The Meaning of LIFE

Transformer Life

The Meaning of LIFE!

IEEE C57.91 Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil Immersed Transformers

Thermal Profile

air oil
Transformer Height

Top Oil
NL (core) Losses

core & coil

I2R

NL (core) Losses

Bottom Oil

Oil Temperature

Top Oil Temperature

Note: The FLASH POINT of Transformer Oil is about 140 Deg C!

air oil
Transformer Height

Top Oil

core & coil

Bottom Oil

Oil Temperature

Average Winding Rise

Resistance - ohms
P S S P P S S P

Average Winding Rise :

Measured by the Resistance of the windings at the shut-down of a heat run... (t = 0)
shut down

time

Limited by ANSI to <= 55/65 deg C... i.e., the basic definition of the kVA Rating of a Transformer!

Effective kVA
A good approximation for calculating the Effective kVA over the range of parameters normally encountered in Distribution Transformers is...
0.75

Effective kVA = Rated kVA x

65
Average Winding Rise

For example, a Transformer rated at 25 kVA with an AWR of 50 deg C would have the capacity of a 30.4 kVA...

Hottest Spot

P S

S P P S

S P

Typically, the Hot Spot Gradient (HSG) is 1.6 - 2 times the difference between the Average Winding Rise (AWR) and the Top Oil Rise (TOR)... Attempts to measure the Hottest Spot involve embedding thermocouples inside the windings... this of course is not typically done on production units...

Transformer Hot Spot -

Limited to 140-170 deg C for Mineral Oil

Hottest Spot Disk Wound

Typically, the Hot Spot Gradient (HSG) for Power Construction is 1.1 to 1.2 times the difference between the Average Winding Rise (AWR) and the Top Oil Rise (TOR)... Due to the Oil Flow inside the windings, the Hottest Spot is typically near the top Forced Oil (Directed or Non-directed) flow can effect this relationship For Core-Type Construction, Embedding Fiber Optic Temperature Transducers inside the disk wound windings can be done when the unit is Unblocked... Typically these are placed near the top (1-3 layers) down near the Center of the Low Voltage winding

Transformer Temperatures

Temperature - Deg C

Hottest Spot

hottest spot gradient (HSG)

Top Oil

top oil rise (TOR)

Ambient time Under Steady-State Load and Ambient Conditions, the temperatures stabilize to constant values...

Steady-State Load Conditions

Transformer Temperatures

Temperature - Deg C

Hottest Spot

HSG = rated HSG x K2m TOR = rated TOR x K2R+1 R+1

n Top Oil

Ambient

time The TOR and HSG at any value of Load is a function of the Rated values of TOR and HSG, the Load (K), the Ratio of Losses (R = LL/NL), and the winding (m) and oil (n) exponents...

Steady-State Load Conditions

Transformer Thermal Calculations

The Calculations of the Hottest Spot, Top Oil, and Insulation Life are defined in ANSI C57.91. These procedures were verified in the late 1980s in actual tests done by several manufacturers working with the IEEE Transformers Committee.

Thermal Mass
K2 Load
Tank

K1 t=0 time

Oil C&C

The Temperature response to a change in LOAD is a function of the MASS of the System reflected in the TIME CONSTANT...

Oil Time Constant

K2
for Top Oil...

Load

K1 t=0

tcoil = C x

TOR Total Losses

C = .06 x C&C + .04 x Tank + 1.33 x Oil Gallons

(note: for OA ratings with Copper Windings...)

time The Top Oil Time Constant is a function of the Capacity Factor, the Rated Top Oil Rise, and the Total Losses...

Oil Time Constant

K2
for Top Oil...

Load

K1 t=0

tcoil = C x

TOR Total Losses

C = .06 x (WtCC-WtAL) + .14 x WtAL + .04 x WtTANK + 1.33 x Oil Gal

(note: for OA ratings with Aluminum Windings...)

time The Top Oil Time Constant is a function of the Capacity Factor, the Rated Top Oil Rise, and the Total Losses...

Hottest Spot Time Constant

K2 Load
for the Hottest Spot ...

K1 t=0

tchs = 5 to 15 minutes depending

on the winding material and construction...

time The Winding Time Constant is a function of Coil Construction and is usually supplied by the Manufacturer...

Top Oil Rise Increasing Load

K2 Load K1
ti t=0

tu

TOR = ( tu - ti ) ( 1 - e -t/tc oil ) + ti

time
The TOR at any point in time is a function of both the Initial and Ultimate Top Oil Temperatures and the Top Oil Time Constant...

Hottest Spot Increasing Load

HSG = (gu - gi) (1-e -t/tc hs) + gi

K2 Load K1
gi

gu tu

TOR = ( tu - ti ) ( 1 - e -t/tc oil + ti ) t=0

ti

time
The HSG at any point in time is a function of both the Initial and Ultimate Hot Spot Temperatures and the Hot Spot Time Constant...

Top Oil Decreasing Load

K1 Load K2
ti t=0
tu

TOR = ( ti - tu ) ( e -t/tc oil) + tu

time
The TOR at any point in time is a function of both the Initial and Ultimate Top Oil Temperatures and the Top Oil Time Constant...

Hottest Spot Decreasing Load

K1 Load K2
ti t=0

HSG = (gi - gu) (e -t/tc hs ) + gu

gu tu

TOR = ( ti - tu ) ( e -t/tc oil) + tu

time
The HSG at any point in time is a function of both the Initial and Ultimate Hot Spot Temperatures and the Hot Spot Time Constant...

Insulation Life

The Insulation LIFE of a Transformer is a function of Temperature and Time at Temperature...

Insulation Life Montsingers 8 degree Rule

The LIFE of varnished cambric tape, as defined by a reduction in the tensile strength, is reduced by one half for each 8 deg C increase in continuous temperature... This work was done in the 1920s and later refined to 6 to 10 degrees based on the temperature range involved... End-of-Life was defined as the point where the tensile strength was reduced by 50% of the initial value...

Insulation Life Retained Tensile Strength

Life vs. Temperature

In the 1940s, Dakin postulated that transformer insulation deteriorated following a modification of Arrhenius chemical reaction rate theory.

Temperature

Log LIFE = A + B/T

where T is the ABSOLUTE Temperature of the Hottest Spot within the Winding...

T LIFE
Hours to Failure
note: shown as a log-log relationship...

Life Testing
Based on AIEE Transformers Committee tests done in the mid-1950s, LIFE curves for Transformers were established...
220

Hottest Spot Temperature - Deg C

group 1

Log LIFE = A + B/T

group 2

180

140

group 3 Lockie Tests

Hours to Failure

log-log relationship...

Insulation Life Testing - ANSI C57.100

Life Testing

Insulation Life Testing - ANSI C57.100

Life Testing
Based on AIEE Transformers Committee tests done in the mid-1950s, LIFE curves for Transformers were established...
220

Hottest Spot Temperature - Deg C

group 1

Log LIFE = A + B/T

group 2

180

140

group 3 Lockie Tests

Hours to Failure

log-log relationship...

Insulation Life Testing - ANSI C57.100

Life Testing
Based on AIEE Transformers Committee tests done in the mid-1950s, LIFE curves for Transformers were established...
220 1/5 180
C5 7.9 1-1 981

Hottest Spot Temperature - Deg C

group 1

Log LIFE = A + B/T

group 2
Dis trib uti on

140

group 3 Lockie Tests

Hours to Failure

log-log relationship...

Insulation Life Testing - ANSI C57.100

Life Testing
Based on AIEE Transformers Committee tests done in the mid-1950s, LIFE curves for Transformers were established...
220 1/5 180 1/2
C5 7.9 1-1 981

Hottest Spot Temperature - Deg C

group 1

Log LIFE = A + B/T

group 2
Dis trib uti on

140

C5 7.9 2-1 981 Pow er

group 3 Lockie Tests

Hours to Failure

log-log relationship...

Insulation Life Testing - ANSI C57.100

Standard Life Curves

1960 - 1980s
Hottest Spot - Deg C
C57.91-1981

110 100 90 10 30
C57.92-1981

50

70

Relative Insulation Life - years

ANSI Loading Guides - 65 deg C Life Equations

Insulation Life
Based on work done on model power transformers in the 1980s by EPRI...
a) It was decided that the insulation life curves for both Power and Distribution Transformers are similar...C57.91, C57.92 and C57.115 were combined into C57.91.1995 b) ANSI C57.100 should be used for the evaluation of the thermal life of new insulation systems... c) The chemical test measurement of degree of polymerization (DP) is a much better indication of cellulose insulation mechanical characteristics than loss of tensile strength...

ANSI Loading Guide - C57.91-1995

Per-Unit Life
1000

B Per Unit Life = A exp + 273 H

Per Unit of Normal Life

100 10 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 50 110 190

A = 9.8 x 10 -18 B = 15000

(based on 180,000 hours, i.e., 20.55 years at 110 Deg C for 1 NORMAL Life)

Hottest Spot Temperature - deg C

H = Hottest Spot Temperature - Deg C

ANSI Loading Guide - C57.91 1995

Normal Insulation Life

for a well-dried, oxygen free 65 deg C average winding temperature rise insulation system at the reference temperature of 110 deg C...
Hours 50% retained tensile strength of insulation (former C57.92-1981 criterion) 25% retained tensile strength of insulation 200 retained degree of polymerization in insulation Interpretation of distribution Transformer functional life test data ( C57.91-1981 criteria) 65,000 135,000 150,000 Years 7.42 15.41 17.12

180,000

20.55

ANSI Loading Guide - C57.91 1995

Non-Invasive Testing - Furans

The DP of paper can be determined utilizing ASTM method D-4243. Acquisition of a paper sample is an invasive and expensive procedure that requires taking the unit off line. A non-invasive alternative has been developed recently based on the determination of oil soluble cellulose decomposition products called furans. These compounds can analyze these compounds from an oil sample with High Performance Liquid Chromatography. The most significant compound is 2Furfuraldehyde where concentrations of this compound have been correlated with DP. Chendong has developed an empirical correlation between the concentration of 2-Furfuraldehyde and the DP. Log [Fur] = 1.51 - 0.0035 DP
where [Fur] = conc. of 2-Furfuraldehyde in PPM.

This equation, though not exact, allows one to estimate the DP of cellulose insulation. Knowing the DP value, one can estimate the remaining insulation life of a transformer.

Limitations

The flash point of standard transformer oil is about 135-140 deg C. ANSI C57.91 recommends that the maximum allowable temperature for Top Oil should not exceed 110 deg C! (Mineral Oil) Due to the potential of gas bubble generation in mineral oil, the Hottest Spot temperature should be limited to a maximum of 140 deg C (Mineral Oil) in the Spring/Fall and summer seasons. Temperatures up to 170 deg C can typically be allowed in the winter seasons. The thermal limitations of equipment and components such as bushings, gaskets, tap changers, switches, etc. should be considered. For normal 55/65C Oil-Paper insulation systems, Thermal run-away begins around 200 deg C.

All Transformers will eventually fail

Lots of problems can be avoided by reducing the risk of an eventful failure

Transformer Case Studies

36

Transformer Applications FECA Agenda

June 11, 2009 08:30-10:00 Transformer Overview - Basic Construction - Lightning / LV Surges - Voltage Regulation / Flicker - Life Cycle Costing / DOE Efficiency Ruling Break

10:00-10:15 10:15-12:15

Insulation Life (C57.91) + TAP Simulations - The Meaning of Lifethe C57.91 Loading Guide - Over Head Residential + flicker - Padmount Residential + fusing + Short Circuit - Padmount 3 + harmonics - Vault 3 + vault restrictions - Substation/Power Transformers - Ratings/Cooling Modes Settings - Contingency Modeling 1:00 2:45 2:45 3:00 Power Transformer Maintenance, Monitoring & DGA Exams/Discussions/wrap-up

Revised May 29, 2009 dad

Case Studies

Case Studies :
1. Overhead Residential OH/Res 3. Padmounted Residential PM/Res 5. Commercial Padmount PM/3 Com 7. Commercial Vault Vault/3 Com 9. Substation/Power

Case Study OH/Res

Case Study OH/Res Ambient

Case Study OH/Res Load

Case Study OH/Res Transformer

Case Study OH/Res Load Summary

Case Study OH/Res Secondary

Case Study PM/Res

Case Study PM/Res

Load

Case Study PM/Res

Transformer

Case Study PM/Res

Bayonet Fusing

Case Study PM/Res

Load Summary

Case Study PM/Res

Touch Temps

Case Study PM/Res

SCA & VR

Case Study PM/Res

Customer Letter

Case Study PM/3 Com

Case Study PM/3 Com

Load

Case Study PM/3 Com

Transformer

Case Study PM/3 Com

Transformer

Case Study PM/3 Com

Harmonics

Case Study PM/3 Com

Harmonics

Case Study PM/3 Com

w/Harmonics

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Transformer

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

FUSING

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Load Summary

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Secondary

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Secondary

Case Study VAULT/3 Com

Secondary

Case Study Substation

Case Study Substation

AMBIENT

Case Study Substation

LOAD

Case Study Substation

TRANSFORMER

Case Study Substation

OPTIONS

Case Study Substation

Load Summary

Case Study Substation

NATURAL ESTER

Case Study Contingency Modeling

North American Transformer 200//333/373 55/65C MVA Pershing Sub - #6

Case Study Contingency Modeling

With 85% of peak top rating applied (317050 kVA) during the peak season (extreme summer) a switching operation adds an additional 130550 kVA (about 120% of Peak) for 15 minutes the Hottest Spot peaks to 89.8 degrees C and is still within the NERC specified requirements (max is 105C). The losses, Top Oil Rise and Hottest Spot Gradients used to develop the review on this unit is based on supplied manufacturer test reports this is using Clause 7 of C57.91

Case Study Contingency Modeling

Using the Annex G procedure, with 85% of peak rating applied (317050 kVA) during the peak season (extreme summer) the switching operation (120% of peak) shows the Hottest Spot peaks to 95.43 degrees C which is still within the requirements (max is 105C). Note the difference between the results of the Clause 7 procedure vs. Annex G note that Annex G routines provide a metric on duct oil which might be useful in predicting potential gassing

Case Study Summary

Q/A?
Don A. Duckett, P.E. Technical Sales Engineer HD Supply Utilities (407) 402-0944 Don.Duckett@ieee.org