ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT The composite structural members are highly used in the applications like aerospace, automobiles, robotic arms, architecture etc., has attracted extensive attention in the past decades. One of the important issues in the composite technology is the repairing of aging aircraft structures. In such applications and also for joining various composite parts together, they are fastened together either using adhesives or mechanical fasteners. In this project work, modeling and

analysis of 3-D models of the Bonded, Riveted and Hybrid joints were carried out using ANSYS 11 FEA software and also Tensile Strength of these joints were carried out using Universal Testing Machine(UTM) . A parametric study was also conducted to compare the performance of the hybrid joint with varying adherent thickness, adhesive thickness and overlap length. To utilize the full potential of composite materials as structural elements, the strength and stress distribution of these joints must be understood .ANSYS FEA tool and UTM (Experimental) is used to study the stress distribution and Tensile Strength in the members involved under various design conditions and various joints.

LIST OF FIGURES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. 1

Description Introduction

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1.1 OBJECTIVE 1.2 METHODOLOGY

2 4

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Over the past three decades, application of composite materials are continuously increasing from traditional application areas such as military aircraft,

commercial aircraft to various engineering fields including automobiles, robotic arms and even architecture. Due to its superior properties, composites have been one of the materials used for repairing the existing structures. In such applications and also for joining various composite parts together, they are fastened together either using adhesives or mechanical fasteners. Nowadays, a novel method called hybrid joint is also being employed, where a combination of both adhesive and mechanical fasteners is used.

1.1 OBJECTIVE To investigate the stress distribution and Tensile Strength of various configuration of single lap joint. A parametric study of hybrid joint by varying the three dimensional parameters of the joint will be carried out.

1.2 METHODOLOGY Modeling and analysis of 3-D models of the Bonded, Riveted and Hybrid joints were carried out using ANSYS 11 FEA software and also Tensile Strength of these joints were carried out using Universal Testing Machine(UTM).

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK Composite materials have been widely used as structural elements in aircraft structures due to their superior properties. Aircraft structure is a huge assembly of

skins, spars, frames etc. The structure consists of an assembly of sub-structures properly arranged and connected to form a load transmission path. Such load transmission path is achieved using joints. Joints constitute the weakest zones in the structure. Failure may occur due to various reasons such as stress concentrations, excessive deflections etc. or a combination of these. Therefore, to utilize the full potential of composite materials, the strength and stress distribution in the joints has to be understood so that suitable configuration can be chosen for various applications. Analysis using FEA tool is necessary to standardize the experimental procedures and testing sequence.

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Any number papers can easily be found for mechanically fastened joints and adhesive bonded joints whereas for hybrid joints, there are only a limited number of papers available. Some of them are briefly discussed below. 1. Hart-Smith conducted a theoretical investigation of combined bonded/bolted stepped lap joints between titanium and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP). While no significant strength benefits were found in comparison to perfectly bonded joints, the combined bolted-bonded joint was found to be beneficial for repairing damaged bonded joints and limiting damage propagation. Under room temperature and ambient humidity conditions, 98% of the applied load was predicted to be transferred by the adhesive. 2. Chan and Vedhagiri investigated the use of bolted, bonded and combined bonded-bolted joints used in repair. A single strap joint with CFRP adherends was considered with two bolts used in the overlap region. The study primarily considered stress distributions in the laminates and limited consideration was given to load transfer through the joint.

The structural response of various configurations of single lap joint, namely, bonded, bolted and bonded-bolted joints, was analyzed by three-dimensional finite element method. For the case of hybrid joints, it was found that the bolts do not take an active role in load transfer before the initiation of the failure.

However, the bolts in the hybrid joint actually reduce the in-plane axial stress near the edge of overlap. 3. Gordon Kelly investigated the load distribution in hybrid joints numerically through the use of finite element analysis. A three dimensional finite element model was developed including the effects of bolt-hole and nonlinear material behavior and large deformation. From the study, it was found that load transferred by the bolt increases with increasing adherend thickness and adhesive thickness and decreases with increasing overlap length, pitch distance and adhesive modulus. 4. Fu and Mallick investigated the static and fatigue strength of hybrid joints in a Structural Reaction Injection Moulded (SRIM) composite materials. The authors performed an experimental investigation on a single lap joint considering the effect of different washer designs. It was concluded that the performance of the hybrid joints was dependent upon the washer design which affected the distribution of the bolt clamping force. The hybrid joints were shown to have higher static strength and longer fatigue life than adhesive bonded joints for the studied material system.

5. Jin-Hwe Kweon, Jae-Woo Jung and others conducted tests to evaluate the strength of carbon composite to aluminum double lap joints with two different adhesive materials, film and paste types. The three types of jointsbonded, bolted and hybrid- were considered. It was found that the strength of

hybrid joints with film type adhesive is dominated by the strength of the adhesive itself. On the contrary, the strength of the joints with paste type adhesive was mainly affected by the bolt joint. In general, it was found that hybrid joining is effective when the mechanical fastening is stronger than the bonding. On the contrary, when the strength of the bolted joint is lower than the strength of the bonded joint, the bolt joining contributes little to the hybrid joint strength. Previous studies on hybrid joints have considered fixed joint geometries and material systems. Limited consideration has been given to the prediction of load distribution in the joints. This study was focused on the analysis of stress distribution in three prominent joining methods namely, bonded, bolted and hybrid joints. FEA is used to study the stress distribution in the members involved under various design conditions.

2.2 COMPOSITE MATERIALS: AN OVERVIEW Basic requirements for the better performance efficiency of an aircraft are high strength, high stiffness and low weight. The conventional materials such as metals and alloys could satisfy these requirements only to a certain extent. This

lead to the need for developing new materials that can whose properties were superior to conventional metals and alloys, were developed. A composite is a structural material which consists of two or more constituents combined at a macroscopic level. The constituents of a composite material are a continuous phase called matrix and a discontinuous phase called reinforcement.Matrix gives shape and protects the reinforcement from the environment. It also makes the individual fibers of the reinforcement act together and provides transverse shear strength and stiffness to the laminated composites. The matrix factors which contribute to the mechanical performance of composites are transverse modulus and strength, shear modulus and strength, compressive strength, inter-laminar shear strength, thermal expansion co-efficient, thermal resistance and fatigue strength. Reinforcement provides strength and stiffness and controls thermal expansion co-efficient. It also helps to achieve directional properties. Reinforcements may be in the form of fibers, particles or flakes. The fiber factors which contribute to the mechanical performance of a composite are length, orientation, shape and material.

The factor which influences the mechanical performance of composites other than the fiber and the matrix is the fiber-matrix interface. It predicts how well the matrix transfers load to the fibers.

Composites are classified by 1. the geometry of the reinforcement as particulate, flakes and fibers 2. the type of matrix as polymer, metal, ceramic and carbon

The most commonly used advanced composites are polymer matrix composites. These composites consists of a polymer such as epoxy, polyester, urethane etc., reinforced by thin-diameter fibers such as carbon, graphite, aramids, boron, glass etc. Low cost, high strength and simple manufacturing principles are the reason why they are most commonly used in the repair of aircraft structures.To measure the relative mechanical advantage of composites, two parameters are widely used, namely, the specific modulus and the specific strength. These two parameter ratios are high in composites.

The building block of a laminate is a single lamina. Therefore the mechanical analysis of a lamina precedes that of a laminate. A lamina is an anisotropic and non-homogeneous material. But for approximate macromechanical analysis, a lamina is assumed to be homogeneous where the calculation of the average properties are based on individual mechanical

properties of fiber and matrix, as well as content, packing geometry and shape of fibers.

Fig.2.1 Aircraft Structures

The lamina is considered as orthotropic, so it can be characterized by nine independent elastic constants: three Youngs moduli along each material axis,

three Poissons ratio for each plane and three shear moduli for each plane. Once the properties for each lamina are obtained, properties of a laminate, made of those laminae can be calculated using those individual properties. In the highly competitive airline market, using composites is more efficient. Though the material cost may be higher, the reduction in the number of parts in an assembly and the savings in the fuel cost makes more profit. It also lowers the overall mass of the aircraft without reducing the strength and stiffness of its components.

Fig.2.2 Comparative characteristics of metals and composites

2.3 EPOXIES Epoxies are polymer materials, which begin life as liquid and are converted to the solid polymer by a chemical reaction. An epoxy based polymer is mechanically strong, chemically resistant to degradation in the solid form and highly adhesive during conversion from liquid to solid. These properties, together with the wide range of basic epoxy chemicals from which an epoxy system can be formulated, make them very versatile. Epoxy systems physically comprise two essential components, a resin and a hardener. Sometimes there is a third component, an accelerator, but this is not so common. The resin component is the epoxy part and the hardener is the part it reacts with chemically and is usually a type of amine. Whereas the resin component is usually light, sometimes almost clear coloured and near odourfree, hardeners are usually dark and have a characteristic ammonia-like odour. When these two components are brought together and mixed intimately in a prescribed way, they will react chemically and link together irreversibly, and when the full reaction has been completed they will form a rigid plastic polymer material. This polymer is called a thermoset plastic because, when cured, it is irreversibly rigid and relatively unaffected by heat. Epoxy polymers have many uses: as industrial adhesives, or as coatings, or as matrices in which to embed reinforcement fibres to form advanced reinforced plastics, and also as encapsulation media.

2.3.1 USES The uses for epoxies span many markets including aerospace, transport, marine, civil engineering and general industry, and such is the versatility of epoxys chemistry that chemists are able to fine tune the formulations for a wide variety of specific tasks. Some epoxies, which are used as coatings, are dispersed in solvents, but the majority used for structural applications are solvent-free, and these are the types which require more care in their use and which are featured here.

2.4 POLYESTER RESINS

The resin and hardener are usually supplied as two liquids in separate containers. To bring about a reaction, not only must they be combined in exactly the right quantities relative to one another (ratio), but the individual molecules must be brought into contact with one another by stirring, in order that the reaction is initiated and the cure can proceed. A little too much of either component will adversely affect the chemical link-up which is taking place (the cure) and the user will soon notice that the material has not gone off, the mix remaining softer than it should be. Epoxies must not be confused with another very common group of thermoset polymers, the polyesters, which although they may look similar, have a different curing mechanism involving the use of a catalyst. In a catalytic reaction, the liquid resin component reacts with itself to form the hard plastic polymer, but only when the catalyst has been added. Only a small amount of catalyst (usually 12%) is needed to start this type of reaction.

Polyester resins characteristically have a smell of styrene which is both a 'solvent' for the polyester and a reactive component. The other component the user adds to initiate the cure reaction is added in very small volumes relative to the resin, which may be varied according to speed of reaction required. As this material is only a catalyst, the quantity added is not critical in the same way that a hardener is to epoxy resin and the two systems must be thought of as being completely different.

2.5 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE: The most common testing machines are universal testers, which test materials in tension, compression, or bending. Their primary function is to create the stressstrain curve described in the following section in this chapter. Testing machines are either electromechanical or hydraulic. The principal difference is the method by which the load is applied. Electromechanical machines are based on a variable-speed electric motor; a gear reduction system; and one, two, or four screws that movethe crosshead up or down. This motion loads the specimen in tension or compression. Crosshead speeds can be changed by changing the speed of the motor. A microprocessor-based closed-loop servo system can be implemented to accurately control the speed of the crosshead.

Fig.2.3 Universal Testing Machine

Hydraulic testing machines are based on either a single or dual-acting piston that moves the crosshead up or down. However, most static hydraulic testing machines have a single acting piston or ram. In a manually operated machine, the operator adjusts the orifice of a pressure-compensated needle valve to control the rate of loading. In a closed-loop hydraulic servo system, the needle valve is replaced by an electrically operated servo valve for precise control.

2.6 INTRODUCTION TO TENSILE TESTING TENSILE TESTS are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to predict the behaviour of a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension. The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic deformation or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. These measures of strength are used, with appropriate caution (in the form of safety factors), in engineering design. Also of interest is the materials ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it fractures.

Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in material specifications to ensure quality and toughness. Low ductility in a tensile test often is accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms of loading. Elastic properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by ultrasonic techniques.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

CHAPTER - 3 SOFTWARE OVERVIEW

Fig. 3.1 Flow Chart

3.1 CATIA CATIA is one of the worlds leading CAD/CAM/CAE package. Being a solid modeling tool, it not only unites 3D parametric features with 2D tools, but also addresses every design through manufacturing process. CATIA- Computer Aided Dimensional Interactive Application. CATIA, developed by Dassult systems, france, is a completely reengineered, next generation family of CAD/CAM/CAE software solution. CATIA serves the basic design task by providing different workbenches, some of the workbenches available in this package are Part design workbench Assembly design workbench Drafting workbench Wireframe and surface design workbench Generative shape design workbench DMU kinematics Manufacturing Mold design

3.1.1 PART DESIGN WORKBENCH The part workbench is a parametric and feature-based environment, in which we can create solid models. In the part design workbench, we are provided with tool those convert sketches into other features are called the sketch-based features.

3.1.2 ASSEMBLY DESIGN WORKBENCH The assembly design workbench is used to assemble the part by using assembly constraints. There are two type of assembly design, Bottom up Top- down In bottom up assembly, the parts are created in part workbench and assembled in assembly workbench. In the top-down workbench assembly, the parts are created in assembly workbench itself.

3.1.3 WIREFRAME AND SURFACE DESIGN WORKBENCH The wire frame and surface design workbench is also parametric and feature based environment. The tools available in this workbench are similar to those in

the part workbench, with the only difference that the tool in this environment are used to create basic and advance surfaces

3.1.4 DRAFTING WORKBENCH The drafting workbench is used for the documentation of the parts or the assemblies created in the form of drafting. There are two types of drafting techniques: Generative drafting Interactive drafting The generative drafting technique is used to automatically generate the drawing views of parts and assemblies.In interactive drafting, we need to create the drawing by interactive with the sketcher to generate the views.

3.1.5 DMU KINEMATICS This workbench deals with the relative motion of the parts.DMU kinematics simulator is an independent CAD product dedicated to simulating assembly motions. It addresses the design review environment of digital mock-ups (DMU) and can handle a wide range of products from customer goods to very large automotive or aerospace projects as well as plants, ships and heavy machinery. We created model of joints (bonded, riveted and hybrid) by using CATIA software. The models are shown below

Fig 3.2 Model of Bonded Joint

Fig 3.3 Model of Riveted Joint

Fig 3.4 Model of Hybrid Joint

3.2 ANSYS: ANSYS is a complete FEA simulation software package developed by ANSYS Inc USA. It is used by engineers worldwide in virtually all fields of engineering. Structural Thermal Fluid (CFD, Acoustics, and other fluid analyses) Low-and High-Frequency Electromagnetic.

PROCEDURE: Every analysis involves three main steps: Pre-processor Solver post processor

3.2.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS The seven types of structural analyses available in the ANSYS family of products are explained below. The primary unknowns (nodal degrees of freedom) calculated in a structural analysis are displacements. Other quantities, such as strains, stresses, and reaction forces, are then derived from the nodal displacements. Structural analyses are available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS Structural, and ANSYS Professional programs only.

STATIC ANALYSIS--Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions. Both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyperelasticity, contact surfaces, and creep. MODAL ANALYSIS--Used to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. Different mode extraction methods are available.

HARMONIC ANALYSIS--Used to determine the response of a structure to harmonically time-varying loads. TRANSIENT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS--Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed. SPECTRUM ANALYSIS--An extension of the modal analysis, used to calculate stresses and strains due to a response spectrum or a PSD input (random vibrations). BUCKLING ANALYSIS--Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape. Both linear (eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible. EXPLICIT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS--This type of structural analysis is only available in the ANSYS LS-DYNA program. ANSYS LS-DYNA provides an interface to the LS-DYNA explicit finite element program. Explicit dynamic analysis is used to calculate fast solutions for large deformation dynamics and complex contact problems.

In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available: Fracture mechanics Composites Fatigue p-Method

 Beam Analyses

3.2.2 STRUCTURAL STATIC ANALYSIS A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by timevarying loads. A static analysis can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity), and time-varying loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as the static equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building codes). Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects.

Steady loading and response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of loading that can be applied in a static analysis include: Externally applied forces and pressures Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity) Imposed (nonzero) displacements

 Temperatures (for thermal strain) Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

PERFORMING A STATIC ANALYSIS The procedure for a static analysis consists of these tasks: Build the Model Set Solution Controls Set Additional Solution Options Apply the Loads Solve the Analysis Review the Results 3.2.3 LOAD TYPES All of the following load types are applicable in a static analysis. DISPLACEMENTS (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ)

These are DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries to define rigid support points. They can also indicate symmetry boundary conditions and points of known motion. The directions implied by the labels are in the nodal coordinate system. FORCES (FX, FY, FZ) AND MOMENTS (MX, MY, MZ)

These are concentrated loads usually specified on the model exterior. The directions implied by the labels are in the nodal coordinate system.

PRESSURES (PRES) These are surface loads, also usually applied on the model exterior. Positive values of pressure act towards the element face (resulting in a compressive effect). TEMPERATURES (TEMP) These are applied to study the effects of thermal expansion or contraction (that is, thermal stresses). The coefficient of thermal expansion must be defined if thermal strains are to be calculated. We can read in temperatures from a thermal analysis [LDREAD], or we can specify temperatures directly, using the BF family of commands. FLUENCES (FLUE) These are applied to study the effects of swelling (material enlargement due to neutron bombardment or other causes) or creep.

GRAVITY, SPINNING, ETC. These are inertia loads that affect the entire structure. Density (or mass in some form) must be defined if inertia effects are to be included. APPLY LOADS TO THE MODEL

Except for inertia loads, which are independent of the model, we can define loads either on the solid model or on the finite element model.

3.2.4 COMPOSITES IN ANSYS Composite materials have been used in structures for a long time. In recent times composite parts have been used extensively in aircraft structures, automobiles, sporting goods, and many consumer products. Composite materials are those containing more than one bonded material, each with different structural properties. The main advantage of composite materials is the potential for a high ratio of stiffness to weight. Composites used for typical engineering applications are advanced fiber or laminated composites, such as fiberglass, glass epoxy, graphite epoxy, and boron epoxy. ANSYS allows us to model composite materials with specialized elements called layered elements. Once we build our model using these elements, we can do any structural analysis (including nonlinearities such as large deflection and stress stiffening).

LOAD TRANSFER IN HYBRID COMPOSITE SINGLE-LAP JOINTS The load transfer in hybrid joints is complicated due to the difference in stiffness of the alternative load paths. The load distribution in hybrid composite single-lap joints has been predicted through use of a three-dimensional finite element model including the effects of bolthole contact and non-linear material

behaviour. The effect of relevant joint design parameters on the load transferred by the bolt have been investigated through a finite element parameter study. Joint configurations where hybrid joining can provide improved structural performance in comparison to adhesive bonding have been identified. Experiments were performed to measure the distribution of load in a hybrid joint. A joint equipped with an instrumented bolt was used to measure the load transfer in the joint. The measured bolt load values were compared to predictions from the finite element model and the results were found to be in good agreement.

ANSYS RESULTS

Fig 3.5 Meshed Model: Bonded Joint

Fig 3.6 Meshed Model: Rivited Joint

Fig 3.7 Meshed Model: Hybrid Joint Von Misses Stress

Fig 3.8 Von Misses Stress: Bonded Joint

Fig 3.9 Von Misses Stress: Riveted Joint

Fig 3.10 Von Misses Stress: Hybrid Joint

Comparison Graph

Fig 3.11 Von Misses Comparison Graph

COMPOSITE JOINTS

CHAPTER 4 COMPOSITE JOINTS Ideally, it is always preferred to make monolithic structures, that is, structures without joints. This ideal can never be realized for many reasons like size limitations imposed by materials or the manufacturing process, need for disassembly of structure for transportation and access for inspection and repair etc. Basically, there are two types of load-carrying joints available: mechanically fastened joints and adhesively bonded joints. Nowadays, a novel method called hybrid joint is also being used in certain applications. A short description of the three types of joints used in the present work namely, bonded, riveted and hybrid joints is given below.

Fig.4.1 Hybrid Joints

4.1 BONDED JOINT Bonded joints can be made by gluing together pre-cured laminates with the suitable adhesives or by forming joints during the manufacturing process, in which case the joint and the laminate are cured at the same time (co-cured). Here, load transfer between the substrates take place through a distribution of shear stresses in the adhesive. In general, there are numerous advantages of adhesive bonded joints over the traditional mechanical fastened joints. These advantages include large bond area for load transfer, low stress concentration, smooth external surfaces at the joint, less sensitivity to cyclic loading, time and cost saving, high strength to weight ratio, electrical and thermal insulation, conductivity, corrosion and fatigue resistance, crack retardation, damping characteristic and so on. Some of the disadvantages of bonded joints are 1. Disassembly is impossible without component damage. 2. They can be severely weakened by environmental effects. 3. They require surface preparation. 4. Joint integrity is difficult to confirm by inspection. Thus ensuring a quality of bonding has been a challenging task.

4.2 RIVETED JOINT Riveted joints can be used quite successfully on laminates up to about 3mm thick and also where a tight fit, called interference fit, is necessary. The choice lies between solid & hollow types and whichever is chosen, care must be taken to minimize damage to the laminate during hole-drilling and closing of rivet. In addition to material and configurational parameters, the behavior of riveted joints is also influenced by rivet parameters such as rivet size, clamping force, hole size and tolerance. Of these parameters, the clamping force, that is, the force exerted in the through thickness direction by the closing of the fastener, is of critical importance. Some advantages of riveted joints are that 1. No surface preparation of composite is required. 2. There are no abnormal inspection problems. Though mechanically fastened joints involve simple processing and handling, they have several disadvantages. The holes create stress concentration and reduce the strength of the substrate laminates. Other than this, these joints incurs large weight penalty and also create a potential corrosion problem resulting from contact with the composites. Also disassembly is not possible in riveted joints.

4.3 HYBRID JOINT Hybrid joints have a combination of adhesive bonding and mechanical fasteners. In the present case, rivet has been used as the mechanical fastener. The advantages of using a combined bonded-riveted design apply mainly in a repair situation. It is generally accepted that a bonded joint is stronger than a mechanically fastened joint and a well-designed bonded joint is stronger than a hybrid joint. However, in a repair situation, limitations force the repair design to be less than an optimum joint design. In this case, the inclusion of rivets can be advantageous in one of the following two ways. 1. If a bond line is subjected to forces that induce out-of plane peel

stresses, the addition of rivets can reduce these stresses, thereby, increasing the strength of the joint. 2. Once damage has initiated in a bonded-only repair, it can propagate quickly and the bond line will completely unzip. The additions of rivets arrest the propagation of the crack, thereby increasing the strength or the life of the joint.

MANUFACTURING

CHAPTER 5 MANUFACTURING

5.1 LAMINATE PREPARATION The laminate size is 200mm 200mm x 3.5 mm No. of layer is 3. 5.2 RESIN

Resin is to transfer stress between the reinforcement fibers, act as a glue to hold the fiber together. Commonly used resin are: o Epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester o Epoxy LY556 is selected.

5.3 TYPES OF HARDENER HY951 at room temperature. HT927 temperature ranging from 80C - 130C

 HT974 - temperature ranging from 70C - 80C HZ978 - temperature ranging from above 100C

5.4 PREPARATION OF EPOXY AND HARDENER Epoxy LY556 and it mixed with Hardener HY951. Ratio of mixing epoxy and hardener is 10:1

5.5 SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR GLASS FIBER The mould should be well cleaned and dry. Release agent is applied.

The epoxy mixture is uniformly applied.

First woven mat is laid into the moulded. Apply the resin on mat by brush. Second mat is laid to first mat Repeated the process up to 3 layers Mould is closed.

5.6 MOULDING PREPARATION

Two rectangular steel plate having dimensions of 200mm 200mm x 8 mm.

 Chromium plated to give a smooth finished as well as to protect from rusting. Four beading are used to cover compress the fiber after the epoxy is applied. Bolt and nuts are used to lock the plate.

5.7 STAGES OF THE EPOXY REACTION 5.7.1 THE CURE The cure of epoxies is the conversion of the liquid resin and hardener components to a solid high-performance plastic material. Cure is only initiated once the components are metered in the correct ratio to one another and are physically mixed together. The cure of all epoxies is an exothermic process where heat is liberated as a natural consequence of the chemical reaction. Success in using epoxies most efficiently is dependent upon handling the product in the correct way in order to avoid wastage and premature cure, and this can be achieved by some understanding of the basic chemistry and the various stages of the chemical transformation.

5.8 THIN FILM SOLVENT-FREE EPOXY CURE STAGES 5.8.1 MIXING IN POT Bringing together resin and hardener as a uniform liquid, to initiate the chemical reaction, followed by transfer to a large surface area tray to produce a thin film. The chemical reaction begins, producing heat, much of which escapes to the environment, because of the large surface area.

5.8.2 GELATION Point of which a significant proportion of the reaction has occurred. The cross-link density (number of resin and hardener molecules linked together) is high enough for the liquid to have become the consistency of a thick gel. Usually between 1 - 4 hours. 5.8.3 ALMOST TACK FREE The last stage at which the surface is active and can accept further layers/coats of epoxy and still form good bond. This stage is indicated when a finger on the surface does not indent the layer deeply, but does leave a fingerprint. Usually between 1 hour to 6 hours. 5.8.4 HARDENING Occurs after almost tack free - touching the surface with a finger leaves no fingerprint. However, the epoxy film is still less than 30% cured and can be indented with a thumbnail. Usually not before 3-6 hours. 5.9 EARLIEST SANDING TIME Epoxy film is firm enough to withstand abrasion. At this stage sanding will produce a fine dust rather than crumbling lumps. Usually 8-24 hours.

5.10 EARLIEST LOADING TIME For adhesives, this is the time after which sufficient cure has occurred to enable the polymer to be loaded without it stretching irreversibly, or breaking. However, this is rather arbitrary and it is better to wait for full cure. 5.11 FULL CURE At room temperature full cure for most epoxies means 80-90% of their theoretical maximum crosslinking, which can only be obtained by heating to higher temperatures (40-100C typically). Room temperature cure epoxies are designed to give good performance even though not cured to their theoretical maximum. Full cure is usually after a minimum of one week. 5.12 ESSENTIAL PRACTICAL NOTES FOR USERS OF SOLVENT-FREE EPOXY SYSTEMS Being sophisticated chemicals, epoxies respond to careful use. Epoxy systems (the particular epoxy resin and hardener combination) vary considerably depending on what particular task they are designed to perform. Therefore, one system will display characteristics and working properties which may vary from another. Reading the product data sheet which accompanies the product is therefore strongly recommended in order that the user achieves the expected results.

Although variation can be expected, all systems have some common requirements which can be considered as the general rules of using epoxies and these are outlined as follows:

5.12.1.

STORE

THE

RESIN

AND

HARDENER

IN

WARM

ENVIRONMENT BEFORE USE If the storage temperature is too cold, the hardener and particularly the resin will become too thick to both measure out and to mix efficiently. A resin which has the viscosity of thick syrup is too thick to use and should be warmed until it is the consistency of thin motor oil. Resin and hardener are usable at any temperature above 15C, but 18-25C is considered ideal. Storing the containers either indoors at room temperature or warming the contents prior to use by a safe heater is good practice. Some professional users, who have limited heating facilities, construct a heated cabinet (using lightbulbs) as an economical method of maintaining their epoxy at a suitable temperature, and this technique has proved very successful.

5.12.2 USE THE PRODUCTS IN A WARM ENVIRONMENT It is the nature of epoxies that they cure by chemical reaction, the rate of which is temperature dependent. In fact, for every 10C rise in temperature, reaction rate will double. In order that epoxies can be fitted in to a wide spectrum of uses and temperature requirements, most epoxies usually have two or more hardeners giving different reaction speeds. The user should acquaint himself with the expected

working characteristics given by each system before commencing the work.The relevant information is included in the product data sheet. Ideally, no epoxy should be left to cure at a temperature of lower than 12-15C, even using fast hardener.

This applies particularly to coatings. In reality, even though the epoxy may appear to be hard and perform its task satisfactorily, the cure may not be complete, particularly with epoxy adhesives. It may take a prolonged period to cure fully at such low temperatures and some epoxy reactions may only be completed by the subsequent application of elevated temperatures. Whereas warm, thermostatically controlled workshops are the best solution, these are expensive to run and certainly are in the minority, at least in the marine industry. Certain less expensive techniques however, can be very useful for raising the cure rate. Local high temperature levels are effective for initiating the cure and, if used sensibly in short bursts, do not have the expected result of causing the mix to harden prematurely. An electric hot air gun is particularly invaluable when using epoxy in cold conditions (down to 5C), to aid application. The hot air gun (paintstripper type) can enable small scale work to proceed in cold cure environments. Coating and laminating applications have benefited most but the technique can also assist glue application or the application of epoxy fillers. But care should be used to ensure that heat is only applied to the surfaces to be bonded or coated and in a limited number of short bursts.

5.12.3 MEASURE ACCURATELY IN THE CORRECT RATIO Read the data sheet supplied with the product to determine the ratio of your particular epoxy. Although usually given on a volume basis (e.g. 5:2 parts resin to hardener respectively), some systems also give a weight ratio, which is nearly always different.

For instance, a system of 5:2 mix ratio by volume may be 3:1 by weight. The following methods are available to the user for metering purposes: 5.13 GRADUATED SYRINGES 50cc and 10cc syringes are two convenient sizes that are easily obtainable. The larger one should be reserved only for the resin and the smaller one for the hardener. Used in this way they do not require cleaning after use. Simply allow each to drain on to some absorbent paper. Syringes are ideal for measuring out small volumes of less than 200cc and certainly the most economical, accurate method for volumes of less than 20cc. However, when using syringes on the small size packs, plastic extension tubes should be fitted. Syringes are consistently accurate and convenient to use and recommended for packs up to 1kg size. 5.14 NON-CALIBRATED MINI-PUMPS These, the smallest size of mini-pumps, are designed to fit on top of the containers of small pack sizes of resin and hardener, replacing the container caps. These noncalibrated pumps dispense approx. 7cc of liquid and when fitted should be used on the number of strokes principle where the number of strokes of resin (always the

greater proportion) to hardener corresponds to the system mix ratio, e.g. 5:1ratio = 5 strokes of the resin pump to 1 stroke of the hardener pump. 5.15 CALIBRATED PUMPS (MAXIPUMPS) As the pumps are calibrated, work on the principle of one stroke resin to one stroke hardener to give the correct metered ratio amount of resin and hardener.

Larger volumes of mixed resin/hardener are obtained by several equal strokes of the resin pump and hardener pump. Each pack size and each system has its own designated calibrated pump pack, and each cannot be used with any other system or pack size. 5.16 GRADUATED RE-USEABLE MIXING POTS These are graduated up to 500cc and are useful for all systems where volumes required in one mix are greater than 150cc. They are commonly the preferred metering system when the total mixed volumes required are 400-500cc. They are made of flexible plastic, to which the epoxy will not adhere. Thus they can be reused by allowing the remaining epoxy to cure in the pot, which can then be popped out by flexing the container. 5.17 ELECTRONIC SCALES Weight measurement is always the most consistently accurate measurement for any system for volumes over 200cc. We recommend scales with a tare facility of 2kg and 5kg capacity where the maximum mix required may be up to 1.5 litres or 4

litres respectively. Metering using scales is becoming increasingly popular and is particularly convenient if different epoxy systems or different size packs are being used which would otherwise require a range of specific pump dispensing systems.

4. MIX THE COMPONENTS THOROUGHLY No reaction between resin and hardener will occur, even at the interface of the two liquids, if they are not physically mixed together for a suitable period.

Stirring by hand with a suitable flat-sided stirring stick and scraping round the sides of the container should be done for a period of not less than 1-2 minutes, depending on volume. Electric stirrers are efficient but do not touch the container sides, and therefore this method should always be accompanied by a final hand stirring to mix material stuck to the container side walls and base.

5. MIX ONLY SUFFICIENT PRODUCT FOR CONVENIENT USE It is relatively common to find users, who are not familiar with epoxy systems, mixing up too great a volume and that a proportion of the mix hardens in the pot before being removed for use. All resin and hardener mixes generate heat so do not be surprised if you detect a heat build-up, however small, in the base of your mixing container. This heat build-up signals that the material will soon become unusable and is particularly noticeable when large volumes are mixed. Using the mixed product is somewhat of a balancing act - the aim of which is to remove material from the pot for use at a rate which is faster than the build-up of heat in the container, which is tending to make the product unusable. If epoxy is simply

left in the container in large volumes, considerable heat will build up and an uncontrollable 'exotherm' will result. This happens when the retained heat speeds the reaction, which in turn generates more heat, further speeding the reaction, and so on. If the user mixes only sufficient for use within the working time of the product, none or little detectable heat will be felt. For larger volumes (over half a litre), transferring mixed resin and hardener from the mixing vessel into a shallow container or tray is strongly recommended.

Once the epoxy mix is in a thin film, the heat generated is readily liberated and the material stays relatively cool, giving a suitably long working time. The shallow tray pot-life can typically be ten times the life in the mixing pot before the material becomes unworkable. In practice, one should always be conscious of the limited amount of time available to both transfer the epoxy from the mixing pot to the work and to manipulate the product on the working surface. The product data sheet will give some guidance on this, but it is always a good idea for the sake of economy to start with small volumes, until familiarisation will allow larger volumes to be mixed.

TESTING

CHAPTER 6 TESTING

Fig 6.1 Universal Testing machine

Fig. 6.2 Model Specimen

Fig. 6.3 Testing Of Bonded Joint( Before Load Applied)

Fig. 6.4 Testing Of Bonded Joint( After Load Applied)

Fig. 6.5 Testing Of Riveted Joint(Before Load Applied)

Fig. 6.6 Testing Of Riveted Joint(After Load Applied)

Fig. 6.7 Testing Of Hybrid Joint(Before Load Applied)

Fig. 6.8 Testing Of Hybrid Joint(After Load Applied)

GRAPHS:

Fig 6.9 Sample Specimen1: Bonded Joint Load Vs Displacement

Fig 6.10 Sample Specimen2: Bonded Joint Load Vs Displacement

Fig 6.11 Sample Specimen1: Rivited Joint Load Vs Displacement

Fig 6.12 Sample Specimen2: Rivited Joint Load Vs Displacement

Fig 6.13 Sample Specimen1: Hybrid Joint Load Vs Displacement

Fig 6.14 Sample Specimen2: Hybrid Joint Load Vs Displacement

TEST RESULTS SAMPLE ID BONDED JOINT RIVETED JOINT HYBRID JOINT DISPLACEMENT (mm) 2.54 2.32 3.12 Table 6.1 BREAKING LOAD(MPa) 22.56 46.40 56.96

Comparison Graph

Fig 6.15 Sample Specimen: Comparison Graph Average Graph

Fig 6.16 Sample Specimen1: Average Graph

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION In the proposed work, FEA for the prediction of stress distribution in bonded, riveted and hybrid joints has been carried out. 3-D models were created and analyzed using ANSYS FEA software and also Tensile Strength of these joints were carried out using Universal Testing Machine (UTM). Thus from the present study, it was found that a well-designed hybrid joint is very efficient when compared to bonded or riveted joints in the case of repair situation in aircraft structures. Through the experimental work the found that, the tensile specimens were prepared with all above discussed joints and their test were carried out by Universal Testing Machine with Data Aquisition System. The results says that, the hybrid joint strentheing is more than the other two joints. Also through the hybrid joints the application of the Aircraft and Automobile Structure is mostly acheived tough the strenthen provided by the hybrid joints.

FUTURE SCOPE In other ways these three joints were prepared and it could be undergoes for further mechanical testing like Fracture, Impact and other destructive and nondestructive tests.