Project prepared under the kind guidance of Mr Saini Sir and his team.

Submitted By: Debojyoti Bhattacharya Jaipur Engineering college Rajasthan Technical University Submitted To: Senior DSTE NWR Jaipur Division DRM Office jaipur

Introduction
How often we have seen trains getting delayed, cancelled, derailed and colliding with each other during the winter season. This even costs the lifeline of India huge losses in the form of life and property. This project gives an idea on how we can reduce the nuisance of nature, i.e. fog. Since we cannot avoid fog as a whole, we have to consider any other technique available to us. Here we can use lasers, which are coherent sources of light in the signals or we can use the principles of antenna and wave propagation. The former case cannot provide long distance solution as fog will cause losses but the latter will be very beneficial.

Contents:
1. Antennas 2. Types 3. Array Antennas 4. Unidirectional array antennas. 5. Theory of operation 6. Analysis. 7. Application 8. Advantages 9. Conclusion

ANTENNAS:
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving.

TYPES:
Wire Microstri Reflecto Travellin Aperture Other Antenna p r g Wave Antenna Antenna s Antennas Antenna Antenna s s s s
Short Dipole Antenna Dipole Antenna Half-Wave Dipole Broadband Dipoles Monopole Antenna Folded Dipole Antenna Small Loop Antenna

Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFA)

Corner Reflector Parabolic Reflector (Dish Antenna)

Helical Antennas Yagi-Uda Antennas Spiral Antennas

Slot Antenna CavityBacked Slot Antenna Inverted-F Antenna Slotted Waveguide Antenna Horn Antenna Vivaldi Antenna

NFC Antennas

ARRAY ANTENNAS
An array antenna is a special arrangement of basic antenna components involving new factors and concepts. An array antenna is made up of more than one ELEMENT, but the basic element is generally the dipole.

Unidirectional array antennas

A Yagi-Uda array, commonly known simply as a Yagi antenna, is a directional antenna consisting of a driven element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and additional parasitic elements (usually a so-called reflector and one or more directors). The name stems from its inventors, as the Yagi-Uda array was invented in 1926 by Shintaro Uda of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan, with a lesser role played by his colleague Hidetsugu Yagi. However the "Yagi" name has become more familiar with the name of Uda often omitted. The reflector element is slightly longer (typically 5% longer) than the driven dipole, whereas the so-called directors are a little bit shorter. This design achieves a very substantial increase in the antenna's directionality and gain compared to a simple dipole.[1] Highly directional antennas such as the Yagi-Uda are commonly referred to as "beam antennas" due to their high gain. Yagi-Uda antennas are directional along the axis perpendicular to the dipole in the plane of the elements, from the reflector toward the driven element and the director(s). Typical spacings between elements vary from about 1/10 to 1/4 of a wavelength, depending on the specific design. The lengths of the directors are smaller than that of the driven element, which is smaller than that of the reflector(s) according to an elaborate design procedure. These elements are usually parallel in one plane, supported on a single crossbar known as a boom. The bandwidth of a Yagi-Uda antenna refers to the frequency range over which its directional gain and impedance match are preserved to within a stated criterion. The Yagi-Uda array in its basic form is very narrowband, with its performance already compromised at frequencies just a few percent above or below its design frequency. However using larger diameter conductors, among other techniques, the bandwidth can be substantially extended. Yagi-Uda antennas used for amateur radio are sometimes designed to operate on multiple bands. These elaborate designs create electrical breaks along each element (both sides) at which point a parallel LC (inductor and capacitor) circuit is inserted. This so-called trap has the effect of truncating the element at the higher frequency band, making it approximately a half wavelength in length. At the lower frequency, the entire element (including the remaining inductance due to the trap) is close to half-wave resonance, implementing a different Yagi-Uda antenna. Using a second set of traps a "triband" antenna can be resonant at three different bands. Given the associated costs of erecting an antenna and rotor system above a tower, the combination of antennas for three amateur bands in one unit is a very practical solution. The use of traps is not without disadvantages, however, as they reduce the bandwidth of the antenna on the individual bands and reduce the antenna's electrical efficiency.

Yagi-Uda antenna. Viewed left to right: reflector, driven element, director. Exact spacings and element lengths vary somewhat according to specific designs.

Theory of operation

A Yagi-Uda antenna for use at 144MHz (VHF). Consider a Yagi-Uda consisting of a reflector, driven element and a single director as shown here. The driven element is typically a /2 dipole or folded dipole and is the only member of the structure that is directly excited (electrically connected to the feedline). All the other elements are considered parasitic. That is, they reradiate power which they receive from the driven element (they also interact with each other). One way of thinking about the operation of such an antenna is to consider a parasitic element to be a normal dipole element with a gap at its center, the feedpoint. Now instead of attaching the antenna to a load (such as a receiver) we connect it to a short circuit. As is well known in transmission line theory, a short circuit reflects all of the incident power 180 degrees out of phase. So one could as well model the operation of the parasitic element as the superposition of a dipole element receiving power and sending it down a transmission line to a matched load, and a transmitter sending the same amount of power down the transmission line back toward the antenna element. If the wave from the transmitter were 180 degrees out of phase with the

received wave at that point, it would be equivalent to just shorting out that dipole at the feedpoint (making it a solid element, as it is). The fact that the parasitic element involved isn't exactly resonant but is somewhat shorter (or longer) than /2 modifies the phase of the element's current with respect to its excitation from the driven element. The so-called reflector element, being longer than /2, has an inductive reactance which means the phase of its current lags the phase of the open-circuit voltage that would be induced by the received field. The director element, on the other hand, being shorter than /2 has a capacitive reactance with the voltage phase lagging that of the current.[2] If the parasitic elements were broken in the center and driven with the same voltage applied to the center element, then such a phase difference in the currents would implement an end-fire phased array, enhancing the radiation in one direction and decreasing it in the opposite direction. Thus one can appreciate the mechanism by which parasitic elements of unequal length can lead to a unidirectional radiation pattern.

[edit] Analysis
While the above qualitative explanation is useful for understanding how parasitic elements can enhance the driven elements radiation in one direction at the expense of the other, the assumptions used are quite inaccurate. Since the so-called reflector, the longer parasitic element, has a current whose phase lags that of the driven element, one would expect the directivity to be in the direction of the reflector, opposite of the actual directional pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna. In fact that would be the case were we to construct a phased array with rather closely spaced elements all driven by voltages in phase, as we posited. However these elements are not driven as such but receive their energy from the field created by the driven element, so we will find almost the opposite to be true. For now, consider that the parasitic element is also of length /2. Again looking at the parasitic element as a dipole which has been shorted at the feedpoint, we can see that if the parasitic element were to respond to the driven element with an open-circuit feedpoint voltage in phase with that applied to the driven element (which we'll assume for now) then the reflected wave from the short circuit would induce a current 180 out of phase with the current in the driven element. This would tend to cancel the radiation of the driven element. However due to the reactance caused by the length difference, the phase lag of the current in the reflector, added to this 180 lag, results in a phase advance, and vice versa for the director. Thus the directivity of the array indeed is in the direction towards the director.

Illustration of forward gain of a two element Yagi-Uda array using only a driven element (left) and a director (right). The wave (green) from the driven element excites a current in the passive director which reradiates a wave (black) having a particular phase shift (see explanation in text). The addition of these waves (bottom) is increased in the forward direction, but leads to cancellation in the reverse direction.

Mutual impedance between parallel dipoles not staggered as a function of spacing. Curves Re and Im are the resistive and reactive parts of the mutual impedance. Note that at zero spacing we obtain the self-impedance of a half-wave dipole, 73+j43 ohms. One must take into account an additional phase delay due to the finite distance between the elements which further delays the phase of the currents in both the directors and reflector(s). The case of a Yagi-Uda array using just a driven element and a director is illustrated in the accompanying diagram taking all of these effects into account. The wave generated by the driven element (green) propagates in both the forward and reverse directions (as well as other directions, not shown). The director receives that wave slightly delayed in time (amounting to a phase delay of about 35), and generating a current that would be out of phase with the driven element (thus an additional 180 phase shift), but which is further advanced in phase (by about

70) due to the director's shorter length. In the forward direction the net effect is a wave emitted by the director (black) which is about 110 retarded with respect to that from the driven element (green), in this particular design. These waves combine to produce the net forward wave (bottom, right) with an amplitude slightly larger than the individual waves. In the reverse direction, on the other hand, the additional delay of the wave from the director (black) due to the spacing between the two elements (about 35 of phase delay) causes it to be about 180 out of phase with the wave from the driven element (green). The net effect of these two waves, when added (bottom, left), is almost complete cancellation. The combination of the director's position and shorter length has thus obtained a unidirectional rather than the bidirectional response of the driven (half wave dipole) element alone. A full analysis of such a system requires computing the mutual impedances between the dipole elements[3] which implicitly takes into account the propagation delay due to the finite spacing between elements. We model element number j as having a feedpoint at the center with a voltage Vj and a current Ij flowing into it. Just considering two such elements we can write the voltage at each feedpoint in terms of the currents using the mutual impedances Zij:

Z11 and Z22 are simply the ordinary driving point impedances of a dipole, thus 73+j43 ohms for a half wave element (or purely resistive for one slightly shorter, as is usually desired for the driven element). Due to the differences in the elements' lengths Z11 and Z22 have a substantially different reactive component. Due to reciprocity we know that Z21 = Z12. Now the difficult computation is in determining that mutual impedance Z21 which requires a numerical solution. This has been computed for two exact half-wave dipole elements at various spacings in the accompanying graph. The solution of the system then is as follows. Let the driven element be designated 1 so that V1 and I1 are the voltage and current supplied by the transmitter. The parasitic element is designated 2, and since it is shorted at its "feedpoint" we can write that V2 =0. Using the above relationships, then, we can solve for I2 in terms of I1:

and so

. This is the current induced in the parasitic element due to the current I1 in the driven element. We can also solve for the voltage V1 at the feedpoint of the driven element using the earlier equation:

where we have substituted Z12 = Z21. The ratio of voltage to current at this point is the driving point impedance Zdp of the 2-element Yagi:

With only the driven element present the driving point impedance would have simply been Z11, but has now been modified by the presence of the parasitic element. And now knowing the phase (and amplitude) of I2 in relation to I1 as computed above allows us to determine the radiation pattern (gain as a function of direction) due to the currents flowing in these two elements. Solution of such an antenna with more than two elements proceeds along the same lines, setting each Vj=0 for all but the driven element, and solving for the currents in each element (and the voltage V1 at the feedpoint).

APPLICATION

The circuitry of the signal can be used to generate an unique pulse which is amplified and fed to the antenna. An approaching train has a receiving antenna, picks up the signal and displays it to the locomotive pilot. So manual errors are eliminated. On approaching

a red light there could be an emergency alarm also. If the train violates a red signal with an additional circuitry even automatic brakes may be applied.

The choice of frequency depends on the railway. For each colour each wavelength may be used.Then we can use bandpass filters to filter out specific frequencies of red/yellow/green.

ADVANTAGES 1. The loco pilot will only concentrate on his instrument panel 2. Less accidents 3. Less delays 4. Faster railway network Conclusion

Thus we have made a project report on railway fog avoidance and safety systems. References www.wikipaedia.com www.google.com Textbook: Antenna & wave propagation