Water Sensitive Urban Guidelines

Water Sensitive Urban Design Guidelines for the City of Knox
Category: Water Sensitive Urban Design Project
Murphy Design Group KLM Development Consultants April 2002
Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council
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1.1
INTRODUCTION
What is WSUD?
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1
2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
IMPETUS FOR AND BENEFITS OF WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 3

Water in Cities Traditional Approaches to water in Cities Urban Storm Water Urban Storm Water Quality Urban Stormwater Quantity 3 3 5 5 7
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3.1 3.2 3.3
CURRENT SITUATION AT THE CITY OF KNOX

Policy Context Physical Context Infrastructure Context
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9 12 15
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4.1 4.2 4.3
WSUD PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS

Water Sensitive Urban Design Principles Water Sensitive Urban Design Elements Connecting the Pieces
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16 17 22
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5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Policy Issues Physical & Management Issues Construction Costs Opportunities in the existing storm water / drainage system
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24 26 29 30
MDG Landscape Architects
KLM Development Consultants
WSUD GUIDELINES AND MEASURES

Introduction How to use these Guidelines Applicability of WSUD Measures Examples of WSUD Incorporation WSUD Measures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Gross Pollutant Traps Oil / Grit Separators Grass Swales Vegetated Swales Filtration Trenches Filtration & Conveyance Trench Rainwater Storage Tank Porous Pavement Pond Underground Storage Pit Pervious storage area Grass Buffer Constructed Wetland Sundry Construction Details
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31 31 32 34 35 35 36 37 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
REFERENCES
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MDG Landscape Architects n KLM Development Consultants
Acknowledgements
Murphy Design Group and KLM Development Consultants wish to acknowledge the contribution of the Urban and Regional Land Corporation in allowing the details of research, design, construction and trialing of WSUD measures at the Lynbrook Estate to be used in these Guidelines.
Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 1 Introduction
Introduction
The City of Knox has committed itself through the Knox 2001/2010 Sustainable City Plan to a vision that sees the City as a leading example of a sustainable city by conserving, enhancing and managing our natural and built environment through innovation, co-operation and education for present and future generations. The Mission Statement embodied in the Sustainable City Plan is: To actively engage and provide leadership to the community in becoming a sustainable city through a commitment to best practice, innovation, co-operation and education. It is in this context of providing leadership in the area of sustainability that the City commissioned the preparation of these Guidelines for Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) by Murphy Design Group and KLM Development Consultants. The main aims of the project are to: summarise the environmental issues around urban stormwater management; outline the benefits of incorporation of WSUD principles; provide guidance for the implementation and maintenance of WSUD principles in new and existing environments; and provide indicative details for adoption by Council in order to include WSUD principles in new and existing developments.
1.1
What is WSUD?
At the outset, it is important to realise that Water Sensitive Urban Design is a component of Environmentally Sustainable Design, along with other things such as energy conservation, pollution reduction, protection of productive lands and a myriad of other concerns. To understand what WSUD is about, we need to remind ourselves about how cities work. Slightly over-simplifying, but nevertheless accurate, cities draw on resources from substantially beyond their geographic extent and then discharge their wastes to areas again substantially beyond that extent. They have an ecological footprint far in excess of the actual area they occupy. Figure 1 over shows diagrammatically how these inputs and outputs are related. This impact outside the citys geographic area applies to water as much as it does to any other resources. WSUD is therefore concerned with the urban water cycle component of designing our urban environments being more sustainable by limiting the negative impacts of urban development on the total water cycle. Contrary to the common misconception however, it is about more than swales and wetlands. It is about designing our urban environments to more closely match the original water cycle that occurred prior to development. It is therefore about: reducing the amount of water we transport between catchments, both in water supply import and wastewater export; optimising the use of rainwater that falls on our urban areas; trying to more closely match the pre-development stormwater runoff regime, in both quality and quantity. The integration of water supply, wastewater and stormwater is a fundamental principle underpinning water sensitive urban design. It includes a range of within-catchment techniques applied in the management of the impacts of urban developments, in addition to the traditional end of pipe solutions frequently applied.
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 1 Introduction
While to some extent touching on the issues of water use and to a lesser extent wastewater, this report focuses on the stormwater aspects of Water Sensitive Urban Design.
Figure 1 Model of Urban dependence on external environments (Source: Barton 1996)
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 2 Impetus for and Benefits of WSUD
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2.1
Impetus for and Benefits of Water Sensitive Urban Design

Water in Cities
The impetus for WSUD is environmental sustainability. The way our cities have developed has led us to a system that imports much of our water from beyond the citys geographic area, uses that water for a range of purposes and then disposes of the used water to areas again outside its geographic extent. Additionally, the rain that falls on the citys surfaces is generally disposed of in ways that avoid potential for flooding or property damage. Therefore, we essentially capture natural resources from a very wide area (much larger than the city itself) to make our cities habitable, and then dispose of wastes over a much larger area also. Our ecological footprint then is significantly larger than the city in which we live and consequently threatens the sustainability of our environment. The impetus for Water Sensitive Urban Design is therefore just one part of our communitys need to address sustainability in a pro-active manner.
2.1.1
Water Supply
Of the overall water demand of Australian cities, approximately 60% is used for domestic purposes. Of that usage in Melbourne, some 35% is used outdoors for garden watering, car washing, and the like, while between 1% and 4% is used for human consumption. Consequently, well in excess of 95% of our potable (or drinking quality) water supplies are used for non-potable needs, even though all mains water is treated to this potable standard. Opportunities clearly exist for reducing this demand on our communitys water supplies.
2.1.2
Stormwater
The rainwater that falls on the city collects a range of pollutants along its course. (Refer Section 2.3) Coupled with the greatly increased runoff created by the large amount of impervious surfaces in the city, the impacts on the natural waterways in cities are enormous. Dealing with the impacts of stormwater therefore needs to address issues of both quality and quantity.
2.1.3
Wastewater
Water that has been used for various residential and commercial purposes (such as kitchens, bathrooms and toilets) becomes wastewater and is disposed of to sewer systems for eventual treatment and disposal to some receiving waters (in Melbournes case, Port Phillip Bay.) While this waste water is treated prior to discharge, it still contains substantial nitrogen and other nutrient loads which accumulate in the Bay.
2.2
Traditional Approaches to Water in Cities

Traditional urban water management is underpinned by a highly efficient and centralised approach to both imports and exports of water and wastewater. Newman describes this as follows:
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Water supply Large scale water supply from few sources
Stormwater Collect it all and discharge to receiving waters
Sewage Collect it all and discharge it after some treatment to receiving waters, ie. based on dilution
Traditional design water courses and drains i.e. big pipes in big pipes out th Table 2.1 - 19 Century solutions to urban water management (Source: Newman and Mouritz 1994)
This traditional approach to urban water management brings with it a significant number of problems however, including: Traditional Practice Water supply: Large scale water supply from relatively few sources outside the city. As the city grows and its water usage grows, the need for dams increases. Impacts Catchment erosion. Catchment deforestation. Habitat destruction in drowning of land area. Reduced downstream flows causing habitat degradation.
Stormwater: Collect quickly Discharge to receiving waters quickly engineered channels lots of pipes Increased peak flow volumes with: flooding impacts increased erosion of bed and banks increased habitat disturbance, within stream and through increased bankfull discharges higher sediment (and pollutant) transfer rates. Decreased base flows in urban waterways. Concentration of collected pollutants in receiving waterways affects flora and fauna. Eventual delivery of pollutants to Port Phillip Bay. Increased water temperatures affecting habitat Transfer of urban litter into waterways. Sewage: Collect, treat and discharge to receiving waters Unsustainable organic and nutrient loads to receiving waters. Heavy metal discharge to receiving waters. Dilution at source increases treatment costs. Table 2.2 - Impacts of Traditional water infrastructure practice. Our environment cannot survive the degradation that flows from these traditional practices and their effects. We therefore need new ways of dealing with our water needs and uses in the city. Water Sensitive Urban Design provides a range of measures to help address these issues.
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2.3
Urban Storm Water

With the focus of this project being urban stormwater in Knox, it is clear that current stormwater practices must be changed. Stormwater must be managed as a valuable resource, protecting the water quality and ecological health of receiving waterways and water bodies, and managing the risk to public safety from flooding. Conventional stormwater management has traditionally focused on only the flood risk management objective. Giving cause for optimism, we have in recent years seen substantial new innovations in constructed wetlands, which together with the treatment of receiving waters, have begun to improve the urban situation. Additionally, and importantly, the communitys view of the environment and their urban expectations have changed. The community has begun to value urban waterways, creeks, rivers, wetlands and lakes for their inherent value, environmentally, recreationally and aesthetically, rather than just their ability to dilute wastes. As noted earlier, addressing the impacts of urbanisation on storm water requires measures to deal with storm water quality and storm water quantity. However, in contemplating the relative size of various WSUD elements, it is important to understand one of the key characteristics of stormwater runoff. The vast majority of stormwater runoff volume is generated in relatively frequent (and less intense) rainfall events. In fact, 99% of flows would be captured by a treatment device sized to accommodate an Annual Recurrence Interval (ARI) flow of 0.7 years, while an ARI of 0.5 years corresponds to over 98.5% of mean annual flow. (Note that ARI can be seen as a probability of occurrence of a particular intensity rainfall event. For example, 0.5 ARI equates to the intensity of rainfall that occurs statistically twice a year.) It is clear therefore that water quality improvement devices and measures that deal only with these frequent flows (rather than large high intensity events) can have substantial beneficial impact on the overall water quality over a year.
2.4
Urban Storm Water Quality

Urban development brings with it a range of pollutants from a variety of sources, the most common being: vehicles; construction activity and silt creation; spills; leachates; and atmospheric deposits. These combine with the naturally occurring atmospheric pollutants and the loads caused by erosion and silt deposition to detrimentally affect natural waterways. Wong, Breen & Lloyd, (2000) identify that these pollutants can be grouped according to their impact on water quality and include: Gross pollutants and litter Sediment and suspended solids Nutrients (primarily phosphorous and nitrogen) BOD and COD (biochemical- and chemical-oxygen demand) Micro-organisms Metals Toxic organics, oils and surfactants.
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2.4.1
Gross pollutants
Storm events flush large amounts of debris into the waterways, including litter, vegetation and coarse sediments. These create not only a visual problem but also have detrimental impacts on aquatic habitats, with physical damage to habitats as well as contamination with toxic materials and increases in oxygen demanding matter.
2.4.2 Suspended Solids

This includes inorganic solids such as soil particles and airborne particles, as well as organic particles such as vegetative matter, bacteria and micro-organisms. Inorganic suspended solids carry with them a wide variety of sediment-bound contaminants and consequently form a major transport mechanism of pollutants to receiving waterways. Urban development generates high levels of inorganic solids, particularly during the construction phase of development and infrastructure projects, when sediment loads can be at least two to six times, and up to several hundred times, pre-development levels (Wong, Breen & Lloyd, 2000) and a somewhat smaller multiplier beyond pre-development levels once an urban area is established.
2.4.3 Metals
Metals such as copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, lead and zinc are common in urban stormwater and are transported by being attached to sediments. Damage to habitats and organisms occurs when their concentrations build up beyond certain threshold levels. The impacts are complex but when they occur, are detrimental to the environment in which they are accumulated.
2.4.4 Toxic Organics, Oils and Surfactants

These products are largely transport related, occurring from roadway deposits from vehicles, as well as being contributed to by poor industrial practices. They increase the chemical oxygen demand in receiving waters and are highly associated with organic solids. (Colwill et al, in Wong, Breen & Lloyd, 2000)
2.4.5 Nutrients
Higher than natural levels of nutrients cause environmental degradation through increased growth of aquatic vegetation, eutrophication and algal blooms. Our rivers and streams carry significantly elevated levels of nutrients into Port Phillip Bay where they can cause substantial environmental degradation.
2.4.6 Micro-organisms
Urban stormwater generally contains micro-organisms at levels between 3 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than recommended for human contact. Faecal coliforms and Salmonella are common, with the primary sources being domestic pet and bird faeces.
2.4.7 Oxygen Demanding Chemicals

The process of decomposition of the organic material carried and deposited in waterways leads to a reduction in the levels of dissolved oxygen in the water. Where this biochemical oxygen demand gets too high, oxygen levels are substantially reduced, stressing or killing the aquatic life in the system.
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2.5
Urban Stormwater Quantity

In an undeveloped state, natural bushland or even pastureland creates less than 30% runoff in average rainfall events. It is not hard to understand that urbanised areas, with their roads, footpaths, roofs and other paved areas create substantially greater runoff, usually between 60 and 70% for a suburb such as Knox, and up to 90% or more for higher density and commercial industrial development. This radical increase in runoff causes substantial detrimental environmental impacts, as well as the potential for property and asset damage through flood damage.
2.5.1
Runoff Frequency
The increase in runoff created by urbanisation increases stream bank erosion and causes a substantial increase in bankfull discharge (ie. the flow that fills the channel up to the top of banks, prior to flooding,) typically from 5 years ARI to 0.5 years ARI. (Wong, Breen & Lloyd, 2000) While traditionally this has been only of concern in relation to the obvious flooding it may bring with it, the environmental impacts are significant and include: more frequent disturbance of the stream bed (benthic) habitat; potential for changes in the stream bed characteristics by changes in particle size that affect the range of organisms that can survive in that environment; increased erosion of the stream bed and its banks; increased transportation of sediment (due to higher volumes and velocities), further concentrating sediment bound pollutants in the final receiving waters of the Bay; changes to the riparian habitat even beyond the bed and banks to a more limited range of species that can withstand more frequent inundation, mechanical abrasion and water forces of flooding events. This often translates into massive weed invasions of the riparian zone.
2.5.2 Runoff Reduction

With the impacts of increased runoff established above, it is clear that reducing overall volumes of runoff would create environmental improvements. Water sensitive urban design incorporates a range of measures that address this issue of volume, and in some instances, provide stormwater quality improvements simultaneously. Rainwater storage tanks, ponds, pervious storage areas and many other measures described in the following sections provide tools to reduce the overall runoff of urbanised areas and restore the water balance more toward the original regime.
2.5.3 Stormwater harvesting

Capturing roof runoff for reuse within the home can achieve substantial environmental benefits in relation to the provision of water supply infrastructure. Research by Coombes et al (cited in Coombes, 2001) indicates that the introduction of rainwater tanks to supply domestic toilet, hot water and outdoor uses will significantly defer (38 100 years) the need to construct new dams in the Sydney, Lower Hunter and Central Coast regions of NSW. Additionally, it was found that installation of trickle top-up to rainwater tanks can reduce annual maximum daily peak demands by up to 40% for residential development, thus creating the opportunity for reduced costs in water supply distribution infrastructure. While this project and guidelines are focussed on stormwater issues, the inextricable link between rainwater harvesting and stormwater runoff cannot be ignored.
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A study by Mitchell et al (1998) evaluated two Melbourne housing sites, one in Knox, for the impact of the installation of a rainwater storage tank (13 kilolitre) on water use and demand in the sites. The developments were as follows: Allotment area 750 m2 Roof area 203 m2 Paved areas 113 m2 Garden areas 435 m2 Occupancy 3 persons The individual site details are as follows: Parameter Essendon Average Rainfall 591 mm/yr Rain days 196 days Soil type Clay Table 2.1 - Comparative Site parameters Scoresby 887 mm/yr 215 days Silty clay
While the extent of the evaluation is somewhat affected by the fact that bathroom and laundry greywater were used for garden watering, the effects of the rainwater tank installation was substantial, as shown below: Essendon Scoresby Annual water demand 278 kilolitres 265 kilolitres Demand for mains water -41% -51% Stormwater runoff -56% -49% Wastewater discharge -11% -8% Supply from rainwater tank 84 kilolitres 107 kilolitres Greywater demand 28 kilolitres 24 kilolitres Table 2.2 - Impact of Rainwater Storage Tank installation on Stormwater and water supply. It is clear from the table above that there are major benefits to be gained by use of rainwater tanks, including: substantial reduction (41% - 51%) in mains water used by a household; and significant diminution (49% 56%) of stormwater runoff from a site.
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 3 Current Situation at the City of Knox
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3.1
Current Situation at the City of Knox

Policy Context
3.1.1 State based Policies
A number of state based policies are relevant to the need to encourage WSUD in the City of Knox. These policies include: encouragement of urban consolidation and the provision of efficient, affordable and sustainable housing; protection of natural processes, in line with State Environmental Protection Policies (SEPP) for the waters, air and land; protection of areas of natural significance, particularly waterways. Additionally, the State Environmental Protection Policies set standards for reduced storm flows and water quality improvements in relation to Port Phillip Bay. These are also included in the Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines (1999). The Department of Infrastructure is (at time of writing) reviewing the Metropolitan Strategy. Part of that task is a review of planning policies and practices in relation to their impact on sustainability. Water sensitive urban design is being reviewed in this context for its ability to contribute to sustainability and in relation to opportunities for including it in the State Planning Policies.
3.1.2
ResCode of Victoria
The recent release of the new residential code, ResCode, brings with it some additional impetus for WSUD. Clauses 54.03 (One dwelling on a Lot) and 55.03 (Two or more Dwellings on a Lot and Residential Buildings) state a Permeability Objective that at least 20 per cent of the site should not be covered by impervious surfaces. Clause 56 sets out the requirements for residential subdivision, with Cl 56.09 Drainage Systems identifying the following objectives: to minimise increases in stormwater run-off and protect the environmental values and physical characteristics of receiving watercourses from degradation by urban runoff. to protect the environmental values and physical characteristics of receiving watercourses. A number of Standards are articulated also and provide further direction toward Water Sensitive Urban Design. Standard C25 states that: Verge widths should be increased where necessary to allow space for..swale drains. Standard C31 includes: The minor drainage system should be designed to ensure that existing downstream flows are restricted to pre-development levels unless otherwise agreed to by the responsible drainage authority. The drainage network should be accessible and designed for easy maintenance. Drainage networks should minimise the potential for accumulation of silt and debris, and provide for collection and removal at accessible locations.
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These new planning provisions mean that most new subdivisions within the City of Knox are required to meet these standards. Water Sensitive Urban Design principles will provide the tools to achieve them.
3.1.3
Melbourne Water
As the regional drainage authority, Melbourne Water (MW) plays a critical role in urban stormwater management beyond the local drainage system. MWs Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines (1999) set out a range of performance objectives in relation to urban stormwater systems. These are based on the expected improvements required to meet SEPP objectives and the improvements able to be met by current best practices.
Pollutant
Receiving water objective
Current best practice

Performance objective:
Post construction phase: Suspended solids (SS) comply with SEPP (eg. Not exceed th the 90 percentile of 80 mg/L)(1) Total phosphorus (TP) comply with SEPP (eg. base flow concentration not exceed 0.08mg/L(2) Litter comply with SEPP (eg. No litter in waterways)(1) Flows Maintain flows at pre-urbanisation levels Construction phase: Suspended solids comply with SEPP
80% retention of the typical urban annual load 45% retention of the typical urban annual load 70% reduction of typical urban annual load(3) Maintain discharges for the 1.5 year ARI at predevelopment levels
Litter Other pollutants
comply with SEPP (eg. No litter in waterways)(1) Comply with SEPP
Effective treatment of 90% of daily run-off events (eg<4 months ARI). Effective treatment equates to a 50%ile SS concentration of 50mg/L. Prevent litter from entering the stormwater system. Limit the application, generation and migration of toxic substances to the maximum extent practicable
Table 3.1 - Objectives for environmental management of stormwater (Source: Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines, MW, 1999)
3.1.4
Municipal Strategic Statement and Local Planning Policy Framework
All planning schemes in Victoria contain objectives to protect waterways and water bodies, encourage catchment management approaches to preserve natural resources and incorporate use of the Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines (1999). The municipal Planning Scheme is charged with the responsibility of delivering state-wide objectives. It therefore offers the opportunity to implement WSUD objectives through the planning system, as long as there is a direct relationship between the MSS and the WSUD objectives.
Page 10 MDG Landscape Architects n KLM Development Consultants
While Knoxs MSS is not explicit in its direction on WSUD, it is clear on its commitment to sustainable development in the City. The Strategic Vision and Framework encourages sustainable development which brings continuing prosperity and identifies a land use vision that develops and supports the community of Knox by: maintaining, enhancing and protecting the key natural, cultural and lifestyle features of the City, both economically and environmentally; capitalising on opportunities for sustainable development which add to the economic prosperity of the City. These elements clearly point to the need to increase the level of sustainability in any development in the City. From a water resources viewpoint, WSUD is the only way to achieve this. Reinforcing this need is the commitment in the Planning Scheme to ensure that new development be adequately serviced so as not to have detrimental effects upon the environment. Additionally, the implementation strategies within the section Recognising and Protecting Significant Natural Features and Cultural Heritage (Cl 21.08) identify the need to ensure: best practice environmental management be used in the design, construction and operation of drainage systems to reduce impacts on surface waters and ground water; development is designed and managed to minimise the impact of urban stormwater runoff on waterways, in accordance with any best practice environmental management guidelines approved by relevant state authorities. Finally, the MSS acknowledges the need for and benefits of urban consolidation to accommodate the changing needs of the community. With the probability that this consolidation will result in increased impermeable surface areas, then the resultant impact on receiving waters can be minimised or reduced to zero by the adoption of WSUD principles in both new development and redevelopment.
3.1.5
Stormwater Quality Management Plan, Vol 1
A Stormwater Quality Management Plan (SWMP) has been prepared for the City of Knox. Melbourne Water encourages the preparation of these plans for all municipalities. Generally, SWMPs must identify strategies to put best-practice structural and nonstructural techniques into place. Techniques are grouped as follows: Land use planning - the strategic and statutory planning system Urban design - the design of the public realm and its infrastructure Land management - Council operations and development of sites Education and awareness - business and community education programs Stormwater treatment and flow management - structural measures Some key proposals are contained in the Plan that would work in tandem with these WSUD Guidelines to achieve improvements in stormwater quality in Knox. These include: Develop simple Environmental Management Plan Guidelines for building sites, covering sediment, erosion control and waste management; Establish links with developers to educate them regarding obligations to maintain clean building sites; Distribute Building Site Waste Management Guidelines; Signage to be placed on building sites, providing contact details to report sites exporting pollutants; Enforce infringement notices and fines; Audit and inspect building sites for compliance with regulations; Media and community education;
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Work with Community and Special Interest Groups to raise awareness of threats and responses to them; Demonstration Project of WSUD principles; Guidelines / educational literature for residential areas
These opportunities are discussed further in Chapter 5, Implementation Issues and Challenges.
3.2
Physical Context
The key variables affecting the detail design and implementation of WSUD systems in any location include: local climate; terrain; and soil type & geology.
3.2.1
Climate
The Knox climate is not radically different to much of the eastern portion of Melbourne. It exists within a relatively stable and evenly distributed rainfall precinct that does vary somewhat across the municipality, with higher rainfall experienced to the east. Table 1 and Figure 2 below show the distribution across the year and between the higher and lower rainfall areas.
Scoresby Mt Dandenong
55.9 69.7
51.5 53.8
56.1 69.8 96.0 81.4 108.4 139.2
70.5 77.5 85.5 88.8 89.6 81.4 103 97.4 120.9 110.3 114.2 107.7
76.8 899.4 96.1 1202
Table 3.2 - Rainfall in the City of Knox
Knox Rainfall Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
May Mar Aug Sep
Scoresby Mt Dandenong
Nov
Jan
Apr
Jun
Jul
Feb
Oct
Figure 3.1 - Annual rainfall distribution in Knox.
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Dec
Total
May
Aug
Nov
Sep
Dec
Mar
Feb
Jun
Jan
Apr
Oct
Jul
It can be seen from the graph that while there is some variation in distribution from month to month across the year, the statistical average indicates a relatively stable supply of rainwater suitable for collection and re-use.
3.2.2 Terrain
Terrain can have a substantial impact on the design detail of water sensitive elements. The use of different swale designs for example is determined by the overall grade at which they are to be installed. While the City of Knox encompasses many hilly areas, over 50% of the municipality exhibits terrain that slopes less than 5% or 1 in 20 (V:H). Figure 3.2 over shows the extent of areas of differing terrain slopes throughout the municipality. Additionally, even on steeper slopes, opportunities exist to install WSUD measures parallel to the contours, thus negating the limiting effects of the cross slope. This indicates that the implementation of WSUD principles in the municipality is not highly constrained by terrain.
3.2.3 Geology and soil types

Geology and soil types can have a significant impact on some of the measures incorporated in Water Sensitive Urban Design. They do not however necessarily prevent the implementation of the principles but rather, limit the applicability of some of the specific measures. The City of Knox district spans a number of geological divisions. The geology of the area is predominantly sedimentary in origin. Some areas of contact metamorphism and acid volcanic rock exist towards the Dandenong Ranges. The geological divisions found in Knox are as follows: 1. Silurian & Devonian aged Siltstone rock & Clays central and northern regions 2. Quaternary Alluvium Clay & Silt Sediments from creeks & lowlands 3. Tertiary Sediment Sand & Sandy Clays Southern regions 4. Devonian aged Rhyodacite Volcanics Dandenong Ranges / uplands Typically, a soil cover of Clayey Silt is common overlying the Clay horizon or subsoil. In areas of Rhyodacite geology however (ie around the Dandenong Ranges and uplands, 4 above), the soil cover is usually quite thin and rock is encountered at shallow depth. Most of the weathered clays have a low hydraulic permeability. In areas of Rhyodacite rock however, water can percolate away quite quickly through rock fractures, where these are not cut off from infiltration by clays. Some of the Clays in Knox are moderately dispersive, these generally being Silurian & Devonian (1 & 4). The dispersion of the clay is, in simple terms, the tendency of the clay to cloud and disintegrate (i.e. pipe, erode, etc) when in contact with water. Laboratory testing (Emersion Class) and visual inspection (drilling) can readily measure this soil characteristic of the insitu Clay. In summary then, while much of the municipality is comprised of clay soils that have low infiltration rates, Section 4.2.3 of this report outlines research that shows many WSUD measures to still be appropriate to such clay soils.
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Figure 3.2: Slope categories across Knox
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3.3
Infrastructure Context
3.3.1 Existing engineering design standards
The City of Knox engineering standards for stormwater are very similar to other Melbourne municipal standards with the exception of some minor Knox-specific variations. The design standards are based on Australian Rainfall and Runoff Data, this is independent of any control method. The current standards therefore adopt the traditional highly efficient and centralised approach to stormwater collection, transfer and discharge, with its associated negative environmental impacts. Storm water volumes are calculated using industry adopted methods and again are independent of any control methods. Collection, transmission and discharge styles are typically pit, pipe, pit/free outlet, or the efficient traditional practices. This situation makes the City of Knox no more difficult or easy to implement WSUD for than any other region.
3.3.2 Maintenance regimes and issues

The existing drainage infrastructure of Knox requires high level maintenance as it is designed to operate as if in new condition i.e. clean and unrestricted. Stormwater system maintenance requires periodic removal of silt and litter that would otherwise reduce the capacity of the system. Maintaining this as new level of operation is as impractical as it is impossible. As with most municipalities, maintenance is more reactive than proactive, with attention being given to drainage systems once failure has occurred. All non-natural control devices require maintenance, and generally the higher the level of traditional design, the higher the maintenance. Because of the existing systems efficiency, storm water quality improvement elements such as constructed wetlands are dealt with remote from the source, often outside the municipality and by other authorities, such as Melbourne Water. Therefore, this cost to the community for services provided by Melbourne Water is in large part due to the traditional efficient form of the drainage infrastructure under Councils control.
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 4 WSUD Principles and Elements
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4.1
WSUD Principles and Elements

Water Sensitive Urban Design Principles
The following table shows how WSUD can address the negative impacts resulting from traditional urban and infrastructure design: Impacts Water supply: Catchment erosion Catchment deforestation Habitat destruction Reduced downstream flows Reduce dependency on remote water supply by: using local rainwater as a resource; using stormwater for non-potable uses; adopting greywater usage. (This can bring health related issues however and must be referred to Knox Health Services for approval.) Flow detention and retardation Design Principle
Stormwater: Increased peak flow volumes with: flooding impacts habitat disturbance Concentration of collected pollutants in receiving waterways affects flora and fauna Eventual delivery of pollutants to Port Phillip Bay Increased water temperatures affecting habitat Transfer of urban litter into waterways
Reduction and removal of stormwater borne pollutants Reduction and removal of pollutants Reduced impervious surfaces Removal of gross pollutants
Table 4.1 - Design principles to mitigate the impacts of traditional water infrastructure design. In adopting these principles, it is important also to understand the connection between quantity and quality of stormwater. Over 98% of the total annual rainfall occurs in rainfall events at or below 0.5 years ARI. While these relatively small but frequent rainfall events carry the bulk of sediment bound pollutants, their size makes them easier to design for than might be anticipated. Additionally, the nature of urban stormwater means that even if rainfall events are greater than this level, most of the pollutants are taken into a WSUD in the first flush of rainfall through the stormwater system . Rainfall that continues after this time is substantially cleaner and consequently any runoff that bypasses WSUD measures due to them being at capacity has a greatly reduced detrimental impact on the environment. In designing stormwater systems to be water sensitive then, the key design principles could be described as follows: retain as much water on site as possible; transport as little water as possible to receiving waters and lose as much along the transport chain as possible; slow down the transport to receiving waters as much as possible; and prevent the transportation of gross and sediment-borne pollutants as far as is possible.
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4.2
Water Sensitive Urban Design Elements

The elements and measures available to achieve Water Sensitive Urban Design perform a wide variety of functions, depending on where they are located in the treatment train or arrangement of water quality treatment initiatives. The following diagram shows broadly how these elements can combine to form a suite of treatments for stormwater quality improvement.
S Carparks & Commercial / Industrial Area pavements
u House Lots & Parks
s Roofs
Water Conservation Reuse roof water for toilet flushing & external uses
Roads
Gross Pollutant Trap
Source Controls
Swales & Grass Buffers
Infiltration measures: Filtration Ponds, Underground Storage Tanks, Pervious Storage Areas
Conveyance Measures: Swales, Filtration & Conveyance Trenches
Conveyance Controls
Discharge Controls Constructed Wetlands
Detention Basins
Vegetated Filter Strips
Rehabilitated or Natural Stream
Receiving waters
Figure 4.1 - Relationship between WSUD Elements (Adapted from Coomes et al, 2000) In more detail, the elements noted in the diagram above are described further in the following sections.
4.2.1
Gross Pollutant Traps
Gross pollutant traps are constructed devices designed to remove solids greater than 5mm diameter from the stormwater system. They remove the large debris washed into
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the stormwater system before the stormwater enters the receiving waters. They can range from simple to complex constructions including: simple grated entry pits, suited to preventing large litter items from entering the drainage system; side entry pit trash racks, formed by simple baskets or screens placed at, or close after, the throat entry. They typically have screen sizes between 5mm and 20mm; proprietary manufactured traps are available and fall into three broad types: . boom diversion systems (eg CSR Humes); . return flow litter baskets (eg Ecosol); . continuous deflection separation (eg CDS Technologies).
4.2.2 Swales
Swales are linear depressions that are used for the conveyance of stormwater runoff. They can be grassed or more densely vegetated with a variety of species. They provide a number of functions, including: reduce total runoff through infiltration (and even more so when coupled with a Filtration Trench); reduce the speed of runoff; catch sediments and attached pollutants; when grassed, accommodate pedestrian movement across and along them.
4.2.3 Filtration Trenches

Sometimes called bioretention trenches, filtration trenches are a sub-surface water filtration system capable of holding stormwater run-off to allow it to infiltrate the ground and/or be temporarily detained to achieve some water quality improvement. They are comprised of perforated pipes combined with a gravel trench. In some circumstances they can be used to convey stormwater run-off while losing some of the quantity to infiltration. Filtration trenches can provide the following functions: provide infiltration of stormwater run-off into the ground; provision of on-site detention and retention capacity; improvement in water quality emerging from the trench; reduce the peak flow of a storm event in the system. Concerns are often raised in relation to such devices in clay or rocky soils. Research by van der Werf et al (cited in Lloyd & Wong, 1999) indicates that infiltration into clay soils with shallow bedrock was completely successful. Argue (cited in Lloyd & Wong, 1999) asserts that it is a myth that infiltration into clays and/or shallow soils is not feasible. Even with the limited opportunities for new development in Knox, filtration and conveyance trenches offer opportunities in both new construction and retrofit situations.
4.2.4 On site Detention and Retention

On-site Stormwater Detention (OSD) and On-site Stormwater Retention (OSR) provide opportunities to reduce the outflow of stormwater runoff to reduce peak flows and/or to capture or harvest runoff for re-use. OSD involves the temporary storage and controlled release of stormwater generated within a site. Without adversely affecting the property, it relies on thoughtful design and passive engineering during site development to achieve significant reductions downstream flooding. (UPRCT, 1999)
Scott (1999) defines detention and retention as follows: Detention refers to the holding of runoff for short periods to reduce peak flow rates and later releasing into natural or artificial watercourses to continue in the hydrological cycle. The volume of surface runoff involved in this process is relatively unchanged; Retention refers to procedures and schemes whereby stormwater is held for considerable periods causing water to continue in the hydrological cycle via infiltration, percolation, evapotranspiration and not via direct discharge to watercourses. On site detention and retention measures included in these guidelines include: OSD: underground storage tanks; ponds; OSR: porous pavements; pervious storage areas; rainwater storage tanks. OSD is one way of overcoming the limitations of existing stormwater systems in the context of urban consolidation or increase in urban densities. By its ability to ensure that there is no increase in runoff, OSD and OSR are a key opportunities to foster more sustainable development in the City of Knox. While OSDs primary function is to control runoff, the positive impacts on receiving waters are twofold: gross pollutants are trapped on site and prevented from being transferred to watercourses; organic matter in the form of leaves, grass clippings and the like, are prevented from entering watercourses where they would otherwise decompose and decrease available oxygen, threatening aquatic life. OSR has similar benefits, but with the addition of an absolute reduction in the total runoff, as well as reducing the demand on remote water storage supplies.
a)
Rainwater Storage Tanks
Rainwater tanks have been in use in various forms for millennia. Most cultures surviving in locations with a less than abundant water supply adopted some variation of collecting rainwater for future use. In Melbourne, rainwater tanks provide an excellent opportunity to gain environmental benefits on a number of fronts, including: reduction in peak discharges and the consequent negative environmental impacts these cause; reduction in importation of water from distant catchments. Research in Newcastle (Coombes & Kuczera, 2001) has indicated that rainwater tanks can provide up to 50% mains water reduction and up to 24% annual maximum daily peak water demand reduction when used for hot water, toilet and outdoor uses. Additionally, they note that the effectiveness of rainwater tanks as a stormwater management measure increases with housing density due to greater proportions of the site area (roofs)) contributing to rainwater tanks. This finding is particularly important for the City of Knox where increasing residential densities are often seen (erroneously) as antienvironment. With Rainwater Storage Tanks (RST) connected for re-use in toilets and laundries, the constant draw-down on the tank means that there is usually spare volume available within the tank to achieve the reduction in peak discharges. Coombes and Kuczera (2001) found that such tanks have storage volume available for retention in 92% of annual
Page 19
maximum storm events. Importantly the rainwater tank provides retention volumes in 98% of annual maximum storm events greater than the 10 year ARI. Rainwater storage tanks are best installed with a first flush bypass device, though this is not mandatory if the intended use is purely for external purposes such as garden watering. The device prevents the first flush of rain, which washes particles and pollutants form the roof surface, from being carried into the RST Rainwater tanks can also be designed to provide a retardation (or OSD) function if they incorporate an air space above the normal captured volume. This area is provided with a low volume outlet that allows slow release of water in higher rainfall events.
b) Porous Pavements Porous pavements are pavements that allow the ingress of water and flow through to the paving substrate and eventually into the underlying subsoil. The purpose of porous pavements is to: provide for on-site retention of stormwater run-off, therefore reducing peak flows; reduce the overall volume of stormwater run-off from a site; minimise the export of sediments and pollutants from the site. When coupled with the use of such pavements for temporary storage, or on-site detention, their effectiveness can be significant. They are most appropriately used in residential situations where vehicle use is low and there are low sediment loads that could reduce the porosity over time.
c) Ponds Ponds are simply open bodies of water that may be used to: provide on-site detention to reduce peak flows; store water for re-use in the landscape; provide ornamental purposes; provide infiltration and consequent reduction in stormwater run-off. As with other types of above ground storage, safety is a key issue and consequently the design must be carefully considered to ensure safety benches are included. (Refer Section f) below.)
d)
Underground Storage Pits
These are below ground storage devices that retain stormwater run-off. Their main WSUD functions are to: provide on-site detention thereby reducing peak flows; provide potential for stormwater re-use for non-potable uses (such as irrigation, washdown water etc.) Underground storage pits also provide a small water quality improvement function through the settling of sediments and their attached pollutants.
e) Pervious Storage Areas Pervious storage areas take the form of vegetated depression areas, providing surface or depression storage as well as soil moisture storage in the effective root zone. Their main purpose is to provide stormwater retention and infiltration. They can be vegetated with grass or a range of other species that can survive periodic inundation.
Page 20
f) Safety, amenity and functionality Safety is a key issue with a number of OSD, retention basins, wetlands and similar open water bodies. Surface storages must be constructed so that they are easily accessible. Unless a swimming pool level of fencing is envisaged, the sides of any storage that could exceed 600mm depth storage must be graded at 1 in 8 (V:H) to provide a safety bench around the full perimeter of the area. In the design of storage, creation of above-ground storage is preferred over below-ground due to both reduced costs of implementation as well as potentially greater flexibility in the siting of the area. Additionally, where possible, the creation of larger common storages in multi-owner developments offers construction cost savings as well as simplified maintenance arrangements and costs. The following table shows the acceptable depth and frequency of occurrence of water being held in above ground stormwater storage areas: Storage Area Pedestrian areas Suggested Depth 50mm beginning to pond 200mm 100mm beginning to pond 600mm 400mm 200mm beginning to pond 200mm 100mm beginning to pond beginning to pond Frequency of Inundation once in 100 years once in 20 years once in 100 years once in 20 years once in 10 years once in 100 years once in 10 years once in 2 years once a year once in 100 years once in 20 years once in 10 years 6 times per year
Parking and driveways
Gardens
Private courtyards (where the 2 area is between 25 and 60 m )
Paved recreation common areas
Table 4.2 - Suggested Flood Frequencies for Storage Areas (from UPRCT, 1999)
4.2.5 Grass Buffers

Grass buffers are broad sloped areas of grass or other dense vegetation, capable of withstanding shallow sheet flow stormwater run-off. They provide the functions of: sediment and pollutant removal from run-off prior to entering a drainage system some reduction in run-off volume through infiltration; and slightly reducing peak volumes through delay in run-off. The vegetation used in buffers is important in that grass density and length affects performance. It is worth noting that while it may appear attractive to use bushland areas for a similar buffer role, the impacts on the bushland can be quite detrimental. The nutrient loads often carried by stormwater can create substantial weed invasion of bushland areas, which when combined with the increased moisture levels can decrease the diversity and abundance of indigenous species.
Page 21
4.2.6 Constructed Wetlands

Constructed wetlands are human constructed copies of a natural wetland system, containing: a sediment trap in the form of a deep open pond at the stormwater entry point; and a range of shallow (but variable depth) water areas containing dense macrophytic planting. Wetlands function to improve stormwater quality by: removing sediments and suspended solids, together with their attached pollutants; removing a range of dissolved nutrients and contaminants. The detailed design and construction of these wetlands is a relatively complex task. Melbourne Waters Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines (1999) provides detailed design and construction guidelines for these facilities and is available through Melbourne Water.
4.3
Connecting the Pieces

WSUD is best incorporated in the initial development of land, in that it is an approach that achieves its best outcomes by being incorporated at the earliest points in the land design and development process. Therefore, given that the majority of the City of Knox is already developed to some level, the primary areas of opportunity for inclusion of WSUD will come as part of redevelopment and retro-fitting existing urban areas. The opportunities are not as limited as they might at first seem however. The following table identifies the main WSUD tools described in this report and highlights their relative applicability to the various situations in Knox.
Page 22
Applicability of measures
Filtration & Conveyance Trench
Underground Storage Tank
Rainwater Storage Tank
Pervious Storage Area
Oil / Grit Separators
Gross pollutant trap
Porous Pavement
Vegetated Swale
Filtration Trench
Grassed Swale
Grass Buffer l l m m l l m m
Situation / Location
New Streets
in large or small development areas - on slopes less than 4% - on slopes greater than 4%
l l
l m
l l
l l
l l
m m
m m
Existing Streets & Roadways

where drainage or pavements to be substantially upgraded or roadway duplicated - on slopes less than 4% - on slopes greater than 4% l l l m l l l l l m m
Publicly owned land (incl. POS)

where land area and land-use allow additional facilities to be incorporated l l l l l m l m l l
New Residential Development

New detached housing (on lots >500 m2) New medium density or integrated housing (lots < 300 m2) l m m l m l l l l l m m l l l
m m
Existing Residential Development

Existing dwellings on lots > 650 m2 Existing dwellings on lots < 650 m2 m m m m l l l l l l l l m m l l m m
Commercial Development
Commercial / Industrial properties l l m l l l l l m l m m m
Carparks - Public or Private Property

New carpark construction l l m l l l l l m l m m m
Legend l Highly applicable m Moderately applicable depending on detailed design (Additional

site assessment may be required.)
Table 4.3 - Applicability of WSUD measures to various situations in Knox.
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Wetland
Pond
Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 5 Implementation Issues and Challenges
Implementation Issues and Challenges

Because WSUD is a new and evolving technology, it brings with it some particular issues and challenges. This section discusses some of those issues.
5.1
Policy Issues
5.1.1 Drainage Benchmarks and Planning Controls
ResCode requires that existing downstream flows are restricted to pre-development levels unless otherwise agreed to by the responsible drainage authority. It is therefore important that Council clearly adopts a standard of any development achieving run-off equivalent to present development (ie. no net increase). Environment and Land Management suggest that all site development should be targeted if the proposal results in more than 20% of the site being covered with impermeable surfaces. This is the point at which adverse environmental effects are experienced in the system. (ELM & EE, 2001) Council should therefore review the levels at which WSUD measures might become compulsory in any development within the Municipality. It is only through the Planning Scheme that any such measures will become statutory requirements. Incorporation could be effected by inclusion as a local planning policy, subject to meeting VPP requirements. A recent draft report prepared for the Association of Bayside Municipalities (Environment & Land Planning, Ecological Engineering, 2001) proposes the concept of equivalent percentage impervious area as a trading mechanism that allows proponents to achieve benchmark requirements through on site measures, contributions to off-site measures, or a combination of both. The model provisions proposed are being assessed by the ABM and could form a useful basis for a similar approach in the City of Knox, albeit adapted to the specifics of local conditions.
5.1.2
Private expenditure and Community Benefit
One of the fundamental consequences of adopting water sensitive urban design is that it transfers the community cost (through rates and taxes) for environmental management, (eg. Melbourne Water sponsored wetlands and the like,) to the private individual or developer. These individuals then pay for something that has a community benefit, viz, a cleaner environment. Despite the rapidly growing community awareness, interest in and concern for environmental issues, the private sponsorship of community benefit is unlikely to be warmly received in the community. In the context of new development, the community concerns raised can be adequately argued where the requirements of WSUD become part of Councils policy through the planning scheme. In the case of Knox however, with its substantially built out character, significant improvements in storm water quality and reduction in water supply used will require a reasonable proportion of the existing population to adopt WSUD measures in currently developed areas. Rainwater tanks are the simplest opportunities to make environmental gains in a municipality such as Knox. Yet because of the long pay back periods involved, the incentive is low. Recent NSW research (Coombes et al, 1999) show that pay back periods can range from 27 to 45 years, depending on tank size and
available roof area. (This period is obviously affected by water supply costs also which differ in Victoria.)
5.1.3
Incentives
It may therefore require some incentives for the community to adopt source controls at their cost and on their land. One model for such incentives is found in the State Governments Solar Hot Water Heater rebate which provides homeowners who install such a system a substantial rebate to reduce the cost of the unit and installation. To achieve substantial uptake of WSUD measures, Council would need to investigate (with the State Government) the possibility of sponsoring a similar rebate scheme for water tanks above a certain size that can be determined to positively affect the run-off from any given property. Economic incentives often require both the carrot and the stick to be applied. History has shown that simply adding costs to a development results in the cost being passed on to consumers in the supply (or construction phase) and easily borne by many consumers in the ongoing life of the development. Coombes et al (1999) suggests that a balanced approach would require the implementation of a polluter pays model with economic disincentives for property owners in the form of a load-based fee calculated on the average volume of runoff from the site, coupled with compensatory payments for treatment facilities (eg. wetlands,) or rate rebates for source control, or development bonuses for WSUD incorporation. For example, if a WSUD element rating system could be implemented, then any development that exceeded the minimum level determined for that development could receive a rate rebate for the additional contribution to stormwater management. Clearly the difficulty with any such system is the issue of one authoritys costs become another departments gain. This challenge can only be addressed between State and Local Government.
5.1.4
Design of Developments
The implementation of WSUD measures in any development is highly dependant on particular site conditions. This puts particular onus on designers (architects, engineers, landscape architects etc.) to take great care in the site planning to accommodate the various elements with their space or offset distance requirements. WSUD does not lend itself easily to off the shelf design solutions. As many project designers and Council officers charged with approving the designs will not be highly familiar with WSUD elements, further training will be required for these individuals.
5.1.5
Education and Demonstration
As noted above, education will be critical to the successful implementation of WSUD policies in any municipality. Such education must work at a number of levels, including: the broad community; the developer community; the design community; and Council officers.
Page 25
The broad Community The broad community needs to be brought along with the push for sustainability. A program of media campaigns aimed at raising awareness and targeted at householders would be a start. Demonstrations of how WSUD can be incorporated without detriment to a home or development would be useful in negating latent concerns with potential retrofitters or new home-owners.
The developer community The developer community, like the broader community, is not an homogeneous group. Some development groups are already showing a growing interest in WSUD, whether spurred on by environmental concern or by the opportunity to gain a marketing edge. This level of interest is most likely to be seen at the large end of the industry however, which is of limited value to Knox, as most redevelopment is more likely to occur piecemeal and by smaller building and/or development organisations. For these groups, the carrot and stick approach will again be required. The stick will need to take the form of clear Council requirements in relation to WSUD incorporation in all developments. The carrot could be some of the incentives outlined in 5.1.3 above, together with: easy to use guidelines for the incorporation of WSUD (as this project aims to provide); and demonstration projects that allay fears about how difficult it is, how it might look and other concerns of small and medium sized developers/builders.
The design community As this group is the one that has to deliver on the requirements, education is critical. Awareness raising of sustainability issues, and WSUD in particular, could be run in parallel, but more directly targeted, with the broader community awareness raising. More detailed design education can be achieved through professional journals and publications such as the Building Design Professionals Environmental Design Guide. At a higher level, training through universities and TAFEs will be required to ensure that future generations of designers have a fundamental understanding of the issues.
Council Officers This group is responsible for the review and approval of projects that incorporate WSUD measures. Their understanding of the principles and practices is critical to getting successful developments built. Specific officers may need to parallel the training of the design professions in order to have sufficient understanding to critically assess development proposals.
5.2
Physical & Management Issues

5.2.1 Sediment Control
The threat of sedimentation reducing or negating the effects of a WSUD system is a key concern. There are many anecdotes of some level of failure of elements such as porous paving, leaky wells and the like. Sediment comes from three main sources: atmospheric sediment; sediment from the construction phase of a suburb; sediment from fully established suburbs. Sedimentation during the construction or establishment phase of a suburb is a major challenge. Even in the redevelopment of infill sites, sediment control is a crucial issue.
Sediment control involving silt barriers, sediment collection, storage and regular removal are critical to the long term health of the WSUD system. In the adoption of WSUD measures in the municipality, Council will need to ensure that development proponents provide a clear and comprehensive Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the construction site. In relation to sediment control, a wide range of measures will be required, including hydroseeding, straw mulching, sediment barrier fences, pit and inlet protection fences, hay bales and other devices. Additionally, education will be critical for the consultants, contractors and sub-contractors involved in any project. Equally important obviously, will be the need to monitor and ensure compliance with such EMPs to achieve the desired protection of the WSUD systems being installed.
5.2.2 Gross Pollutant Control

During the construction phase of new development, building waste (including off-cuts, breakages, product wrapping and a variety of other debris) is a major source of gross pollutant influx into the drainage system. Due to the nature of the housing construction industry in particular, with its high reliance on sub-contractors, control of this debris can be difficult. Some municipalities have introduced requirements for builders to provide a rubbish container on each allotment for the sub-contractors, and to empty it regularly. In the City of Casey, failure to install the measures incurs a penalty notice and fine, with failure to pay or re-offending resulting in prosecution in the Magistrates Court and fines of up to $2,000. As part of the resource materials for its General Works Local Law, which protects public assets, Knox Council is introducing a number of guidelines to reduce water pollution from construction activities. Sediment control devices such as sediment fences and hay bales are illustrated in Council publications which are a reference guide for those in the building industry. The issue of litter leaving sites and polluting waterways is also addressed by the mandatory requirement of bins on-site. The publications emphasise not only the environmental benefits which come from following these practices, but also the economic gains from losing less soils etc. from building sites and from less clean up costs. Infringement notices carry fines of $1000 or court fines of up to $2000 for failing to comply with the Local Law.
5.2.3 Construction Co-ordination

In a development setting, the introduction of WSUD elements such as swales and filtration trenches brings the need to carefully co-ordinate the construction sequence of the WSUD elements with the other services on site. Consequently, the installation of services such as gas, electricity, water supply and telecoms needs to be carefully controlled in the process so that their installation does not damage underground WSUD elements. Additionally, construction sequencing and access has an impact and needs to be planned carefully for the particular project. In a subdivision setting for example, construction access should be from the rear of lots wherever possible to allow swale grass to consolidate and reduce potential for access across the swales (with resultant compaction and/or contamination.)
5.2.4 Construction Supervision & Verification

While many elements of WSUD are conceptually simple in their approach, some elements demand a higher level of construction supervision than traditional drainage systems do. Elements that depend on careful levelling and grading, for example swales
Page 27
or on-site stormwater detention systems, require very close attention to set-out and levels. Adequate time and budget must be allowed for experience supervision in the construction phase to avoid the need for expensive rectification works later on. Bewsher (1995) identifies a number of problems specifically with OSD, including: deficient storage volumes; uncertain discharge control; incorrect or absent screening; decomposing organic matter causing odours; inappropriate and unnecessarily costly layout; access and structural design deficiencies; and ongoing maintenance. A number of municipalities that have adopted On Site Detention have introduced reasonably stringent certification requirements, including design and certification of construction by a regulated range of professionals. In situations where the failure of WSUD elements in a development would not result in flooding and property damage, certification would not necessarily be required. Where failure or lack of maintenance might result in downstream flooding, then the legal implications for Council demand a tightly controlled regulatory system, more so than for conventional drainage systems. Many municipalities currently require bonds for civil and landscape subdivisional works, returned to the developer upon satisfactory completion of the works. In situations of critical importance, it would be worthwhile Council requiring a bond for on-site stormwater detention works for all developments that would be released upon provision of independent verification of the works.
5.2.5 Maintenance
Because WSUD is predicated on source control of water cycle elements, it necessarily creates infrastructure at the individual lot level where home owners are new to the sorts of maintenance requirements that such a system might demand. It also fundamentally redistributes maintenance requirements from the current situation where many of the problems of urban stormwater are shifted to the Bay. The WSUD system leaves both home owners and Councils with a higher level of maintenance than they have currently. This shifting of cost is a key political issue to be dealt with, as what is now a community cost, borne through taxes and levies of various sorts, will become an individual cost with a community (and environmental) benefit. (Refer 5.1.2) Additionally, the perception of extra costs for the maintenance and upkeep of WSUD systems, together with the potential for inappropriate maintenance by property owners are issues that suggest a need for a centralised, local authority based maintenance system. Offsets in the cost of this maintenance regime need to be studied however, as the current assessment of WSUD maintenance costs being extra ignores the substantial costs of environmental harm or rehabilitation created by traditional stormwater systems. A combination of upfront integration of WSUD in the site planning and design phases, together with high quality implementation, and particularly protection during the construction phase, will reduce ongoing maintenance costs. However, careful consideration will need to be given to WSUD measures in relation to titling arrangements (eg body corporate responsibilities, easement creation) and provision of ongoing funding of shared WSUD installations. In the light of VCAT decisions requiring Council to grant a permit on condition of the proponent not increasing the site runoff, Council will need to establish clear and legally enforceable parameters for the design, implementation and maintenance of OSD and OSR systems for example. The enforcement of the required maintenance then becomes
and additional problem to be overcome. With the reality that future occupiers of such a development will have little or no knowledge of, or interest in, maintaining an OSD/OSR system, Council may need to review the potential for a differential rate on dwellings with OSD/OSR to cover the cost of Council taking on the maintenance role. Coombes (2000) suggests in contrast however, that where residents show acceptable maintenance of their source controls that they might be granted a rate reduction, while those that do not contribute to stormwater management should pay an additional stormwater management levy.
5.3
Construction Costs
Construction cost comparison data is limited in relation to WSUD. The Lynbrook Estate (by the URLC) in the City of Casey has incorporated a range of WSUD elements in a portion of the development and its costs have been analysed against traditional drainage systems. CONVENTIONAL D ESIGN 5 x side entry pits @ $929.46/pit 76 x 1m: 300 diameter drainage pipe @ $45.87/1m 60 x 1m: 375 diameter drainage pipe @ $61.21/1m 24 x 1m: 450 diameter drainage pipe @ $71.39/1m 7x standard house drain to pipe @ $227.11/hd 160 x 1m kerb and channel @ $26.74/1m 7 x driveway lay backs @ $141.94/lay back
TOTAL
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
= $ 4,647.30 = $ 3,486.12 = $ 3,672.60 = $ 1,713.36 = $ 1,589.77 = $ 4,278.40 = $ 993.58 AUS$20,381.13 = $ 1,400.00 = $ 1,100.88 = $ 5,365.50 = $ 4,174.40 = $ 3,473.60 = $ 1,114.75 = $ 1,165.44 = $ 3,616.20 AUS$21,410.77
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
W ATER S ENSITIVE URBAN D ESIGN 1 x swale side entry pit @ $1400.00/pit 24 x 1m: 300 diameter drainage pipe @ $45.87/1m 7 x swale house drain and pit @ $766.50/hd&pit 160 x 1m swale trench and turf @ $26.09/1m 160 x 1m kerb @ $21.71/1m 7 x swale lay back @ $159.25/lay back 2 2 64 m pavement @ $18.21/m 3 3 738 m earthworks cut @ $4.90/m
TOTAL
Table 5.1 - Comparison between WSUD and Conventionally designed Drainage works at Lynbrook Estate (based on typical 160m length of road covering 7 lots) Source: Lloyd, Wong & Porter, 2000 It is important in relation to the above costs to note that the comparison is based on the Lynbrook system being capable of carrying the same amount of water as a conventional system. However, Coombes (2001) states that stormwater or roofwater reuse can provide substantial cost savings for the construction of stormwater infrastructure in new developments. A 1% saving ($960 per dwelling) was achieved in a medium density unit development at Figtree Place, Newcastle (Coombes et al, 2000). Additionally, Kuczera and Coombes (2001) suggest that roofwater reuse in new developments would return a 3% cost saving (including the cost to install the rainwater tanks) through reduced stormwater pipes and sizes, as well as reduced need for end-of-pipe water quality treatment.
Page 29
The cost of installation of different size rainwater tanks was also studied by Coombes et al (2000) and reported as follows: Item Aquaplate rainwater tank Pump and pressure controller Plumber and fittings Float system Concrete base GST Total Cost to install each tank size ($) 5 kL 10 kL 15 kL 540 870 1200 200 + 160 200 + 160 200 + 160 500 500 500 100 100 100 200 200 200 170 200 240 1910 2230 2600
Table 5.2 - Cost to install a rainwater tank system (from Coomes et al, 2000). This research shows that while there is only marginal additional cost involved in large increases in storage capacity, the basic cost remains relatively high and does not provide a cost saving incentive to home owners to install such devices. As noted earlier, incentive schemes will be required to enhance the take-up of this measure.
5.4
Opportunities in the existing storm water / drainage system

The broadscale replacement of existing stormwater infrastructure (ie. underground pipes) with environmentally sensitive systems is technically and economically difficult. With the drainage system designed to work for 50 to 100 years without replacement, opportunities for the implementation of WSUD in the public realm of existing urbanised areas would seem limited. There are however a number of opportunities, including: the removal of gross pollutants from the system through the relatively straight forward installation of gross pollutant traps, trash baskets in existing side entry pits and retrofitting of side entry pits to grated pits; small scale retrofitting of filtration and conveyance trenches where ever opportunities arise in the reconstruction of damaged areas or road reconstruction projects; installation of a suite of WSUD measures in large road reconstruction projects and road duplication projects; installation of rainwater storage tanks in existing dwellings, connected for toilet flushing and external uses. The other key opportunity is presented by the Public Open Space system in the scope it creates to provide effective water quality improvement (via constructed wetlands) and potentially the retardation of runoff in certain rainfall events (retarding basins). This reduction of peak flows in frequent rainfall events has the important consequence of reducing riparian and aquatic habitat disturbance, a key detrimental impact of urbanised catchments. It is acknowledged however that the opportunities for these installations may be somewhat limited and that the Public Open Space systems primary function is to cater for the leisure and recreation needs of the community. Another area of retrofitting opportunity lies in the performance improvement of retarding basins to improve water quality, as well as retardation of discharge. Wetland treatments can be constructed within retarding basins with no reduction of their effective volume, but to provide improved water quality outflows, as well as improving the aesthetics and landscape amenity of some of these structures.
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WSUD Guidelines and Measures

Introduction
These Guidelines are intended to provide information for those proposing development within the City of Knox as to how Water Sensitive Urban Design can be incorporated into their projects. Apart from the Council requirement that all new development match pre-development stormwater run-off levels, the guidelines are not meant to be prescriptive. They are intended to provide a range of opportunities and techniques that can be employed to achieve that primary objective.
How to use these Guidelines

The guidelines are organised into the following sections: 1. Overall applicability of WSUD Measures to various situations; 2. Examples of incorporation of Measures into different development types; 3. WSUD Measures and Guidelines, together indicative construction details. The Guideline construction details are coded as follows: Guideline Guideline Code Examples of WSUD incorporation EX Gross Pollutant Traps GPT Oil / Grit Separators OGS Grass Swales GS Vegetated Swales VS Filtration Trenches FT Filtration & Conveyance Trench FCT Rainwater Storage Tank RST Porous Pavement PP Pond PO Underground Storage Pit USP Pervious storage area PSA Grass Buffer GB Constructed Wetland WL Sundry Construction Details SCD
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council WSUD Guidelines and Measures
Applicability of WSUD Measures

The table below gives a guide to the most appropriate WSUD Measures for different types of development situations in the City of Knox.
Applicability of measures
Underground Storage Tank
Pervious Storage Area
Gross pollutant trap
Porous Pavement
Vegetated Swale
Filtration Trench
Grassed Swale
Grass Buffer l l m m l l m m m m m
Situation / Location
New Streets
in large or small development areas - on slopes less than 4% - on slopes greater than 4%
l l
l m
l l
l l
l l
m m
m m
Existing Streets & Roadways

where drainage or pavements to be substantially upgraded or roadway duplicated - on slopes less than 4% - on slopes greater than 4% l l l m l l l l l m m
Publicly owned land (incl. POS)

where land area and land-use allow additional facilities to be incorporated l l l l l m l m l l
New Residential Development

New detached housing (on lots >500 m2) New medium density or integrated housing (lots < 300 m2) l m m l m l l l l l m m l l l
Existing Residential Development

Existing dwellings on lots > 650 m2 Existing dwellings on lots < 650 m2 m m m m l l l l l l l l m m l l m m
Commercial Development
Commercial / Industrial properties l l m l l l l l m l m m
Carparks - Public or Private Property

New carpark construction l l m l l l l l m l m m
Legend l Highly applicable m Moderately applicable depending on detailed design (Additional

site assessment may be required.)
Page 32
Wetland
Pond
Role and Function of WSUD measures

While the previous table shows where the various WSUD measures can be applied, it is important to understand the primary role and function of each so that proponents can assemble a stormwater treatment train that addresses the key issues for their site. The following table shows the role and focus of each measure:
Gross pollutant trap Oil / Grit Separator Grassed Swale Vegetated Swale Filtration Trench Filtration & Conveyance Trench Rainwater Storage Tank Porous Pavement Pond Underground Storage Tank Pervious Storage Area Grass Buffer Constructed Wetland Legend l High
Focus of WSUD Measure Water Quality Water Quantity l m l m l m l m

l l
w w
l
w
m m
w
l l l
w
l l
m m
w
m
Medium Low
Page 33
Examples of WSUD Incorporation

(Refer Guidelines EX 1, EX 2, EX 3, EX 4, EX 5) The following diagrams show how the various measures described in the next section can be put together to form a suite of elements that provide stormwater quality and quantity improvements. They can be described as follows: EX1 EX2 EX3 Typical Single Detached Residential Development New subdivision, with standard lot sizes (450 m2 750 m2) Typical Detached Unit or Integrated Housing Development (Lot size between 350 m2 and 450 m2) Typical Unit Development (Lot size between 250 m2 and 300 m2) Typical Urban Park Retrofit Roadway Installation
EX4 EX5 EX6
Page 34
WATER TANK (WITH OR WITHOUT ADDITIONAL DETENTION VOLUME)
O/F O/F
NON-INFILTRATION ZONE (WIDTH DEPENDS ON SOIL TYPE -REFER GUIDELINES) FILTRATION TRENCH
3 4 2 3
POSSIBLE "RAINSAVER" GUTTER
SUBSOIL DRAIN FROM TRENCH IN HEAVIER SOILS
LEGEND
1. 2. 3. 4. RAINWATER STORAGE TANK POROUS PAVING FILTRATION TRENCH "RAINSAVER" GUTTER
O/F OVERFLOW
3
O/F
NON-INFILTRATION ZONE DRAINAGE CONNECTION
DISCHARGE TO INFRASTRUCTURE STORMWATER DRAIN IN STREET
STREET
NOTE: DEVELOPMENT IS DIAGRAMMATIC FOR WSUD DEMONSTRATION PURPOSES ONLY. NO ASSESSMENT HAS BEEN MADE OF COMPLIANCE WITH RES CODE.
GUIDELINE EX 1 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES

0124 KNOX 1:200
Tel: 96964957 Fax: 96963594 E-Mail: mail@mdgroup.com.au Murphy Design Group Pty.Ltd. Level 2, 45 Victoria Avenue, Albert Park, Vic, 3206 Australia
TYPICAL SINGLE DETACHED RESIDENTIAL

(NEW OR RETROFIT SITUATION)
01 31-10-01
20
19.5 4
4 4 1 5
2 3 1 4
3 1 2
4 7 9 19 5 6 4 7 9 4 8 4 5
5 4 4 7 9
4 1
18.5
4 4 5 8
LEGEND
1. RAIN STORAGE WATER TANK 2. FILTRATION TRENCH 3. OVERFLOW DEVICE 4. POROUS PAVING 5. FILTRATION & CONVEYANCE TRENCH 6. HOUSE DRAIN 7. CONNECTION PIT 8. ON-SITE DETENTION TANK 9. KERB "BREAK"

0124 KNOX 1:500
NEW SUBDIVISION
03 31-10-01
STANDARD LOT SIZES (450m2 - 750m2)
2 2 2 1 4
3 CROWNED ROAD 1 2 2 3 5
2 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 4 5 4 2
TO STREET DRAIN
LEGEND
1. RAINWATER STORAGE TANK 2. POROUS PAVING 3. DRIVEWAY ENTRY PIT 4. GRASS SWALE WITH CONVEYANCE TRENCH BELOW 5. UNDERGOUND STORAGE PIT 6. GRATED INLET PIT

0124 KNOX 1:500
TYPICAL UNIT OR INTEGRATED HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
03 31-10-01
2 3 1 2 3
2 5 4 5 2 1 2
2 3
2 3 1 1 2 1 5 2 4 5 5
2 2
6 7 TO STORMWATER SYSTEM
LEGEND
1. RAINWATER STORAGE TANK 2. POROUS PAVING 3. GRAVEL MULCH 4. FILTRATION TRENCH 5. DRIVEWAY ACCESS PIT 6. ON-SITE DETENTION STORAGE PIT 7. VOLUME LIMITED CONNECTION TO STORMWATER SYSTEM (WITH OVERFLOW PROVISION)

0124 KNOX 1:500
TYPICAL UNIT DEVELOPMENT

04 31-10-01
6 DWELLINGS - APPROX. 250-300m2 EACH
14
13
<1 YR A.R.I. *
12
11
10
TO STORMWATER SYSTEM OR DRAINAGE WAY STREAM
LEGEND
1. EXISTING STREET STORMWATER SYSTEM 2. FILTRATION TRENCH 3. FILTRATION & CONVEYANCE TRENCH 4. CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
* A.R.I. AVERAGE RETURN INTERVAL

0124 KNOX 1:1000
TYPICAL URBAN PARK RETROFIT

05 31-09-01
5 2 6
5 2 1
5 2 3
5 2 1
3 1 3 3 4 2 1
LEGEND
1. GRASS SWALE 2. FILTRATION TRENCH 3. GRATED PIT 4. ROCK ENERGY DISSIPATERS 5. CHECK DAMS OR DEPRESSIONS IF REQUIRED BY SLOPE 6. KERB BREAK FALL ON PAVEMENT

0124 KNOX 1:500
MEDIAN DIVIDED ROADWAY

14 31-10-01
WSUD Measures 1 Gross Pollutant Traps

(Refer Guideline GPT 1)
Definition
Constructed devices designed to remove solids greater than 5mm diameter from the stormwater system.
Purpose
Gross pollutant traps remove the large debris washed into the stormwater system before the stormwater enters the receiving waters.
Implementation / Products:
A range of proprietary products are available, including the following manufacturers/suppliers: CSR Humes Humeguard Ecosol CDS Net Tech GPI Traps Baramy International Dry Gross Pollutant Traps Rocla Cleans All GPT Diston Litter Miser Series Enviropod
For information on these and other gross pollutant traps, readers are directed to the Stormwater Industry Associations web site at www.stormwater.asn.au Additionally, Melbourne Water have prepared a draft guideline entitled Selecting Litter Traps which provides guidelines on the issues to be considered when comparing a variety of traps on the market. Additionally, Melbourne Waters Urban Stormwater Best Practice Management Guidelines provide selection guides. Both publications are available through Melbourne Water.
Page 35
WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES
Definition:
A device designed and constructed to separate oils and grit from stormwater runoff.
Purpose:
Oil and grit separators are intended to remove the bulk of oil and grit flushed from commercial areas, industrial areas, carparks and other situations that can produce oil spills or small accumulations.
Implementation / Products:
A range of devices are commercially available for installation in appropriate situations. A list of manufacturers/suppliers follows: Enviropod Tel 0414 903 268 Oil and grit separators are required in all situations that could produce oils into the stormwater system, such as industrial areas, commercial carparks and private carparks.
Maintenance Requirements
Regular cleaning out and removal to appropriate disposal point.
Page 36
Grass Swales
(Refer Guidelines GS 1, GS 2, GS 3, GS 4, GS 5)
Definition:
A grassed linear depression for the conveyance of stormwater runoff.
Purpose:
Grass swales provide a number of functions: reduce total runoff through infiltration (and even more so when coupled with a Filtration Trench); reduce the speed of runoff; catch sediments and attached pollutants; accommodate pedestrian movement across and along them.
Implementation Criteria
1. Sediment control must be installed for the duration of any building or civil engineering construction process prior to completion of swale. 2. Linear grade or slope to be between 2% (1 in 50) and 4% (1 in 25). 3. Slopes steeper than 4% require regular depression pondages (forming check dams) to reduce the velocity of the flow and prevent scouring or erosion of the bed. These can be created with simple undulations in the grassed invert of the channel. Where puddles are not tolerable, a porous base or a filtration trench with perforated drain is required below the check dam area. 4. Slopes flatter than 2% require very careful grading and should be rechecked after the ground has had time to settle after the initial construction. A filtration trench or subsoil drain system is also required under the invert of swales flatter than 2% to prevent standing water in larger storm events. 5. Cross grades of the swale are determined predominantly by maintainability (generally 1:5 maximum), though swales that traverse driveway crossovers or other pavements must match the crossover grade (generally 1:13 max on either side of swale.) 6. Swales on longitudinal grades steeper than 2% can have wider parabolic shaped bases, while swales on flatter slopes should be more V formed. The top of the batter slope should be rounded off to prevent scalping when mowing occurs. 7. In the establishment of the swales, protection of the invert is critical. Consideration should be given to erosion protection in the form of pregrown turf, chopped straw mulch or other hydro-mulch techniques. 8. Vegetation cover must be dense to work well and avoid erosion. In grassed swales, rhizomous or stoloniferous grasses (such as Couches or Fescues) protect the invert from erosion better than turf tussock grasses such as Rye Grass. 9. The following design criteria must be met: . flow depths of less than 200mm for a 1:10 year rainfall event; . ponding for no more than 1 hour after rainfall cessation is unlikely; . flow velocities are less than 1.5m/s; . turf used in swale is tolerant of submersion and resistant to scour and erosion; . depth to width ratio of greater than 1:6. 10. The following table provides recommended maximum flow velocities in swales: Ground Cover Velocity (m/s) Soil erodibility Low Moderate High Mat or sword grasses with UV stabilised mesh 3.0 2.7 2.4 Jute mesh 2.3 2.0 1.9 Couch grass, carpet forming grasses 2.0 1.8 1.4 Other improved perennials 1.6 1.3 0.9 Tussock grasses 1.3 0.9 0.5 Bare soil 0.7 0.5 0.3 Source: Managing Urban Stormwater: Soils and Construction (1998)
Page 37
Regular weed control. Regular mowing or slashing of the grass at frequencies appropriate to the visual effect desired. Effectiveness is enhanced by leaving the grass longer than 75mm.
Page 38
ESTABLISHMENT PERIOD PROTECTION REQUIRED FOR INVERT ZONE
1:13
800 - 1200 mm
1:13
CROSS SECTION
ESTABLISHMENT PERIOD PROTECTION REQUIRED FOR INVERT ZONE
1:4
800 - 1200 mm
1:4
CROSS SECTION
>4%
1:8 MAX
SUBSOIL DRAIN WHERE SURFACE PONDING NOT ACCEPTABLE OR POROUS BASE (SUCH AS TRENCH SECTION)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION - DEPRESSION PONDAGE / CHECK DAM GUIDELINE GS 1 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES
0124 KNOX 1:50
GRASSED SWALES
06 31-09-01
Vegetated Swales
(Refer Guideline VS 1 )
Definition:
A linear depression for the conveyance of stormwater runoff that is vegetated with a variety of species taller than grasses. (Consequently, it is not a walking area.)
Purpose:
Vegetated swales provide a number of functions: reduce total runoff through infiltration (and even more so when coupled with a Filtration Trench); reduce the speed of runoff; catch sediments and attached pollutants.
1. 2. 3. Sediment control must be installed for the duration of any building or civil engineering construction process prior to completion of swale. Linear grade or slope to optimally be between 2% (1 in 50) and 4% (1 in 25). Slopes steeper than 4% require regular check dams or other velocity reducing devices to prevent scouring or erosion of the bed. Because vegetated swales are not intended to be walked over, check dams can be constructed of timber, rock and the like, guided predominantly by landscape and aesthetic considerations. Slopes flatter than 2% may require a gravel trench or sub-soil drain system if minor and temporary water ponding would be a problem for the intended situation. Cross grades of the swale are determined predominantly by maintainability (generally 1:5 maximum), though swales that traverse driveway crossovers or other pavements must match the crossover grade (generally 1:13 max on either side of swale.) Cross sectional shape is best trapezoidal or parabolic. Blending the earthform into adjacent grades at the top of the batters is important for future ease of maintenance. Vegetation cover must be dense to work well and avoid erosion. Dense tussock type species with large leaf surface areas are best. Weed suppression mulch is generally required in vegetated swales. Gravel mulches reduce or eliminate the problems of organic mulches being transported by the water flows and potentially causing problems downstream. Single size screened 7mm + gravels for slopes less than 4%, 20mm + for slopes greater than 4%.
4. 5.
6. 7. 8.
Appropriate Species:
The following species are appropriate for use in vegetated swales: Bulboschoenus caldweli Sea Club-rush Carex appressa Tall Sedge Carex fasicularis Tassell Sedge Carex gaudichaudiana Fen Sedge Carex tereticaulis Basket Sedge Crassula helmsii Swamp Crassula Cyperus lucidius Leafy Flat-sedge Eleocharis acuta Small Spike-sedge Isolepis inundata Swamp Club-rush Juncus amabilis Hollow rush Juncus gregiflorous Rush Juncus sarophorous Rush Neopaxia australasica White Purslane Persicaria decipens Slender Knotweed
Regular weed control. Maintenance of the installed vegetation.
Page 39
VARIES 1M+
DENSE TUSSOCK TYPE VEGETATION WITH HIGH LEAF SURFACE AREA NEAR GROUND LEVEL (REFER SPECIES LIST IN GUIDELINES)
5 - 20%
FALL
5 - 20%
MAINTENANCE EDGE
CROSS SECTION
GRAVEL MULCH SINGLE SIZE, SCREENED, 7mm + FOR GRADES <4% 20mm + FOR GRADES >4%
EPHEMERAL WETLAND SPECIES IN CHECK DAM AREA
>4%
CHECK DAM FORMED BY ROCK PLACEMENT FOR SLOPES >4% ROCKS PLACED TO REDUCE WATERFLOW
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
GRAVEL MULCH SINGLE SIZE, SCREENED, 7mm + FOR GRADES <4% 20mm + FOR GRADES >4%
GUIDELINE VS 1 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES

0124 KNOX 1:50
VEGETATED SWALES
08 31-09-01
Filtration Trenches
(Refer Guidelines FT 1, FT 2, FT 3 & FT 4)
Definition
A sub-surface water filtration system capable of holding stormwater run-off to allow it to infiltrate the ground and/or be temporarily detained to achieve some water quality improvement.
Purpose
Filtration trenches can provide the following functions: infiltration of stormwater run-off into the ground; provision of on-site detention and retention capacity; improvement in water quality emerging from the trench.
1. Sediment control must be installed for the duration of any building or civil engineering construction process prior to installation of trench. 2. Capacity must be sufficient to provide detention for infiltration into the sub-surface. 3. Trench filling material (gravel) must be: . single sized screened stone; . stone with the highest surface area available (therefore granite and scoria are preferred over basalt.) 4. Ground water must be relatively deep in relation to the base of the trench. 5. There must be sufficient site area to locate the trench on relatively level ground (less than 2% grade) or along the contours. 6. Trenches should not be used in areas of greater than 5% slope unless an engineering analysis confirms the viability. 7. Stormwater entering the trench must be pre-treated to remove gross pollutants, coarse to medium sediments and organic matter. 8. Must have an overflow device at the inlet end of the trench, connected to the stormwater system or a safe overland flow path. 9. Should not be located closer to property boundaries, buildings or other structures than indicated by table below: Soil type Hydraulic Conductivity Distance to footings Sand >180 mm/hr 1m Sandy clay 180 36 mm/hr 2m Medium clay 36 3.6 mm/hr 4m Reactive clay 3.6 0.036 mm/hr 5m Source: Coombes (undated B) 10. Where two or more filtration trenches are installed, the clear distance between the edges of the trenches must be 1.5 times the depth of the deepest trench. (Planning SA, 2001) 11. Must be encased in appropriate geo-textile to prevent sedimentation from surrounding soils. 12. Must not be located in clay soils that collapse in contact with water.
Periodic inspections for visible signs of problems.
Page 40

KNOX
GRADED FILTER SANDS TO CONFORM TO THE FOLLOWING: 1. 2. 3. Particle Size Fine Gravel (>2mm) Very Coarse Sand (1mm) Coarse Sand (0.5mm) Medium Sand (0.25mm) Fine Sand (0.106mm) Very Fine Sand (0.053mm) Silt & Clay (<0.053mm) (% retained) 0 < 10 20-30 40-75 < 30 < 15 <5 pH Salt (ppm) 6.0 7.0 < 500
NOTE: Combined % retained of Coarse, Medium, and Fine sand shall exceed 75%. 4. Hydraulic Conductivity (mm/hr) 300 400

(Refer Guidelines FT 3 & FT 4)
Definition
A sub-surface drainage system comprised of perforated pipes combined with a gravel trench.
Purpose
For application in new construction and retrofit situations where stormwater conveyance remains a requirement, in order to: provide infiltration of stormwater run-off into the ground; reduce the overall volume of stormwater being transported by the system; reduce the peak flow of a storm event in the system.
As for Filtration Trenches. Importantly, note that sediment control must be installed for the duration of any building or civil engineering construction process prior to installation of trench.
As for Filtration Trenches.
Page 41

(Refer Guidelines RST 1, RST 2)
Definition
A sealed tank designed to collect rainwater from roof collection.
Purpose
Storage tanks can: allow the reuse of collected rainwater as a substitute for mains water supply, either inside or outside the building (including toilet flushing, laundry use or garden watering); when designed with additional capacity above the overflow, provide an on-site detention role thereby reducing the peak flow of a storm event
1. 2. Must be installed by a Licensed Plumber. Must be fitted with a first flush device to ensure pollutants and sediments are diverted before reaching the tank, where usage other than outside the house is intended. 3. Must be sealed at the inlet to avoid insect ingress and mosquito breeding. 4. Rainwater that may be used inside the home should only be collected from roofs constructed of galvanised iron, Colorbond, Zincalume and concrete, slate or ceramic tiles. (Roofs coated with lead- or bitumen-based paints or asbestos cement roofs must not be used.) 5. Should be sized to provide storage for a minimum of one week use of the intended water application. Generally, capacities between 5 kl and 10 kl provide maximum water savings and stormwater management benefits. 6. Must be sited to the side or rear of the house and not be visible from the street. 7. Ascertain planning permit requirements for individual situation, as certain zones or areas with overlay controls may require differing treatment. 8. A planning permit is required for tanks larger than 4500 litres. 9. A building permit is required for tanks over 1000 litres that are not installed on the ground. 10. Tanks must not be located within 0.5m of a boundary. 11. If to be used for consumption inside the house, will require professional installation and a Plumbing Certificate (as required the Plumbing Act and the Building Act 1993.) Refer also to Councils guideline Water Conservation: Using Rainwater Tanks and (currently in development) Rainwater Tanks and Greywater Reuse, Knox Health Services.
Annual flushing out of tank. Regular inspection to ensure appropriate sealing. Regular maintenance of first flush device.
Note:
Another product that operates on a similar principle of rainwater collection, though through the use of enlarged roof guttering is the Rainsaver product. Refer to manufacturers product literature for further details (Tel 1800 700 003). Particular assessment must be made of the structural engineering requirements of the system in relation to the load it imparts on roof structures.
Page 42
RAINWATER INLET
FIRST FLUSH DEVICE
TRICKLE TOP UP FROM MAIN SUPPLY
AIR SPACE USED FOR DETENTION
OVERFLOW
RAINWATER SPACE
FLOAT PUMP MAINS TOP UP VOLUME
SECTION
MAINS WATER SUPPLY FOR OTHER INHOUSE USES (DRINKING)
TRICKLE TOP UP WITH MAINS WATER AS REQUIRED
BYPASS IN THE EVENT OF POWER FAILURE (SUBJECT TO WATER AUTHORITY APPROVAL WITH APPROPRIATE BACKFLOW PREVENTION DEVICE)
STOP VALVE
RAINWATER INLET RAINWATER TANK
PUMP
FIRST FLUSH DEVICE
FLOAT
WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION, TOILET, LAUNDRY AND EXTERNAL USES
PLAN
GUIDELINE RST 1 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES
0124 KNOX NTS
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT RAINWATER STORAGE TANK
13 31-10-01
MESH SCREEN RAINWATER FROM ROOF OVERFLOW TO TANK
RAINWATER TANK
SECTION
RAINWATER LEAKS THROUGH SMALL HOLE
GUIDELINE RST 2 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES

0124 KNOX NTS
FIRST FLUSH DEVICE

14 31-10-01
Porous Pavement
(Refer Guideline PP 1)
Definition
Pavement that allows the ingress of water and flow through to the paving substrate.
Purpose
Porous pavements: provide for on-site retention of stormwater run-off, therefore reducing peak flows; reduce the overall volume of stormwater run-off from a site; minimise the export of sediments and pollutants off the site; can be designed to become storage areas for higher rainfall events.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. As great as possible an area of the pavement to be set at grade of 1% or less, and none constructed on grades greater than 5%. Runoff directed to porous pavements should, where possible, be pre-treated to remove sediment. Porous pavement areas to be fully protected from sediment contamination during construction. Should be graded such that the area can drain to another source control device or the street drainage system in an overflow event. Suitable for areas that have relatively low vehicle use, carparks and paving in residential and appropriate commercial developments. If used as storage for On-site Retention, should be designed to criteria shown in Guideline 11, Pervious Storage Area. Appropriate products include: . modular concrete blocks; . no-fines concrete; . open graded asphalt; . reinforced grass products.
Wash down with high pressure hose annually. Vacuum sweeping three monthly in higher sediment environments. Asphalt porous paving (like other asphalt pavements) require occasional resurfacing.
Page 43
Pond
(Refer Guideline PO 1)
Definition
An open body of water.
Purpose
Ponds may be used to: provide on-site detention to reduce peak flows; store water for re-use in the landscape; provide ornamental purposes; provide infiltration and consequent reduction in stormwater run-off.
1. 2. 3. 4. Pretreatment is required to remove gross pollutants prior to entry. Pretreatment for sediment removal is advisable for ponds with ornamental function. Should have a mean depth of 2m to reduce problems of algal blooms. Should have safety measures incorporated in the form of fences or safety benches around the deep water sections. Unless a swimming pool level of fencing is envisaged, the sides of any storage that could exceed 600mm depth storage must be graded at 1 in 8 (V:H) to provide a 2m wide safety bench around the full perimeter of the area.
Silt removal on an as needed basis. Frequency depends on quality of stormwater entering and size of pond.
Page 44
FENCE TO POOL STANDARD IF NO SAFETY BENCH 2m SAFETY BENCH
OVERFLOW PIT & GRATED FRAME NORMAL WATER LEVEL OPENING 150mm
IMPERVIOUS LINER OVERFLOW SPILLWAY
2M
OUTLET TO STORM WATER INFRASTRUCTURE
GUIDELINE PO 1 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES

0124 KNOX 1:100
PONDS
07 31-09-01
10
Underground Storage Pit

Definition
A below ground storage device that retains stormwater run-off.
Purpose
Discharge control pits: provide on-site detention thereby reducing peak flows; provide potential for stormwater re-use for non-potable uses (such as irrigation, washdown water etc.) Underground storage pits also provide a small water quality improvement function.
1. 2. Sized to achieve pre-development flows in stormwater discharge. If device has a stormwater re-use function then only roof water should be connected, otherwise, pavement and roof water may be combined. 3. Pretreatment required to remove gross pollutants prior to entry if collecting from paved surfaces. 12. Pretreatment for sediment removal is advisable for both roof and pavement collection sources. 13. Locate access points away from heavily trafficked areas so as to minimise disincentives to maintenance. 14. Use light duty access covers to minimise disincentives to maintenance. Note that circular access lids are less likely to be accidentally dropped into the pit and that grated lids allow for easy visual inspection as part of a maintenance regime. A number of preconstructed pits and storage devices are available from the following suppliers: CSR Humes Atlantis Corporation Australian Drainage Modules
Annual flushing out of tank. Regular maintenance of first flush device.
Page 45
11
Pervious storage area

(Refer Guideline PSA 1)
Definition
A vegetated depression area providing surface or depression storage as well as soil moisture storage in the effective root zone.
Purpose
To provide stormwater retention and infiltration. Their benefits include: reduction of stormwater runoff peaks and volumes; and minimisation of conveyance of pollution to downstream catchments or receiving waters.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Located in areas that can accommodate periodic inundation and water infiltration. Can be coupled with Filtration Trenches and/or sub-soil drains to reduce the time of storage on surface. Should have connection to downstream on-site detention or stormwater system to accommodate overflow situation. Desirable minimum surface slope of 1.5% for the base, with an absolute minimum of 1.0%. Side slopes should be a maximum of 1 in 6 (V:H). Subsoil drainage should be installed around the outlet area to prevent the ground remaining saturated for prolonged periods. If the storage is located in an area that may cause inconvenience upon frequent inundation, the initial 10% 20% of the storage should be provided in a form that will accommodate frequent inundation such as: . an underground storage tank; . a permanent water feature or pond; or . an adjacent area that will not cause an inconvenience. The maximum depth of the storage should be 600mm and must be designed to allow safe egress as it fills with water. The following table shows the acceptable depth and frequency of occurrence of water being held in above ground stormwater storage areas: Storage Area Suggested Depth Frequency of Inundation Pedestrian areas 50mm once in 100 years beginning to pond once in 20 years Parking and driveways 200mm once in 100 years 100mm once in 20 years beginning to pond once in 10 years Gardens 600mm once in 100 years 400mm once in 10 years 200mm once in 2 years beginning to pond once a year Private courtyards (where the 200mm once in 100 years 2 area is between 25 and 60 m ) 100mm once in 20 years beginning to pond once in 10 years Paved recreation common beginning to pond 6 times per year areas Suggested Flood Frequencies for Storage Areas (from UPRCT, 1999)
8. 9.
Periodic tilling or coring of infiltration area. Frequency depends on quality of arriving waters.
Page 46
12
Grass Buffer
Definition
A broad sloped area of grass or other dense vegetation capable of withstanding shallow sheet flow stormwater run-off.
Purpose
Grass buffers can: provide sediment and pollutant removal from run-off prior to entering a drainage system provide some reduction in run-off volume through infiltration; and slightly reduce peak volumes through delay in run-off.
1. 2. 3. Land must be graded accurately to ensure maintenance of sheet flow and avoid concentration that may cause erosion or scouring. Delivery of stormwater run-off to the buffer area must be from area graded to ensure sheet flow. Grades to be between 2% and 4% across the direction of fall.
Regular mowing to maintain grass (preferably higher than 75mm). Maintenance to retain continuity of grass sward (eg. reseeding.)
Page 47
13
Constructed Wetland
Definition
A human constructed copy of a natural wetland system, containing: a sediment trap in the form of a deep open pond at the stormwater entry point; and a shallow (but variable depth) water area containing dense macrophytic planting.
Purpose
Wetlands function to improve stormwater quality by: removing sediments and suspended solids, together with their attached pollutants; removing a range of dissolved nutrients and contaminants.
Areas of relatively flat terrain, though a chain of such flat areas can be graded into slopes to cascade across sloping terrain. For full details of Constructed Wetland implementation criteria, refer to: Melbourne Water, (2001) Draft Melbourne Water Conditions for Offers re: Constructed Wetland Systems. Melbourne Water (1999) Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines
Vegetation maintenance to retain dense coverage. Silt removal from the sediment pond / inlet zone. Frequency depends on quality of stormwater inflows and size of sediment pond, but typically could be every 5 years. Research indicates the need to relevel and replant the macrophyte zone after 20 to 25 years of operation. Water level manipulation to control excessive intrusive plant growth (such as Typha).
Page 48
14
Sundry Construction Details

Because WSUD does not lend itself to off the shelf solutions, due to the variables involved in each site situation, development proponents will need to devise a range of site specific details for use in joining the various WSUD elements together. This section of the guidelines contains a range of additional indicative construction details that may be of assistance in devising those site specific details. Additionally, some sediment control details are include for use in site management during construction and to help meet the requirements of the sites Environmental Management Plan.
Page 49
LARGE ROCKS AND SMALL STONES STACKED INTO EXCAVATED AREA TO REDUCE FLOW VELOCITY
LARGE ROCKS AND SMALL STONES EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE TO REDUCE VELOCITY OF FLOW LOOSE ROCK PIT AT END OF SLAB SWALE OR CHANNEL
CONCRETE SLAB TO ENGINEERS DETAIL
GUIDELINE SCD 3 WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES

0124 KNOX 1:50
RIPRAP ENERGY DISSIPATERS

09 31-10-01
DISTURBED AREA
GEOTEXTILE FILTER FABRIC

FLO W
DETAIL OF OVERLAP
UNDISTURBED AREA
GEOFABRIC BURIED INTO GROUND

SCALE 1:20
50 X 50 HARDWOOD STAKE GEOTEXTILE FILTER FABRIC, DOUBLE ROLLED OVERLAP AT JOINS. JOINS NAILED TO HARDWOOD STAKE 300
200 min.
200
SCALE 1:10

0124 KNOX 1:20 / 1:10
SEDIMENT FENCE
10 31-10-01
SEDIMENT LADEN RUN-OFF
MAXIMUM SLOPE 1:3
MINIMUM 0.6M DEPTH BELOW TOP OF INLET
LARGER PARTICLES SETTLE OUT
DRAIN INLET
- STORMWATER WITH LARGER PARTICLES REMOVED

0124 KNOX 1:20
EXCAVATED TEMPORARY SEDIMENT TRAP
11 31-10-01
GEO-TEXTILE FILTER FABRIC DOUBLE-ROLLED OVERLAP, NAIL-FIXED RUN-OFF WATER WITH SEDIMENT
50 x 50mm HARDWOOD STAKES
FILTERED WATER
200 min
200
TO STORMWATER
BURIED FABRIC

0124 KNOX 1:20
GEOTEXTILE FILTER FABRIC DROP INLET SEDIMENT TRAP
12 31-10-01
References
Anderson, J (1996) Current Water Recycling Initiatives in Australia: Scenarios for the st 21 Century, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 33 (10 11), PP 37-43. Argue, J. (2000) Stormwater Source Control Design Procedures for WSUD: Some Issues and Examples, paper presented at National Conference on Water Sensitive Urban Design Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas, August 2000, Melbourne. Argue J. & Scott P. (2000) On-Site Stormwater Retention (OSR) in Residential th Catchments: A better Option? paper presented at 40 Annual Conference, NSW Floodplain Management Authorities. Barton, H (1996) Going Green by Design, in Urban Design Quarterly, January 1996. Bewsher, D. (1995) On-Site Stormwater Detention in NSW Past, Present and Future, Presented at Second International Symposium on Urban Stormwater Management, Melbourne 1995. Coombes P., Donovan I. and Cameron C. (1999) Water Sensitive Urban Development: Implementation Issues for the Lower Hunter and Central Coast. Lake Macquarie City Council, Speers Point, on behalf of the Lower Hunter and Central Coast Environment Management Strategy. Coombes P. and Kuczera, G. (2000) Nikkinba Ridge, Fletcher Analysis of stormwater management options, www.eng.newcastle.edu.au/ce/staff/pcoombes/NikkinbaRidge.htm Coombes, P. (undated A) Rainwater tanks for dual water supply & stormwater management, http://www.eng.newcastle.edu.au/ce/staff/pcoombes/Fact%20Sheet%201Tanks.htm. Coombes, P. (undated B) Infiltration trenches & basins, http://www.eng.newcastle.edu.au/ce/staff/pcoombes/Fact%20Sheet%202-Infilt.htm Coombes, P. (undated C) Porous paving, http://www.eng.newcastle.edu.au/ce/staff/pcoombes/Fact%20Sheet%203-Paving.htm Coombes P. & Kuczera G. (2001) Rainwater tank design for water supply and stormwater management, Stormwater Industry Association 2001 Regional Conference, Port Stephens, NSW. Coombes P., Argue J. & Kuczera G. (2000) Figtree Place: A case study in Water Sensitive Urban Development, Urban Water Journal, third edition, 2000, London. Coombes P., Kuczera G., Argue J. & Kalma J. (2000) Costing of Water Cycle Infrastructure Savings arising form Water Sensitive Urban Design Source Control Measures, presented at the Second International Conference on Decision Making in Urban and Civil Engineering, Lyon, France, 2000. Coombes P. & Kuczera G. (2001) Strategic Use of Stormwater, in Sustainable Water Use in the Built Environment: EDG Special Issue, Building Design Professionals Environmental Design Guide, (in print) November 2001. Environment & Land Planning, Ecological Engineering (2001) Stormwater Implementation Project: Statutory Framework and Standards, Stage 1 Project Report, Draft for ABM Review, Association of Bayside Municipalities, August 2001. Kuczera G. & Coombes P. (2001) A systems perspective of the urban water cycle: new insights, new opportunities. Stormwater Industry Association Regional Conference, Port Stephens. NSW. Lloyd S. & Wong T. (1999) Water Sensitive Urban Design Project - Lynbrook Estate. A brief discussion on Hydraulic Performance of Stormwater Infiltration Systems, Unpublished, 4 October 1999. Lloyd S., Wong T. and Porter, B., (2001) Implementing an Ecologically Sustainable Stormwater Drainage System in Residential Development, Proceedings of NOVATECH
2001, 4 International Conference on Innovative Technologies in Urban Drainage, Lyon, France, June 2001. Lloyd S., Fletcher T., Wong T.H.F. & Wootton R.M. (2001) Assessment of Pollutant Removal Performance in a Bio-filtration System Preliminary Results, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University and Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology. McAlister, Tony (1999) Stormwater Reuse - A balanced Assessment, presented at the Stormwater Industry Association 1999 Conference, Homebush Bay, Sydney. McAlister, Tony (1997) Water Sensitive Urban Design, in Future Directions for Australian Soil and Water Management Melbourne Water, (2001) Draft Melbourne Water Conditions for Offers re: Constructed Wetland Systems. Melbourne Water (1999) Urban Stormwater Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines NSW Department of Housing (1998) Managing Urban Stormwater Soils and rd Construction, 3 Edition, NSW Department of Housing, Sydney, August 1998. Planning SA (2001) On-site Detention and Retention of Stormwater, Ministers Specification, January 2001, South Australian Department of Planning. Still D. & Brewsher D (1999) On-site Stormwater Detention in the Upper Parramatta Catchment Lessons for all Councils, presented at SIA On-site Detention Workshop, 15 June 1999, Concord Function Centre. Upper Parramatta River Catchment Trust (1999) On-site Stormwater Detention Handbook, Third Edition, December 1999, Revision 1. WBM Oceanics Australia (1999), Stormwater Recycling Background Study, Queensland Water Recycling Strategy, Department of Natural Resources. WBM Oceanics Australia (2001) Knox City Council Stormwater Quality Management Plan, Volume 1, Draft, unpublished, Knox City Council, 2001. Whelans and Halpern Glick Maunsell (1994) Planning and Management Guidelines for Water Sensitive Urban (Residential) Design, report prepared for the Department of Planning and Development of Western Australia, ISBN 0 64615 468 0, 1994. Wong, T.H.F. (2000) Source Control and Water Sensitive Urban Design, paper presented at the Stormwater Industry Association Seminar on Stormwater Source Control, Merrylands, July 2000. Wong T., Breen P. and Lloyd S. (2000) Water Sensitive Road Design Design options for improving stormwater quality of road runoff, Technical Report 00/1, August 2000, Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology. Wong, T.H.F. & Eadie, M.L., Water Sensitive Urban Design A Paradigm Shift in Urban Design, Proceedings of the 10th World Water Congress, Melbourne, 12 16 March 2000. Wong, T. H. F., Breen, P. & Lester, A. Integrating Wetlands into Urban Design.
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Water Sensitive Urban Design Guidelines for the City of Knox

Category: Water Sensitive Urban Design Project

Murphy Design Group KLM Development Consultants April 2002

Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council

IMPETUS FOR AND BENEFITS OF WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 3

CURRENT SITUATION AT THE CITY OF KNOX

WSUD PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council

WSUD GUIDELINES AND MEASURES

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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council

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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 1 Introduction

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Water Sensitive Urban Design Knox City Council Chapter 1 Introduction

Figure 1 Model of Urban dependence on external environments (Source: Barton 1996)

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Impetus for and Benefits of Water Sensitive Urban Design

Traditional Approaches to Water in Cities

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Water supply Large scale water supply from few sources

Stormwater Collect it all and discharge to receiving waters

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Urban Storm Water

Urban Storm Water Quality

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2.4.2 Suspended Solids

2.4.4 Toxic Organics, Oils and Surfactants

2.4.7 Oxygen Demanding Chemicals

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Urban Stormwater Quantity

2.5.2 Runoff Reduction

2.5.3 Stormwater harvesting

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Current Situation at the City of Knox

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Receiving water objective

Current best practice

Litter Other pollutants

comply with SEPP (eg. No litter in waterways)(1) Comply with SEPP

Municipal Strategic Statement and Local Planning Policy Framework

Stormwater Quality Management Plan, Vol 1

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56.1 69.8 96.0 81.4 108.4 139.2

76.8 899.4 96.1 1202

Table 3.2 - Rainfall in the City of Knox

Figure 3.1 - Annual rainfall distribution in Knox.

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3.2.3 Geology and soil types

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Figure 3.2: Slope categories across Knox