundle over M and the
total space is denoted by P.
Remark A.0.2. We can dene a right action of G on F as follows: Let (U
j
,
j
)
jI
be local trivializations and let u P such that (u) = p U
j
and
1
j
(u) = (p, b
j
).
Then we dene for each a G, ua =
j
(p, b
j
a). This denition is independent of the
trivialization since ua =
j
(p, b
j
a) =
j
(p, g
jk
(p)b
k
a) =
k
(p, b
k
, a) = ua. It is easily
seen that the action is free and transitive.
Remark A.0.3. We can use local sections to dene a canonical trivialization as
follows: Let s
j
be a smooth section dened on an open subset U
j
M. For each
element u
1
(p) there is a unique element g
u
G such that u = s
j
(p)g
u
, therefore
we can dene
1
j
(u) = (p, g
u
) and, in particular, s
j
(p) =
j
(p, e). Moreover, on a
non-empty intersection we have
s
j
(p) =
j
(p, e) =
k
(p, g
kl
(p)e) =
k
(p, eg
kl
(p)) =
k
(p, e)g
kj
(p) = s
k
(p)g
kj
Example A.0.1. We are going to explore an explicit example: A U(1)-bundle over
S
2
. For > 0 dene an open covering for the sphere using spherical coordinates by
U
N
= (, ) [0, /2 +) [0, 2)
U
S
= (, ) (/2 , ] [0, 2)
so that the intersection is an open band of width 2 around the equator. Dene local
trivializations by
1
N
(u) = (p, exp(i
N
))
1
S
(u) = (p, exp(i
S
))
were (u) = p. The transitions function g
NS
can be taken of the formg
NS
(p) exp(in(p)),
however on the equator we have exp(i
N
) = exp(in) exp(i
S
), therefore, n should be
an integer in order to ensure that the transition function is well dened on the equator.
90
For n = 0 we have a trivial bundle S
2
U(1), whereas for n ,= 0 the bundle is not
trivial. Moreover, for each integer we have inequivalent U(1)-bundles over S
2
. The
twisting of these bundles can be understood in terms of the fundamental group, since
1
(S
1
) = Z.
Example A.0.2. Let H be a closed Lie subgroup of a Lie group G. We are going
to see that G is a principal bundle over the homogeneous space M = G/H with ber
H. Dene the projection map by (g) = [g] and the right action by of H on G just
by right multiplication. To construct local trivializations we consider a local section
s
j
dened on U
j
and g
1
([g]), now dene f
j
: G H by f
j
(g) = s
j
([g])
1
g.
To ensure that this map is well dened notice that s([g]) = ga for some a H,
hence s
j
([g])
1
g = a
1
H. Also notice that if a H then f
j
(ga) = s([ga])
1
ga =
s([g])
1
ga = f
j
(g)a. Finally, if we dene
j
: U
j
H G by
1
j
(g) = ([g], f
j
(g))
we see that
1
j
(ga) = ([ga], f
j
(ga)) = ([g], f
j
(g)a), which is what we wanted.
Example A.0.3. (Hopf Bundle) For instance, it is well known that SO(n)/SO(n1)
=
S
n1
, in particular for n = 3 he have a principal U(1)-bundle over S
2
with total space
S
3
.
Denition A.0.6. Let P be a G-bundle over M and let G acting on a smooth manifold
F on the left. Dene a right action of G on P F by (u, f)g = (ug, g
1
f). We dene
the associated bundle to be a ber bundle over M whose total space is P F/G
and has F as a ber. The projection map is given by ([(u, f)]) = (u), which is well
dened since ([(u, f)g]) = ([(ug, g
1
f)]) = (ug) = (u). We will denote the total
space of the associated map by P
G
F
Remark A.0.4. Let P be a G-bundle over M and consider the special case in which
F has a vector space structure, for instance let F = C
k
. Then, given a representation
: G GL(k, C) we have a natural left action of G on C
k
, namely gv = (g)v for
g G and v C
k
. We will denote the associated bundle by P
C
k
, which is clearly
a vector bundle over M.
Conversely, let E be a k-dimensional vector bundle over M and let GL(E) the ber
bundle over M whose ber at p M is GL(k,
1
(p)), then GL(E) is a GL(k, C)-bundle
over M and the associated bundle GL(E)
GL(k,C)
C
k
is naturally equivalent to E. The
principal bundle GL(E) is called the frame bundle of E.
Example A.0.4. Let P be a G-bundle over M and consider de adjoint representation
Ad : G Aut(g). Then we can construct the adjoint associated bundle by
P
Ad
g.
91
A. PRINCIPAL BUNDLES
Remark A.0.5. We are going to study the space (P
G
F). Let C
(P, F) such
that (ug) = g
1
(u) for all g G, then we can dene a section by s
(p) = [u
p
,
(
u
p
)]
where u
p

1
(p). Notice that [u
p
g, (u
p
g)] = [u
p
g, g
1
(u
p
)] = [u
p
,
(
u
p
)], therefore
this section is well dened.
On the other hand, given a section s (P
G
F), dene a function
s
C
(P, F)
by s((u)) = [p,
s
(p)]. If we compute
[p,
s
(u)] = s((u)) = s((ug)) = [ug,
s
(ug)] = [u, g
s
(ug)]
we see that (ug) = g
1
(u). Hence, we conclude that
(P
G
F)
= C
(P, F) [ (ug) = g
1
(u) g G (A.0.2)
92
References
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1987. 5
[Ber87] R. Berndt. Introduction to Symplectic Geometry. AMS, Graduate Studies
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[BK99] M.V. Berry and J.P. Keating. H=xp and the Riemann zeros. Supersymme-
try and Trace Formulae: Chaos and Disorder, edited by I.V. Lerner et al.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, 1999. 82
[BR08] C. Benavides and A. Reyes. Canonical group quantization, rotation gen-
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+
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Canonical Group Quantization:

Foundations and Applications

Q. In this mathematical framework the classical observables are

Q, 1) is the Hamiltonian of the system. Moreover, the

Q, 1) with a Poisson algebra

= . In particular a left action : GM M

Q (the phase space) has a natural symplectic

Q), then we dene the Liouville 1-form

denotes the pushforward of the projection

Q), but there is an additional

preserves the Liouville 1-form. To prove it let us denote =

(M, 1). Then

(M), , ) has a Lie algebra structure.

(M) HamVF(M) be the map dened by j(f) = X

(M, 1) are given such that the diagram

such that z(A, B) =

(x) = x v for some v W.

[], we need to construct a g-module homomorphism : KW

is a g-module. Conditions 1 and 2

is one-to-one we have shown that

(x), (y)] + [(x),

(x), (y)] [x,

), which is a semidirect sum, has

M) the set of 1-forms with a trivial Lie bracket

h g by (x, h) = (x) +(h). Notice that is

= ([x, y], x b y a +(x, y)).

is a Lie bracket if and only if Z

h) for some h h. So if we compute

, then = 0, which implies that (q) (V ). Since

(x), (y)] ([x, y]))

belong to the same cohomology class. Recall that by Proposi-

such that z(A, B) = h([A, B]) for all

(M, 1) such that it is a

(M, 1) there exists a function F

(M, 1) whose support is con-

1) = 0. But actually observe that if we dene f : T

(a,b) (dq dp)

(g). We will now dene the operators

(exp(a, 0, 0)) V (b) = U

(exp(0, b, 0)) (4.2.8)

(exp(0, 0, r)) = exp(ir) for some 1 (4.2.9)

with purely imaginary eigenvalues.

(b,r) (dx dp) = (dx dp)

whereas for t < 0 is 1

are symplectic dieomorphisms, we can dene an action

(a,b) (dx dp) = df.

(n,0) = d(n), we need to

(b,d,) (d dl) = dl + (b sin d cos )d = df.

(m, n, ) a unitary, weakly continuous, irreducible representation of E

(exp b, exp d, 0) U() = U

the associated representations are inequivalent.

(b, d) = (b, d, /). (4.5.12)

(Y )]) for X, Y L(E

should agree on the limit , this forces that

Q) and dene for T

Q Q is the natural projection. Notice that is a well dened

, where is the Liouville

, and if we apply the exterior derivative we

= + d, where = d is the natural symplectic form on T

(Q, 1)/1 Di(Q) on T

(Q, 1)/1 Di(Q) should satisfy, for T

(Q, 1)/1 this it not

(Q, 1)/1 and Di(Q) are innite-

(Q, 1)/1Di(Q) of the form V G, where V is a nite-dimensional