CONTENTS

A) RADIOACTIVE EMMISION INTRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVE EMMISION B) DETECTORS FOR RADIOACTIVE EMMISIONS PHOTOGRAPHIC DETECTORS GEIGERMULLER TUBE CLOUD CHAMBER SPARK COUNTER CHARGED GORL LEAF ELECTROSCOPE C) CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE EMMISIONS D) COMPARISONS OF ALPHA PARTICLES, BETA PARTICLES AND GAMMA RAYS E) USES OF ELECTROSCOPES IN MEDICINES AGRICULTRE ARCHEOLOGY INDUSTRIES SMOKE ALARM STERLISATION F) NUCLEAR ENERGY INTRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY NUCLEAR FISSION CHAIN REACTION NUCLEAR FUSION GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY FROM NUCLEAR FISSION MANAGEMENT OF NUCLEAR WASTE HAZARDS OF RADIATION SAFETY PRECAUTIONS USING NUCLEAR ENERGY AS AN ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ENERGY G) CONCLUSION ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IF USING NUCLEAR POWER OPINION ON NUCLEAR ENERGY

RADIOACTIVE EMMISION

Introduction of Radioactive Emmision

Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random disintegration of an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission of energetic particles or photons

This process is not influenced by physical factors such as : - Temperature - Pressure - Time

Spontaneous means there is no way to tell nor predict when will the nucleus will decay

DETECTORS FOR RADIOACTIVE EMMISIONS

Photographic detector
In 1896, Henri Becquerel, working in Paris, discovered that Uranium compounds would darken a photographic plate, even if the plate were wrapped up so that no light could get in.

Radioactivity will darken ("fog") photographic film, and we can use this effect to measure how much radiation has struck the film.

Workers in the nuclear industry wear "film badges" which are sent to a laboratory to be developed, just like your photographs. This allows us to measure the dose that each worker has received (usually each month).

Geiger-Muller Tube
Works using the effects of ionizing of radioactive radiations Best at detecting alpha particles as alpha particles ionize strongly Different models of GM tubes are available for detecting alpha, beta and gamma radiation In all radiation experiments where counts or count rates are recorded, it is necessary to subtract the readings from the background count The background radiation is always present due to natural radioactivity in the ground, bricks f buildings and cosmic radiation

Cloud Chamber
There are two types of cloud chamber: the "expansion" type and the "diffusion" type. In both types, alpha or beta particles leave trails in the vapour in the chamber, rather like high-altitude aircraft leave trails in the sky. The chamber contains a supersaturated vapour (e.g. methylated spirits), which condenses into droplets when disturbed and ionised by the passage of a particle (alpha particles are best for this). You can clearly see the direction and energy of the particles (low energy particles only leave short trails). Occasionally, a particle collides with an air molecule and changes direction. A cloud chamber also shows the randomness of radioactive emissions clearly Expansion cloud chambers use a vacuum pump to briefly produce the right conditions for trails to form whilst the Diffusion type uses solid Carbon Dioxide to cool the bottom of the chamber and produce a temperature gradient in which trails can be seen continuously.

Spark Chamber
An early form of detector, the Spark Counter is another instrument that uses the ionising effect of radioactivity, and for this reason it works best with particles. A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire, and adjusted until it is just below the voltage required to produce sparks. When a radioactive source is bought near, the air between the gauze and the wire is ionized, and sparks jump where particles pass

Charged Gold Leaf Electroscope

Dry air is normally a good insulator, so a charged electroscope will stay that way, as the charge cannot escape.

When an electroscope is charged, the gold leaf sticks out, because the charges on the gold repel the charges on the metal stalk. When a radioactive source comes near, the air is ionised, and starts to conduct electricity. This means that the charge can "leak" away, the electroscope discharges and the gold leaf falls.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE EMMISIONS

Alpha and Beta particles and gamma rays have different characteristics which can be used to identify them

IONIZING EFFECT
= = = 3 types of radiation are called ionizing radiation because they are highly energetic and their energy to remove electrons from air molecules when they pass through air The effect can be observed clearly in the cloud chamber Due to their different charges and masses, they have different ionizing abalities

PENETRATING EFFECT
= Penetrating effect of alpha, beta and gamma radiation depends on their ionising power = Radiation which has stronger ionising power will have low penetrating effect. = Based on the ionising effect in the cloud chamber, we can predict that alpha particles will have lowest penetrating effect followed by beta particles and gamma radiation = Experimental results show that alpha particles can be stopped by paper, beta particles go through paper but can be stopped by thin metal, gamma rays can go through paper and metal sheet and can only be stopped by thick lead or concrete

COMPARISONS OF ALPHA PARTICLES, BETA PARTICLES AND GAMMA RAYS

Radioactive emissions Symbol
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Alpha particles

Beta particles

Gamma rays

0 1

2 Nature Charge Speed Energy Positive charged , helium nucleus He +2 electric charges (1/20 ) x the speed of light, cc For a particular source, with the same Ke In an electric field In magnetic Bends a little showing field that it has a big mass. Direction of the bend indicates that it is positively charges Ionising power Penetrating power Stopped by A thin sheet of paper A few millimetres of aluminium Range in air A few centimetres A few metres A few centimetres of lead or concrete A few hundred metres Low Intermediate High Strongest Bends to negative plate -1 electric charge 3 % - 99 % of the speed of light , c For a particular source various KE Bends to positive plate Does not bend , showing that it is neutral Bend a lot showing that Does not bend it has a small mass. Direction of the bend indicates that it is positively charged Intermediate Weakest showing that it is neutral. Nil Electron Neutral electromagnet ray 0 Speed of light

all particle are emitted - particle emitted have

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USES OF ELECTROSCOPES IN

Medicine
(a) Radioactive tracers There are many uses of radioisotopes in medical diagnosis Used as a identification tag or tracer Gamma ray scans of the body such as brain scans map the concentration of a radioisotope given earlier to the patient Information on the activity of different parts of the brain can be seen tumours can be detected (b) Cancer treatment

Can kill living cells Used to kill cancer cells without having to resort to surgery Known as radiotherapy Cancer cells cannot repair themselves when damaged by gamma rays during radiotherapy, while healthy cells can.

Agriculture
Artificially produced isotopes are used in pest control by gamma sterilisation In production of of crop mutations to obtain high yield Used to test absorption rate of fertilisers by radioactive tracers Small amount of radioactive phosphorus may be injected into the stem along with the phosphate fertilisers This radioactive phosphorus is circulated in the plant and its progress may be monitored by the use of a GM counter

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Archaeology
One of the most important uses of radioisotopes in archaeology is carbon-14 dating Carbon-14 is a radioisotope with half-life of 5730 years and decays by emitting beta particles The amount if carbon-14 left in decayed plant or animal can be used to tell its age

Industries
Gamma rays can be used to penetrate deep into welding to detect faults Water can be made radioactive by dissolving some radioactive salt which contains sodium-24 Beta particles emitted are detected by a GM tube Alpha particles from polonium-210 is used to neutralise static charge in photographic plates and other materials

Smoke Alarm
Contains a weak radioactive source such as americium-214 Alpha particles emitted from the source ionise air molecules Ionised molecules conduct electricity and a small amount of current flows in the smoke alarm When smoke enters, the soot particles in the smoke absorb some of the alpha particles This causes a decrease in the current that flows in the smoke alarm and trigger the alarm Aramecium-241 has a half-life of 460 years

Sterilisation
Medical instruments and bandages are sterilised after packing by a brief exposure to gamma rays This can be done quickly and efficiently without damaging instruments especially plastics which would have been damaged if heated in a conventional steriliser Even after packaging, gamma rays still can be used to kill bacteria , mould and insects in food

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NUCLEAR ENERGY

Introduction of Nuclear Energy

The energy released during

radioactivity has not become an economical source of energy for us because the energy released during every reaction is small

Nuclear energy if important alternative

to fossil fuels because the quantity of energy released during a reaction is huge

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Nuclear Fission
Is a process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two of more lighter nuclei Usually, fission occur when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a neutron causes the target nucleus to split into 2 or more nuclei that are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process Nuclear fission differs from radioactive decay reactions in 3 ways : The nucleus is divided into 2 large fragments of roughly equal mass There is significant mass defect Other neutrons are emitted in the process The quantity of energy released during fission is big compared to the energy released during a chemical reaction such as the burning of fossil fuels

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Chain Reaction
A unique characteristic of nuclear fission is that two or three free neutrons are produced to set off a chain reaction in which nuclear fission spreads through a mass of uranium as illustrated in figure above A chain reaction is a self-sustaining reaction which the products of a reaction can initiate another similar reaction A controlled chain reaction is used in nuclear power stations while an uncontrolled reaction is used in nuclear bombs

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Nuclear Fusion Generation of Electricity From Nuclear Fission Management of Nuclear Waste Hazards of Radiation Safety Precaution Using Nuclear Energy As An Alternative Form of Energy CONCLUSION Advantages and Disadvantages If Using Nuclear Power Opinion on Nuclear Energy

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