Noun-verb agreement

Pamela from the Netherlands writes: Here are two example sentences: The Government is going to cut back on public spending. They have decided this is necessary in the current economic climate. My question is, could I have said: The Government are... and It has decided...? Roger Woodham replies: We can use singular or plural verbs with many collective nouns, Pamela, and government is one of these. Singular and plural forms are often mixed as are the pronouns that refer back to the nouns in the previous sentence. So, all four of your options are correct. family / team / committee / firm Collective nouns refer to groups of people usually. Our choice of singular or plural verb form often depends on whether we are thinking of the group as an impersonal unit (in which case we use the singular verb - and relative pronoun which) or as a collection of individuals (in which case we use the plural verb form - and relative pronoun who). Compare the following: My family, who have lived on this island all their lives, are determined to remain here. The team who are playing this weekend includes neither of the new signings. The team which lies third from the bottom of the league will also be relegated this year. The human resources committee is going to meet on Thursday. They will endorse all promotions from grade C to grade B for the coming year. My firm, which was established in 1932, has been manufacturing motor mowers since the 1950s. They look after me very well and have an excellent pension scheme. the UN / New Labour / the BBC Corporate bodies like those above also fall into the above category: The UN says it has no plans to move a further detachment of troops to the war-torn area. But in effect they are in disagreement on this issue. New Labour is holding its annual conference in Brighton this week. They plan to discuss international issues as well as local concerns. The BBC has appointed Mark Damazer as its controller of Radio 4. Many staff were surprised by the appointment. people / police / cattle

These collective nouns always take a plural verb. There is no singular form of these nouns: People who have invested all their savings in shares are sure to lose out. Police in this area are currently investigating 74 allegations of date rape. All the cattle were moved to the fields lower down the valley as winter approached. the rich / the poor / the homeless Note that when adjectives are used as collective nouns they always accompanied by a plural verb form: The rich tend to reside in the outer suburbs whilst the poor are confined to the inner city areas in this country. The homeless are well looked after at Christmas in Britain when they are offered shelter, food and hot showers. a / each / every / this / that team Note that when collective nouns are used with singular determiners, such as those above, singular verbs and pronouns are the norm: That team is capable of winning all the major trophies this year. A team of inspectors from Scotland Yard is visiting the island this week. Every family that receives income support will be means-tested. A government which fails to honour its promises should not be re-elected.

Learning English - Learn it

NO = NOT / NOT ANY

C Chan from Hong Kong writes:

In the sentences: Hong Kong's goal: zero accidents on the road. Hong Kong's goal: no accidents on the road. shouldn't the plural form be changed to singular? Hong Kong's goal: zero accident on the road. Hong Kong's goal: no accident on the road. Zero means no and the noun that follows it should surely be in singular form. Please answer my question. Roger Woodham replies:

ZERO = NOT ANY

With countable nouns, zero is always followed by plural nouns. With uncountable nouns, the singular form is used. Compare the following: Zero degrees centigrade is the same as 32 degrees fahrenheit. We are likely to see zero growth on the stock market this year. We are not likely to see any growth on the stock market this year. no = not a / not any With countable nouns, no is normally followed by plural forms. It sounds more natural and makes better sense to say: It was early December and there were no leaves on the trees. No dogs, unless they are on a lead, are allowed in the flower garden. No road accidents were reported in Chelsea throughout August. than: It was early December and there was no leaf on the trees. No dog, unless it is on a lead, is allowed in the flower garden. No road accident was reported in Chelsea throughout August. Sometimes, no may be followed by singular or plural nouns, depending on whether one is thinking of one or more than one: It was 9 a.m., yet there was no policeman on duty outside the embassy.

It was 9 a.m., yet there were no policemen on duty outside the embassy. In the Premiership last Saturday, no players were sent off. In the Premiership last Saturday, no player was sent off. In the Premiership last Saturday, not a single player was sent off. Sometimes, it is more natural to combine singular and plural use: He must lead a lonely life in that village: he has no wife and no children. (A man normally has one wife, but often has more than one child!) no = emphatic use Note that we tend to use no, rather than not a or not any when we want to emphasise a negative idea. In the lonely man example above, no is more effective than not a / not any. Compare: He must lead a lonely life: he doesn't have a wife and he doesn't have any children. With subject nouns, when no is used emphatically, not a / not any are not possible: No politician tells the truth all the time. No writer has won the Booker prize more than once. Note that singular use sounds more natural in these examples. no collocations There are a number of common nouns that normally combine with no, rather than not a or not any. Most of them are uncountable and include no amount, no time, no idea, no doubt, no reason, no need, no evidence, no problem, no way, no point, no use. Study these examples of use: No amount of washing could remove the stain from the garment. There's no time to lose. We must leave immediately. I have no idea how you solve this problem. It's quite beyond me. There was no doubt she had lied. All the evidence pointed to her guilt. I've no reason to think he won't return. He needs me as much as I need him. There's no need to cry. We can sort this out together. She complained of chest pains but the doctors found no evidence of infection. Can you help me with the ironing? ~ No problem. I'm not busy this evening. Can you help me with the cleaning? ~ No way. I have to be out by seven. There's no point in shouting. He's deaf and can't hear you. It's no use complaining. They won't bother to answer your letter.

ARTICLE OR NO ARTICLE?
Bilal from Pakistan writes: It seems to me that there are four types of article: a, an, the and no article. Is that right? Is no article a type of article? Roger Woodham replies: There are really three types of article, Bilal, the indefinite article, the definite article and zero or no article. a / an A and an are the same type of indefinite article, used when we are referring to one of many or when we don't know which ones are referred to. The only difference is that an is used before nouns or adjective noun combinations beginning with a vowel sound and a is used before nouns and adjective noun combinations beginning with a consonant sound. Compare the following: I saw an elephant, a lion and a tiger come down to the watering hole in a clearing in the jungle. I met an Australian backpacker in a bar in Birmingham. the, not a Note that there is one specific jungle - the one that we are talking about - so the is used to refer to it. Similarly there is one specific watering hole in this particular clearing (therefore the watering hole) but there are a number of clearings in the jungle (therefore a clearing). In Birmingham you will find a number of Australian backpackers and a number of bars, we don't say which ones, therefore an Australian backpacker and a bar. an hour and a half

Note that with most adjectives and nouns beginning with the letter h, the h is pronounced, making it a consonant sound. Where the h is silent as in honest and hour, these words start with a vowel sound, thus requiring an rather than a before the adjective or noun: I hoped to find a hippo and an ostrich in the game park but there were none. I think he's an honest and trustworthy man. He said he would meet me in an hour and a half. no article No article, or zero article as it is usually called, is definitely a form of article. We use zero article with plural and uncountable nouns when we are referring to things in general: Tennis is a beautiful game. French chefs make the best cooks. Cheese in France is usually made from cows' or goats' milk. But note, when we want to be specific, the definite article is needed: The tennis played by Maria Sharapova at Wimbledon this year was awesome. The French chef at La Caprice is one of the best in the south east. I'm still eating the cheese I bought in France last month. It's delicious. common nouns: no article With commonly used nouns when there is general reference and when they are used with prepositions there is normally no article: school, college, university By law in England you have to go to school when you reach the age of five. At college or university you have more time for self-study. work, home, bed After work I like to meet my friends before I go home. She was not at home or she was in bed asleep when I called. prison, hospital, church

If you commit a crime, you may have to go to prison. If you have a serious illness, you will get the best care in hospital. I used to go to church every Sunday when I was a child. breakfast, lunch, dinner For breakfast I need lots of orange juice and strong coffee to get me going. After lunch I always have a snooze before starting work again. And then I can work on without a break until dinner. spring, summer, autumn In winter I always seem to need more sleep than in summer. You can harvest strawberries in early spring in Spain and Morocco. Christmas, New Year, Easter After Christmas with my parents I like to spend New Year with my friends. On New Year's Eve there are lots of fireworks on the river in our town. bike, train, foot You'll get there faster by bike than by bus or car. It's probably safest, though, to go on foot. Note, however, that for specific reference, the definite article will be necessary: The church I went to as a child has been converted into a bingo hall. The lunch they prepared to celebrate my birthday was stunning. The summer of 1979 remains one of the wettest on record.

THIS/THAT - THESE/THOSE - HERE/THERE

Daniela Volke from Germany writes: Can you please explain to me the differences in use between this and that? Roger Woodham replies: We use this and these to refer to people and things that are close to the speaker, are just going to start or are in progress. We use that and those to refer to people and things which are further away or are in the past. Note how these uses are illustrated in these examples:

this/these - This is my friend, Laura. - Hi, Laura. Nice to meet you. Are these the photos you wanted? There are some really good ones of you. Please listen carefully. This is what I want you to do. Do you like this jumper? I bought it in Monsoon. These oranges are really sweet. Are you sure you wont have some? Ive been living in this country for three years now. that/those That was a really nice meal. Thank you very much. Who gave you those? Dont eat them. Theyre not fresh. Who was that you were talking to? She seemed awfully nice. Do you ever hear now from those Irish girls that we met in Dublin? What was that noise? Didnt you hear anything? You see that red telephone box over there? Thats where you catch the bus. Note from these examples that this / these and that / those can be used both as determiners (followed by nouns) or as pronouns (without following nouns).

this/that in immediate past and future Note that there are certain situations (where you are expecting friends and the doorbell rings, or where you are paying for goods in a shop or for drinks at the bar) where that is used, even though the discussion concerns the immediate future or past: Thatll be Tom and Jane. Can you open the door and let them in, Jimmy? - Is that all? - Yes, thats all. - Thatll be five euros eighty, please.

- A pint of bitter and a packet of salted peanuts. - Thatll be 1.97 please. In this context, this morning / this afternoon / this summer / this winter etc. can refer to future or past. Compare the following: What are you doing this evening? Do you have any plans? - What did you do this morning? - Nothing much. Got up late and read the paper. Were going to try to keep fit this winter by going to the gym twice a week. I had a wonderful holiday this summer. Three weeks of complete rest. here/there Note that the differences in use between this and that and these and those are similar to the difference between here and there. We use here to describe the place where the speaker is located. We use there to describe other places. Note how this works in a telephone conversation and on a postcard: - Is Jenny there? - No, shes not here at the moment. Can I take a message? This island is so beautiful. I wish you were here with me in the Caribbean and not stuck over there for the winter in that icebox known as England.

DIFFERENT USES OF ANY

Esther Chua from Singapore writes: I understand any is used with plural and uncountable nouns. But sometimes I do come across people using any with a singular noun. So is it appropriate to say: If you have any query... Or should I say: If you have any queries..? Roger Woodham replies: Any with plural and uncountable nouns Your understanding is correct, Esther. Any is normally used with plural and uncountable nouns in questions, negative and conditional sentences: Do we have any beer? ~ Yes, we do. It's in the fridge. Do we have any glasses? ~ Yes, we do. They're in the cupboard.

I don't have any heavy luggage. Just hand luggage ~ No suitcases? No, I don't have any suitcases. If you need any help with your packing, just let me know. If your hand luggage contains any knives or scissors, they will be confiscated. With this usage, in these examples, we would normally require a/an before a singular countable noun: Have you got a glass for the beer? Have you got a vase for the flowers? I don't have a suitcase, just hand luggage. If your hand luggage contains a knife or a pair of scissors, they will be confiscated. We would not normally say: Have you got any glass for the beer? Have you got any vase for the flowers? I don't have any suitcase, just hand luggage. If your hand luggage contains any knife or any pair of scissors, they will be confiscated. Any with singular countable nouns However, when we want to emphasise that any means of any kind, it is quite natural to use any with singular uncountable nouns. So in your example, Esther, any query - meaning any kind of query - is a justifiable alternative to any queries: If you have any queries about the trip to the Philippines, please ask me. If you have any query about the trip to the Philippines, please ask me. To emphasise any query a bit more, we could also say: If you have any query whatsoever - it doesn't matter what it is - please ask me. Note also the following examples of this kind of use: You should see a doctor. Any doctor will be able to help you. You don't need a specialist. Which newspaper would you like? ~ Any newspaper, as long as it's a broadsheet. Where does he normally play? ~ He normally plays in defence, but he can play in any position. I work from home so I can do my work at any hour of the day or night. This is a book which any eleven-year-old should be able to understand. Some or any in questions?

Note that we tend to use some instead of any when we expect a positive answer to the questions we are asking: Would you like some more pasta and salad? ~ No more thanks. I'm quite full. Don't you need some new clothes for when you start your new job? ~ Yes, I do. I need a whole new wardrobe. Shall I send you some information about our new products? ~ Yes, please do. Could you get me some rice when you go shopping? ~ What sort would you like? ~ Any sort. Not any and no Note that any by itself does not have a negative meaning. It is only when it is combined with not to make not any that it becomes negative. No has the same meaning as not any, but is more emphatic. Compare the following: He has no money and no hope for the future. He doesn't have any money or any hope for the future. Note also that at the beginning of a sentence, we are obliged to use no. We cannot use not any to start a sentence: I don't have any luggage ~ No luggage at all? No tourists visited the island that summer. No computer is safe from this virus.

HE', 'A' AND 'AN'

Lubos Stastny from The Czech Republic asks: Im a teacher and one of the most difficult things that I find in English are articles, namely the, a and an. In some cases its quite clear, but sometimes Im lost. I quite often heard from native speakers this phrase: Im going to the pub. The person didnt mean any particular pub, he was just saying that he was going for a drink.

Why do we say: the pub? I dont know whether we can say a pub in that phrase, but it doesnt sound correct to me. Thank you for your help in advance.

Roger replies: more questions

THE
You are quite right, Lubos. We would rarely, if ever, say: Im going to a pub. It would be too vague. When somebody asks: Shall we go to the pub?, even if the particular pub has not been formally identified yet, he has in mind which one they will probably go to, or, if not, then a quintessential pub. Similar considerations apply to the following examples: 'Are you going to the mountains or the sea-side for your holidays this year?' 'When you next go to the supermarket, can you get me some natural yoghurt?' 'Youve got a very bad cough. Have you been to see the doctor yet?' In all of these examples, it is clear to both listener and speaker which doctor, which supermarket, which sea-side and which mountains they have in mind. The is often used in this way with words that refer to aspects of our physical environment of which there is only one or with which everybody is familiar. Examples would be: the sun, the moon, the stars, the earth, the world, the rain, the wind, the Government, the police. Study these examples in context: 'Just like the total eclipse of the sun in 1999, the total eclipse of the moon on 10 January 2001 could not be seen in most parts of Britain because of cloud cover.' (Note that when we refer to continents, countries, counties or towns, we do not usually use articles.) 'When Im tucked up in bed at night, I love listening to the wind and the rain beating on my window.' (Note that bed, like home or school, is one of those very common nouns that do not usually need an article.) 'The world would be a better place if people were less selfish.' (Note people = people generally, so no article)

zero article v the Compare the following: 'People who live in towns are often afraid of dogs.' 'I reminded the children to feed the dogs.' Here, the first statement is a general one: people, towns and dogs generally, any towns, any dogs, so no article is needed. In the second statement, the person speaking has particular children and particular dogs in mind, so uses the. Similar considerations apply to the following examples: 'A glass of wine every day is good for you.' (Any wine will do, and by a glass, we mean one glass.) 'Whatll you have?' 'Id like a glass of dry white wine please.' (It doesnt matter what sort of wine it is, as long as its dry and white.) 'Pass the wine, Fred, theres a good chap!' (The wine that is sitting on the table, next to your elbow!)

Indefinite and zero articles At or in school Beginning and ending letters

Zdenek Berger from the Czech Republic asks about using the indefinite article and the appropriate way to word a letter: I'm somehow confused whether I should have used the indefinite article in this sentence: 'First, you must ask to get a permission'. Though it is uncountable, I would like to give here an indefinite article, so which version is correct?

Furthermore, I'm not sure whether I should use at or in High School, and finally I would like to ask you about the first line I have written in this letter. Which one is the most appropriate when I do not know whether I'm writing to a man or to a woman? 'Dear Sirs' or 'Dear Sir or Madam': which one would you recommend?

Roger replies: more questions Zero article plus uncountable noun, Zdenek, is normally used for abstract qualities such as permission, honesty, greed, morality, philosophy: 'Philosophy and psychology are rarely studied in [or at] school, though they are popular subjects at university.' This brings me on to your next question, whether to use at or in with school. They appear to me to be interchangeable in most of the examples that I can think of: 'She was at [or in] school when the accident happened.' However, when the school in question is named, at seems more likely, thus: 'At Highfield Manor, discipline was rarely enforced and outrageous behaviour was tolerated. (Note the use of zero article with abstract nouns!)

Your question about how to begin and end letters is an important one. In a formal letter, beginning with Dear Sir(s) or Dear Sir or Madam are equally acceptable, but make sure you match these with Yours faithfully at the end. Yours sincerely is used in less formal letters when the name of your correspondent is known, thus: Dear Zdenek or Dear Mr Berger would end with Yours sincerely. If you know your correspondent very well, you might begin with Dear Zdenek and end with either Yours or Best wishes.

-ise or -ize, hyphens and The Lake Como... Massimo Vitale from Italy has three questions: 1. Since I prefer British English to American English, I would like to know if it is true that verbs (and thus their relative substantives) ending with -ize are more used in the USA, while the British prefer the corresponding ones ending with -ise? In a bilingual (Italian to English) dictionary I saw that there are really few verbs ending with -ise, like analyse, advertise, privatise, etc., while I could not find the corresponding -ise version of most important verbs ending with -ize (realize, organize, etc.); On the other hand I see them spelt as -ise in many newspapers, magazines, scientific reviews and even in your answers to previous questions. Please tell me if I should definitely convert to -ise. 2. Another question is this: what is the rule for hyphenating words, if there is any, in expressions like, e.g., high-quality performance, least-squares problem, etc., which you would not hyphenate if they were not used as adjectives ( 'that material is of a high quality', not 'high-quality'). How would one cope, for example, with an expression like 'high and low tide-like phenomena' or 'deep seated gravitational slope deformation phenomena'? 3. The last question concerns the use of articles before geographical names: Why does one say ;the river Thames' but also 'the Hudson river'? Why not also 'the lake Como' rather than 'lake Como'? Should one say 'Mount Etna' or 'the Etna Mount'? Why do the speakers of the BBC say 'the Kosovo conflict' rather than 'Kosovo conflict' (I am sorry for this last example, but I could not think of anything else at the moment)? Roger replies: more questions

1. Taking your questions in order, it is generally true, Massimo, that the American preference for -ize is mirrored in British English by a general preference for -ise, so it is perhaps useful to standardise on one of these two patterns as far as possible. In a standard British dictionary - e.g. the Concise Oxford - you will often find that both options are possible in British English - 'realise' or 'realize', 'organsise' or 'organize' - whilst for other entries -ize is listed as unmistakably American, e.g. 'analyse' = British English, 'analyze' = American English. If you have a preference for British English in this respect, I assume for the sake of consistency you will retain this preference for other spelling options, e.g. 'programme', not 'program'; 'colour', not 'color'; 'metre', not 'meter'; 'catalogue', not catalog'; 'traveller', not traveler'. When you are reading American English, it can be fun to spot the differences.

2.Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated, so we have 'a high-quality performance', 'a ten-dollar note', a blue-eyed boy'. With multiple compounds, it is usually the first two adjectives or the most adjective-like that are hyphenated, so we have 'a deep-seated gravitational slope' to use your example, or 'a high-quality virtuoso performance'. Note also the pattern: 'part- and full-time jobs', 'high- and low-tide phenomena.' However, if adjectives are placed after the verb, they are usually not hyphenated. Compare 'an out-ofwork actor', 'an up-to-date account' and 'He was out of work', 'She was up to date.' 3. Referring to geographical names or areas, we tend to use the definite article with: seas (the Atlantic, the Pacific, the North Sea) mountain ranges (the Alps, the Andes) island groups (the British Isles, the West Indies) areas (the Midlands, the Lake District, the Middle East) rivers (the Danube, the Blue Nile, the Thames) deserts (the Gobi, the Sahara) hotels and pubs (the Red Lion, the Grand Palace) cinemas and theatres (the Playhouse, the Majestic) We generally use no articles with: continents (Africa, South America, South East Asia) counties and countries (Oklahoma, Bulgaria, Nigeria) towns and principal buildings (Ely Cathedral, Oxford University) lakes (Lake Como, Lake Windermere, Derwent Water) mountains and volcanoes (Everest, Etna, Vesuvius) Of course, there are always exceptions: The UK, The USA, The UAE, The Netherlands, The Hague. It is just a matter of learning them!

ts' and 'one's' Yong Kah Choon from Malaysia writes: When referring to the possessive, I didnt know that its and ones are spelt in a different way, its without the apostrophe and ones with the apostrophe. Please explain more.

Roger replies: more questions

Its is a possessive like my, your, his, her, our and their and you are quite right, it is very important not to insert an apostrophe when using it in this way. Its is the neutral equivalent of his and her. Study the following: 'Every country has its own customs and traditions.' 'It was a Manx cat and its tail was therefore very short.' 'Its coat was very thick.' 'Mary had a little lamb. Its fleece was [as] white as snow. And everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go.' (Trad. English nursery rhyme)

It is important not to confuse its with its. Its is the contracted form of it is or it has and usage is, of course, completely different. Study the following four examples. See if you can work out in which of them its is the contracted form of it is and in which of them its is the contracted form of it has. 'Whats the time?' 'Its a quarter to nine.' 'Its time for you to go to bed!' 'Whos that over there?' 'I dont believe it. Its Prince William!' 'Hows the condition of the man injured in the car crash?' 'Its improving all the time.' 'Have you seen my watch? Its disappeared from the bathroom. Its got a bright yellow strap.' (Its only in the fourth example above that its is the contracted form of it has.)

Ones is also a possessive determiner like your and is used to talk about people in general.

Ones is more formal than your. Compare the following: 'A home of ones own is what most people aspire to.' 'You always want the best for your children thats only natural.' Note that one and you are similarly formal/informal: 'You cant learn a foreign language in four or six weeks. Its impossible.' 'If one wishes to perfect ones English, one has only to go to a country where it is spoken.

Finally note that one and ones (this time without the apostrophe) are sometimes used as substitute words, i.e. we use them rather than repeating countable nouns. In this aspect, ones is also possible when it is the contracted form of one is. Study the following: 'Could I try on those shoes?' 'Which ones?' 'The ones in the window at the front on the left.' 'There are so many children in this photo. Which one is your daughter?' 'The one in the blue dress.' 'I really like these sweaters, but do you have any other sizes? This ones too small and that ones too big.

-ise or -ize, hyphens and The Lake Como... Massimo Vitale from Italy has three questions: 1. Since I prefer British English to American English, I would like to know if it is true that verbs (and thus their relative substantives) ending with -ize are more used in the USA, while the British prefer the corresponding ones ending with -ise? In a bilingual (Italian to English) dictionary I saw that there are really few verbs ending with -ise, like analyse, advertise, privatise, etc., while I could not find the corresponding -ise version of most important verbs ending with -ize (realize, organize, etc.); On the other hand I see them spelt

as -ise in many newspapers, magazines, scientific reviews and even in your answers to previous questions. Please tell me if I should definitely convert to -ise. 2. Another question is this: what is the rule for hyphenating words, if there is any, in expressions like, e.g., high-quality performance, least-squares problem, etc., which you would not hyphenate if they were not used as adjectives ( 'that material is of a high quality', not 'high-quality'). How would one cope, for example, with an expression like 'high and low tide-like phenomena' or 'deep seated gravitational slope deformation phenomena'? 3. The last question concerns the use of articles before geographical names: Why does one say ;the river Thames' but also 'the Hudson river'? Why not also 'the lake Como' rather than 'lake Como'? Should one say 'Mount Etna' or 'the Etna Mount'? Why do the speakers of the BBC say 'the Kosovo conflict' rather than 'Kosovo conflict' (I am sorry for this last example, but I could not think of anything else at the moment)? Roger replies: more questions

1. Taking your questions in order, it is generally true, Massimo, that the American preference for -ize is mirrored in British English by a general preference for -ise, so it is perhaps useful to standardise on one of these two patterns as far as possible. In a standard British dictionary - e.g. the Concise Oxford - you will often find that both options are possible in British English - 'realise' or 'realize', 'organsise' or 'organize' - whilst for other entries -ize is listed as unmistakably American, e.g. 'analyse' = British English, 'analyze' = American English. If you have a preference for British English in this respect, I assume for the sake of consistency you will retain this preference for other spelling options, e.g. 'programme', not 'program'; 'colour', not 'color'; 'metre', not 'meter'; 'catalogue', not catalog'; 'traveller', not traveler'. When you are reading American English, it can be fun to spot the differences.

2.Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated, so we have 'a high-quality performance', 'a ten-dollar note', a blue-eyed boy'. With multiple compounds, it is usually the first two adjectives or the most adjective-like that are hyphenated, so we have 'a deep-seated gravitational slope' to use your example, or 'a high-quality virtuoso performance'. Note also the pattern: 'part- and full-time jobs', 'high- and low-tide phenomena.' However, if adjectives are placed after the verb, they are usually not hyphenated. Compare 'an out-ofwork actor', 'an up-to-date account' and 'He was out of work', 'She was up to date.'

3. Referring to geographical names or areas, we tend to use the definite article with: seas (the Atlantic, the Pacific, the North Sea) mountain ranges (the Alps, the Andes) island groups (the British Isles, the West Indies) areas (the Midlands, the Lake District, the Middle East) rivers (the Danube, the Blue Nile, the Thames) deserts (the Gobi, the Sahara) hotels and pubs (the Red Lion, the Grand Palace) cinemas and theatres (the Playhouse, the Majestic) We generally use no articles with: continents (Africa, South America, South East Asia) counties and countries (Oklahoma, Bulgaria, Nigeria) towns and principal buildings (Ely Cathedral, Oxford University) lakes (Lake Como, Lake Windermere, Derwent Water) mountains and volcanoes (Everest, Etna, Vesuvius) Of course, there are always exceptions: The UK, The USA, The UAE, The Netherlands, The Hague. It is just a matter of learning them!

'So do I' / 'me too' C Mathiack from Germany asks: When can you replace So do I etc, with Me too? Roger replies: more questions Me too works quite well in simple exchanges such as: 'Im hungry - Me too.' OR 'So am I.' 'Im feeling very sleepy.' 'Me too.' 'I think Ill go to bed.' 'So will I.' Its not very common as a stand-alone phrase with other pronouns, apart from You too? as a question, registering surprise, as in: 'I failed my maths exam.' 'You too? So did I!' We would be unlikely to say: He too or Her too or They too, although we can use this construction if it is part of a longer utterance, as in:

'Maggie couldnt go and he too discovered that he was unable to attend the December board meeting owing to a prior commitment.' Note that the converse of Me too is Nor me or Me neither: 'I dont fancy climbing to the top of this mountain this afternoon.' 'Me neither.' 'Im not going to Janes party on Saturday.' 'Nor me.' Note that the so construction is used to agree with a positive statement and the nor or neither construction is used to agree with a negative statement. It can be used with all tense forms and all modal verbs, so you need to be careful to select the right auxiliary verb or modal. Consider the following: 'I cant swim.' 'Nor can I.' 'They shouldnt have said they could help him.' 'Neither should I.' 'We stayed at the Shangri-La in Penang.' 'What a coincidence! So did we.' 'Marjories going to live in Edinburgh near the Cathedral.' 'Sos Jack opposite the National Gallery.' 'I hate travelling all the way to Scotland by coach.' 'So do I.' 'I was so tired by the time we got there.' 'So were the other passengers.' 'We havent forgotten that its Sids birthday next week.' 'Neither have we.'

Now test your knowledge in this simple quiz. Only one of the suggested forms is correct or most appropriate. Click on it. We dont have enough money for a holiday this year. We wont be able to visit Malaysia. The children shouldn't behave like that! Hes so hungry he could eat a horse. They hadnt visited their aunt since their uncle died. She left early because it was so smoky. See the answers Answers 1 Nor do we.

2 Neither will we. 3 Nor should Fred. 4 So am I. 5 Neither had we. 6 So did Tom.

Use of 'so' and 'such' Savino Carrella from Naples asks: Could you kindly tell me whether the use of so in the following sentence is correct: 'Miles looked older than his brother, revealing so a strange maturity.' Here so should stand for 'in this way'. Roger replies: more questions If so here means 'in this way' or 'thus', it would normally come immediately after the main clause: 'Miles looked older than his brother, so revealing a strange maturity.' ('so' = less formal) 'Miles looked older than his brother, thus revealing a strange maturity.' ('thus' = more formal) However, if you are using so or such for emphasis to mean 'to a very great degree or extent', their position immediately before the adjective is correct. But take care using these two forms. It has to be such before a noun or before an adjective plus noun. So it will be: 'Miles looked older than his brother, revealing such a strange maturity.' So is obviously used in a similar way, but is placed before adjectives standing alone or before adverb plus adjective, thus: 'She was so indescribably beautiful that we couldn't take our eyes off her.' Remember: such + noun

so + adjective such + adjective + noun so + adverb + adjective The noun with such is normally preceded by the indefinite article: 'We had such a good time at Henry's party.' 'I've been working far too hard today and I've got such a headache now.' 'She really embarrassed me. She is such a fool.' Occasionally, in certain expressions, when the noun has a gradeable meaning, the indefinite article is dropped: 'Such lovely countryside (around here)!' 'Such awful weather (these days)!' 'We had such fun at Henry's party!' 'I don't know how you have such patience (when dealing with such awkward customers).' Frequently heard examples of so in this sense might include: 'I'm so glad you are here!' 'He was so pleased to see her.' 'Don't go so fast! Slow down!' 'What's so funny about that?' 'I'm so tired! It's as if I haven't slept for a week.' 'I love you so much!' You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that so and such are often followed by 'that'-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Note that when plural nouns are used after such, the article is, of course, omitted. 'I'm so glad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had to drink a litre of water when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on that holiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) they had no difficulty swimming across the fastflowing river.' 'She prepared such good meals (that) no one ever thought of going out to eat.' 'I've got such a high temperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will drive me straight to the surgery when he gets home from work.'

There is one exception to the general rule as set out above and that is that only so can be used with indefinite determiners much and many and it is more usual with little and few when these are followed by a noun. We therefore have the new pattern: so + determiner + noun

'So many sun-worshippers had crowded on to the beach that there was no space left for my towel.' 'I'm sure there will be so much noise in the restaurant that I shan't be able to hear what anybody is saying.' 'I had so little rest over the weekend that I couldn't go to work on Monday morning.' 'There were so few leaves on the tree that it was pointless to try to shelter from the rain beneath it.' You cannot say: 'such many sun-worshippers', or 'such much noise' and it would be unusual to say: 'such few leaves' or 'such little rest'. Finally compare: 'Such little people!' ('Little' here is used as an adjective meaning 'small'.) 'So few people!' ('Few' here is used as a determiner meaning 'not very many'.) You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that 'so' and 'such' are often followed by that-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Note that when plural nouns are used after 'such', the article is, of course, omitted. 'I'm so glad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had to drink a litre of water when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on that holiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) they had no difficulty swimming across the fastflowing river.' 'She prepared such good meals (that) no one ever thought of going out to eat.' 'I've got such a high temperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will drive me straight to the surgery when he gets home from work.'

Use of 'so' and 'such' Savino Carrella from Naples asks: Could you kindly tell me whether the use of so in the following sentence is correct: 'Miles looked older than his brother, revealing so a strange maturity.' Here so should stand for 'in this way'.

Roger replies: more questions If so here means 'in this way' or 'thus', it would normally come immediately after the main clause: 'Miles looked older than his brother, so revealing a strange maturity.' ('so' = less formal) 'Miles looked older than his brother, thus revealing a strange maturity.' ('thus' = more formal) However, if you are using so or such for emphasis to mean 'to a very great degree or extent', their position immediately before the adjective is correct. But take care using these two forms. It has to be such before a noun or before an adjective plus noun. So it will be: 'Miles looked older than his brother, revealing such a strange maturity.' So is obviously used in a similar way, but is placed before adjectives standing alone or before adverb plus adjective, thus: 'She was so indescribably beautiful that we couldn't take our eyes off her.' Remember: such + noun so + adjective such + adjective + noun so + adverb + adjective The noun with such is normally preceded by the indefinite article: 'We had such a good time at Henry's party.' 'I've been working far too hard today and I've got such a headache now.' 'She really embarrassed me. She is such a fool.' Occasionally, in certain expressions, when the noun has a gradeable meaning, the indefinite article is dropped: 'Such lovely countryside (around here)!' 'Such awful weather (these days)!' 'We had such fun at Henry's party!' 'I don't know how you have such patience (when dealing with such awkward customers).' Frequently heard examples of so in this sense might include: 'I'm so glad you are here!' 'He was so pleased to see her.' 'Don't go so fast! Slow down!' 'What's so funny about that?' 'I'm so tired! It's as if I haven't slept for a week.' 'I love you so much!'

You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that so and such are often followed by 'that'-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Note that when plural nouns are used after such, the article is, of course, omitted. 'I'm so glad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had to drink a litre of water when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on that holiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) they had no difficulty swimming across the fastflowing river.' 'She prepared such good meals (that) no one ever thought of going out to eat.' 'I've got such a high temperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will drive me straight to the surgery when he gets home from work.'

There is one exception to the general rule as set out above and that is that only so can be used with indefinite determiners much and many and it is more usual with little and few when these are followed by a noun. We therefore have the new pattern: so + determiner + noun 'So many sun-worshippers had crowded on to the beach that there was no space left for my towel.' 'I'm sure there will be so much noise in the restaurant that I shan't be able to hear what anybody is saying.' 'I had so little rest over the weekend that I couldn't go to work on Monday morning.' 'There were so few leaves on the tree that it was pointless to try to shelter from the rain beneath it.' You cannot say: 'such many sun-worshippers', or 'such much noise' and it would be unusual to say: 'such few leaves' or 'such little rest'. Finally compare: 'Such little people!' ('Little' here is used as an adjective meaning 'small'.) 'So few people!' ('Few' here is used as a determiner meaning 'not very many'.) You will already have noticed from at least one of the above examples that 'so' and 'such' are often followed by that-clauses suggesting result or consequence. Note that when plural nouns are used after 'such', the article is, of course, omitted. 'I'm so glad (that) you could come!' 'It had been so hot on the journey (that) we had to drink a litre of water when we arrived home.' 'There was so much to do on that holiday (that) nobody ever got bored.' 'They were such good swimmers (that) they had no difficulty swimming across the fastflowing river.' 'She prepared such good meals (that) no one ever thought of going out to

eat.' 'I've got such a high temperature (that) I'm hoping (that) my husband will drive me straight to the surgery when he gets home from work.'

Using relative pronouns

Ita from Nigeria asks: Which is correct: 'The girl who you described as smart has failed the exam' or 'The girl whom you described as smart had failed the exam'? In practice, I would say: 'The girl you described as smart has failed the exam', but that's because I'm not sure if I should use 'who' or 'whom'.

Roger replies: more questions

There are two possibilities. In formal English we would say, or, especially, write: 'The girl whom you described as smart has failed the exam.' Whom always denotes the object of a verb and would be replaced by 'her' if we were to split this sentence into two separate sentences: 'The girl has failed the exam. And yet you described her as smart.' (Note that 'smart' = 'clever' in this context.) In conversational English, 'in practice' as you say, the relative pronoun would normally be left out completely: 'The girl you described as smart has failed the exam.' (You will also in speech find people saying: 'The girl who you described as smart has failed the exam', although this is not grammatically accurate or formally correct.)

Omission of the relative pronoun whom is particularly common when the verb is linked to a preposition. Compare the following 'defining' relative clauses: 'The friend who I went out with last night is anorexic.' (Grammatically incorrect, but sometimes/often heard.) 'The friend I went out with last night is going to have a baby.' (Omission of the relative pronoun would be the most common occurrence in these sentences.) 'The friend with whom I went out last night has bought a new car.' (Quite improbable, almost impossible, because, as conversational English, it is far too clumsy.) However, in this statement, which is much more formal, it is possible to link the preposition with whom: 'The senator, with whom I dined last night, will be the next President of the United States of America.' Of course, if who is the subject, rather than the object, of the relative clause, or if the relative clause is 'non-defining', i.e. used to convey non-essential information, who cannot be omitted. We cannot say: 'That's the man used to live next door to us.' 'The woman in the fur coat used to live next door to us is now President of Bigfoot Engineering.' We have to say: 'That's the man who used to live next door to us. ('That's the man. He used to live next door to us.') 'The woman in the fur coat, who used to live next door to us, is now President of Bigfoot Engineering.' Note the essential punctuation which surrounds the non-defining relative clause, which, if it became two sentences, would read: 'The woman in the fur coat is now President. She used to live next door to us.' There is one other possible relative pronoun which we could use with the 'friend I went out with' sentences and that is that which is often an alternative for 'whom', 'who' and 'which'. That is very versatile because it can refer to people or things and can be used as the subject or object of a relative clause. Compare the following: 'The friend that I went out with last night is going to get married.' 'Is this the sock that you're looking for?' (OR: 'Is this the sock you're looking for?') 'The girl that lives next door keeps parking her car on our drive.' (OR: 'The girl who...') 'These are the trees that blossom in February.' (OR: 'These are the trees which...')

each and every

Christine Vandierendonck from Belgium writes: Could you please explain to me the difference between each and every? Roger replies: more questions

Each and every are both determiners used with singular nouns to indicate quantity. Each indicates two or more objects or people and every indicates three or more. Each can also be used as a pronoun, but every cannot be. Study the following: each ~ both She had clearly been in a fight. She had bruises on each leg and cuts on each arm (OR: on both legs / on both arms, BUT NOT: on every leg / on every arm) My parents have moved to the capital. Each of them works in a bank. (OR They both work, / They each work, BUT NOT: Every one of them works We each had a suitcase and each one weighed over 30 kilos. ( = two people, two suitcases) He was holding a revolver in each hand / in both hands ( = two hands, two revolvers) He was holding a revolver with both hands ( = two hands, one revolver)

each ~ individual; every ~ all We tend to use each if we are thinking about members of a group individually, and every if we are thinking of them in total. Compare the following: We gave each child who came to the party a present. We handed them out one by one. We gave every child who came to the party a present We gave them all a present. I really love Pinter. I've seen every one of his plays at least once. I've seen them all. You suggested I should read Pinter's plays. Well, I'm going to study each one carefully.

Every third-year student will be examined orally in June. They will each be given a fifteen minute interview. every NOT each With adverbs - almost, nearly, practically, etc, we have to use every to emphasise that we are talking about the group as a whole: Practically every person in the room had dated Samantha at some time or another. Nearly every chocolate had been eaten. There were hardly any left for the boys when they arrived home. This year I have visited practically every country in South-East Asia. We have to use every to refer to repeated regular events, as in once every, twice every, etc. Study the following: My hearing is getting worse and worse and I have to go to the hospital for a hearing test once every so often - about once every six months. You ask me every single day when Joan will be returning and every single day I tell you that I do not know. How often do you hear from John? ~ Oh, not very often. Every now and again. She was suffering from cramp and in order to finish the tennis match needed to stretch her legs after every other game. (I.e. after the 2nd, 4th, 6th games, etc) BUT: She was suffering from cramp and in order to finish the tennis match needed to stretch her legs after each game.

each NOT every Remember only each can be used as a pronoun, irrespective of whether we are describing two or more of something or three or more of something. Study the following: No, no. It's not 30 for both of them. They each cost 30. (OR: They cost 30 each.) The inheritance was shared out equally among the six children. Each (of them) received 32,000. I gave them each (OR each of them) a $10 tip when I checked out of the hotel. If we want to use every in a similar way, indicating three or more of something, we must insert one before of them as every has no pronominal form itself. A lot of word stress is put on one so that in effect it means every single one of them. We can use each one of them in a similar way. Study the following and the earlier examples of this structure: The inheritance was shared out equally among the six children. Every one of them received 32,000. I gave every one of them a $10 tip when I checked out of the hotel.

any' and 'no' with countable / uncountable nouns

Yasuhiro Chasi from Japan now studying in the US writes: Could you please tell me when to use the plural form of a noun after words like any and no? For example, it seems that people tend to say: I don't have any trees in my yard rather than I don't have any tree in my yard. Could you tell me a general rule on the usage of any and no with countable and uncountable nouns? Also, words like nobody, anyone, anything and nothing are all fixed in the singular. I would not be natural to say nobodies or nothings or no ones of anyones. Could you explain why they came to be all singular and the plural forms never developed? Roger Woodham replies: more questions

any / no ~ (not) a/an Although your paired example sentences are both possible, we don't usually use any with singular countable nouns in English. For the singular, we would probably use a different formulation. Compare: There aren't any trees along this road. There isn't a single tree along this road.

There is a slight difference of emphasis here, which is also implicit in your own paired example. In the first sentence, we are thinking of more than one tree and in the second just one.

So, to summarise, the difference in use is that we employ an indefinite article an/a or not a/not an with singular countable nouns and any/no with plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns, meaning 'an amount of', normally have no plural. They are thus used with singular verbs, BUT with any/no rather than a/an/not a/not an. Compare the following: Would you like an egg for breakfast? (One egg = singular countable noun) No thanks. I don't want any eggs today. (More than one egg = plural countable noun) I'm making scrambled egg for Joe. Won't you have any scrambled egg? (Scrambled egg = uncountable noun) some ~ any/no Note the principal difference in usage between some and any. We tend to use any in questions and with negatives, some in affirmative sentences: Is there any information (uncountable) about any survivors (countable) from the plane crash? No, I'm sorry there's no information available yet. (OR: there isn't anyBUT no preferred because it has stronger emphasis) As soon as we have some, we'll let you know. any = it doesn't matter who or which There is one instance of usage where any is quite common with singular countable nouns and that is when it means 'it doesn't matter who or which'. In speech, the word any itself carries strong stress. Study the following: Any good dictionary will give you examples of use as well as definitions of words. Any British daily newspaper will give you some information on the weather in the world's capital cities. Any child under the age of ten can enter the egg-and-spoon race. Ask any dentist and he will tell you that you should go for a check-up at least once a year. no one/nobody/someone/somebody/anyone/anybody something/anything/nothing

Note that there is no significant difference in use between -one and -body, except perhaps that -one is more commonly used. Note also that no one is the only one that is written as two separate words. I think the clue as to why they are all used with singular verbs lies with -one, meaning one person, or one thing or not one thing or not one person. Compare the following: There's someone at the door who wants to interview you. There are some people at the door who want to interview you. I'm sorry, I'm busy right now. Isn't there anyone else who can do it? What about Fred? Some relationships last for a long time but nothing is for ever.

either, neither and too

Qemal from Albania writes: I am a military man from Albania and I would be very grateful if you could give me some explanation of how to use neither, either and too. I find it very difficult. Wojciech Szczupa from Poland writes: Try as I might, I couldn't find a clear answer to this question. How should we say: neither of them is or neither of them are? Which form would you use? Is one more proper than the other? Roger Woodham replies: more questions

Either indicates a choice between two alternatives. Neither combines two negative ideas. Study the following examples of use: Which of these apples would you prefer? ~ I don't want either of them, thanks.

You can either have the 15 cotton top or the 17 cotton-and-polyester blouse. You can't have both. Neither Richard nor Judy could come to the party. I want neither alcohol nor cigars for my birthday. Now that I'm fifty I must live a healthier life. Both either and neither can function as pronouns, determiners or adverbs.

When they function as pronouns, they are often followed by of + noun phrase: I've known you for two years, but I haven't met either of your two brothers yet. (OR: I've known you for two years, but I haven't met either Francis or Damien yet.) Neither of my two brothers survived the war. Neither Francis, nor Damien. Which of these fur coats is yours? ~ Neither (of them). That one's mine. When they function as adverbs, they behave as linking words which can be tagged on in agreement at the end of a negative sentence. But with neither, subject and verb are inverted, with either this does not happen: I can't make the meeting on Tuesday. ~ No, neither can I (OR: No, nor can I.) I can't make the meeting on Tuesday. ~ No, I can't either. I don't approve of sex before marriage. ~ No, neither do I. (OR: No, nor do I.) I don't approve of sex before marriage. ~ No, I don't either. I don't go mountain climbing and I don't go mountain walking, either. (OR: I don't go mountain climbing and neither do I go mountain walking. Too can function as an adding adverb which is placed in agreement at the end of an affirmative sentence. Compare the following: I like peaches and nectarines best. ~ Yeah, I like peaches and nectarines, too. I don't like peaches or nectarines. ~ No, I don't like peaches or nectarines, either. When either and neither function as determiners, they are placed before the noun. On neither side of the road was there anybody to be seen. Neither player could raise his game. It was a very boring game of tennis to watch. The sisters in the photograph were standing on either side of their dad. (OR: ...on each side..., OR: ...on both sides....)

Neither of them is or neither of them are? I don't think there is a clear answer, Wojciech. Although this of-pronoun is normally considered singular, it is normally followed by plural nouns or pronouns. Thus, the

boundary between singular and plural is blurred and effectively it can go with either a singular or plural verb form. Strictly speaking, it should be singular, but you will hear both formulations with no clear preference for one or the other: Neither of them are coming. They both have to work next weekend. Neither of them is coming. They both have to work next weekend. Which of these umbrellas is yours? ~ Neither of them are. That one's mine. Which of these umbrellas is yours? ~ Neither is. That's mine. There is similar confusion, I think, when neither...nor are employed as conjunctions, meaning not one and not the other. Consider the following: Neither Francoise nor Helmut likes to eat English breakfasts, even at weekends. Neither Franciose nor Helmut like to eat English breakfasts, even at weekends Neither Emma nor Susan gets on with Chloe. Neither Emma nor Susan get on with Chloe.

each and every

Christine Vandierendonck from Belgium writes: Could you please explain to me the difference between each and every? Roger replies: more questions

Each and every are both determiners used with singular nouns to indicate quantity. Each indicates two or more objects or people and every indicates three or more. Each can also be used as a pronoun, but every cannot be. Study the following: each ~ both She had clearly been in a fight. She had bruises on each leg and cuts on each arm (OR: on both legs / on both arms, BUT NOT: on every leg / on every arm) My parents have moved to the capital. Each of them works in a bank. (OR They both work, / They each work, BUT NOT: Every one of them works We each had a suitcase and each one weighed over 30 kilos. ( = two people, two suitcases) He was holding a revolver in each hand / in both hands ( = two hands, two revolvers) He was holding a revolver with both hands ( = two hands, one revolver)

each ~ individual; every ~ all We tend to use each if we are thinking about members of a group individually, and every if we are thinking of them in total. Compare the following: We gave each child who came to the party a present. We handed them out one by one. We gave every child who came to the party a present We gave them all a present. I really love Pinter. I've seen every one of his plays at least once. I've seen them all. You suggested I should read Pinter's plays. Well, I'm going to study each one carefully. Every third-year student will be examined orally in June. They will each be given a fifteen minute interview. every NOT each With adverbs - almost, nearly, practically, etc, we have to use every to emphasise that we are talking about the group as a whole: Practically every person in the room had dated Samantha at some time or another. Nearly every chocolate had been eaten. There were hardly any left for the boys when they arrived home. This year I have visited practically every country in South-East Asia. We have to use every to refer to repeated regular events, as in once every, twice every, etc. Study the following: My hearing is getting worse and worse and I have to go to the hospital for a hearing test once every so often - about once every six months. You ask me every single day when Joan will be returning and every single day I tell you that I do not know. How often do you hear from John? ~ Oh, not very often. Every now and again. She was suffering from cramp and in order to finish the tennis match needed to stretch her legs after every other game. (I.e. after the 2nd, 4th, 6th games, etc) BUT: She was suffering from cramp and in order to finish the tennis match needed to stretch her legs after each game.

each NOT every Remember only each can be used as a pronoun, irrespective of whether we are describing two or more of something or three or more of something. Study the following: No, no. It's not 30 for both of them. They each cost 30. (OR: They cost 30 each.) The inheritance was shared out equally among the six children. Each (of them) received 32,000.

I gave them each (OR each of them) a $10 tip when I checked out of the hotel. If we want to use every in a similar way, indicating three or more of something, we must insert one before of them as every has no pronominal form itself. A lot of word stress is put on one so that in effect it means every single one of them. We can use each one of them in a similar way. Study the following and the earlier examples of this structure: The inheritance was shared out equally among the six children. Every one of them received 32,000. I gave every one of them a $10 tip when I checked out of the hotel.

amount, quantity, number: partitive structures

Jos Luis Landa from Mexico writes: What is the difference between these words: amount, quantity and number? I mean, can I say: A large amount of cows were infected. A large quantity of cows were infected. A large number of cows were infected. Are all three possible?

Roger Woodham replies:

amount

An amount of something is how much of it there is that you can measure. Amount is normally uncountable, so we CANNOT say: 'a large amount of cows were infected.' But we would say: The amount of work I got through in July was double the amount that I did in June. No amount of love would heal the hatred she felt. I had a certain amount of respect for him: he was a good footballer and a good ambassador for his country. We can also use amount as a verb, as in amount to, and again this describes the counting or measuring of something: When you added everything up, his total expenditure on this project amounted to 9,950. I dont think the talks in Helsinki will amount to very much.

quantity Similarly, a quantity is an amount of something that you can measure or count. We often talk about large or small quantities of something. It is usually applied to inanimate objects so again it is unlikely that we would say: 'a large quantity of cows were infected'. But we would say: There were very small quantities of peppers on sale in the market. There are very large quantities of gas beneath the North Sea. We often contrast quantity with quality: It doesnt matter how many words you write: it is the quality that is important, not the quantity. These toys are sold in quantity and the quality doesnt seem to matter.

number We use number to describe how many, and often we do not know exactly how many there are. This is one of the defining aspects of a number of. Number is countable and can be applied to both animate and inanimate items, so this is the one that fits your sentence: a large number of cows were infected. There are a number of reasons why I cant marry you. A number of people were injured in the explosion. I had warned her not to go there any number of times, but she wouldnt listen.

Number in all of these instances is indefinite. Returning to your sentence, Los, remember that if we are talking about a particular group of cows, we would refer to them as 'a herd of cows': The whole herd of cows was infected. Do you also know the expressions: a flock of sheep or a flock of birds, a pack of wild dogs or a pack of wolves, a pack of cards and a pack of lies? Study the following: In winter, the shepherds had to move with their flocks to the lowland pastures. A whole flock of seagulls followed the ferry as it set out from Dover across the Channel. A pack of wolves roamed the prairie. A number of them were diseased. In the pack of cards I bought yesterday there were five jokers. He told me a pack of lies. Nothing he said was true.

The definite article, 'the'

Two questions this week on the use of the definite article, the. Yang Xi from China writes: I am a beginner but one question has troubled me for a long time. It may be easy, but it is difficult for me. The question is: when do we place the in front of a noun and when do we take it away? Raufhameed from Pakistan writes: I am a bit confused this week about the use of the definite article. Grammar books are too comprehensive and don't satisfy me. I would like to know more about the use of the definite article in daily language. Is this sentence correct: 'He has been working at the Indus Dolphin Reserve for over 25 years'?

Roger replies: more questions

always use the definite article

a) before singular and plural nouns when you are talking about things that both speakers know about. In your example, Raufhameed, both speakers know all about the dolphin reserve, so use of the definite article is clearly correct. Further examples: 'These are the books that I borrowed from the library.' (We can see the books and we know where the library is.) 'Where are the stamps I bought yesterday?' (You know the ones I mean. You were with me when I bought them.) 'What did you think of the film?' (I am talking about the one you saw last night)

b) with certain geographical locations or areas, collections of states or islands, mountain ranges, seas and rivers - if you are not sure where any of the following places are, check them out in an atlas: The People's Republic of China, The United Kingdom, The United States of America, The Philippines, The Bahamas, The Netherlands, The Channel Islands, The Far East, The Alps, The Andes, The Cairngorms, The Himalayas, The Rockies, The Hindu Kush, The Pacific Ocean, The Mediterranean, The Dead Sea, The Black Sea, The Arabian Sea, The Thames, The Yangtze, The Ganges, The White Nile, The Mississippi, The Amazon

c) with groups of people, and with musical and scientific instruments and animals when you are discussing them as categories: 'The hospital in Cheery Orchard Avenue is a hospital for the elderly and infirm.' 'The poor are always disadvantaged in contemporary society. 'Matilda is learning to play the trumpet; her brother plays the drums.' 'Who invented the telescope?' 'The first one was made by Galileo in 1608.' 'The Bengali tiger is threatened with extinction.' 'The Manx cat is native to the Isle of Man.

always omit the definite article d) when making general statements about things, people and abstract ideas. In the following examples, a general statement (= - the) is contrasted with a specific reference (= + the): 'I enjoy reading contemporary fiction - especially the novels of David Lodge.' 'Poverty is one of the scourges of the 21st Century.' 'The poverty I witnessed in the inner city slums was indescribable.' 'You don't often see people drinking beer at cocktail parties.' e) when talking about particular countries, continents, towns, streets, buildings, lakes and mountains: China, Pakistan, America, England, (Great) Britain, South America, Central America. 'Genoa is in Northern Italy.' 'Valencia is in Southern Spain.' 'They are both in Europe.' 'Westminster Abbey is near Parliament Square - at the top end of Victoria Street.' 'Lake Windermere is in the Lake District.' 'Everest and K2 are the two tallest mountains in the world. f) when talking about transport, meals, games in general terms and with certain time expressions, months, seasons, etc. 'I'm going by car, but Andy's going by train.' 'Would you like to have lunch now?' 'I haven't had breakfast yet!' 'In this school we play rugby in the autumn term and football in the spring term. In summer everybody plays tennis.' 'Next Friday is the last day of term. In August the school is closed.' For further illustrations and explanations of how to use articles in English, check the learnit archive and search other questions. Go to the Determiners, nouns and pronouns

section and take a look particularly at the questions on the/a/an and using articles with geographical names.

it / this / that

Mamoru from Japan writes: Please teach me the difference between it, this and that. I am not sure which one I should use when I write an email.

Roger Woodham replies:

'it' It is a personal pronoun which we use instead of she/her or he/him when we are referring to things, rather than people, in the singular. We use personal pronouns when it is not necessary to repeat the nouns or noun phrases to which they refer. Compare the following: I have a friend who comes from Taiwan. He is eighteen years old. I have known him since I was twelve. Brenda is still a close friend. I haven't seen her for three years now, but she emails me every week. I miss her. This ring is over a hundred years old. It used to belong to my mother. I gave it to my daughter when she was twelve years old. What's the time in London now? It's 7.15 in Argentina. ~ It's 11.15 here in London. What's the weather like? ~ It's quite good. It's sunny and it's quite warm for September.

it as an empty subject Even when there is no question or no noun preceding it, we use it as an empty subject when we are referring to weather, time, temperature, distances or current circumstances. Study the following: It's just awful. It's the weekend again and it's been raining since early morning. It was 31 degrees on Crete yesterday. Don't you wish you were still there? How far is it from London to Birmingham? ~ I'm not sure. I think it's about 70 miles. Hi, Bob. How's it going? ~ All's well, thanks. How is it with you? Note that they and them are the plural forms of it and that they and them can refer to both things AND people: Where are my T-shirts? ~ They're on the top shelf. ~ I can't find them. Have we invited Peter and Jane for Saturday? ~ No. But I spoke to them last week. They're not around at the weekend.

this/these & that/those as demonstrative pronouns As the term demonstrative suggests, this and that are more emphatic than it and can be used to draw attention to the fact or situation. Compare the following: Don't miss Bridget Jones's Diary. It's a film that everyone should see. Don't miss Bridget Jones's Diary. This is a film that everyone should see She decided to invite John to supper, but not Jane, John's partner, and it really upset Jane She decided to invite John to supper, but not Jane, John's partner, and this really upset Jane. this/these & that/those as determiners

When they are used as determiners with nouns, they can refer to both things AND people: These children who attended Mallory High are well-behaved but those who came here from Brambletown Secondary are just awful. These pre-war houses are well-built, but those that were built in the 60s are very shabby. Generally speaking, we use this/these to refer to people and things, situations and experiences that are close to the speaker or very close in time. We use that/those to refer to people and things, situations and experiences that are more distant, either in time or physically. Compare the following: This is lovely. Can I have some more? (The meal is in progress.) That was lovely. Thank you so much. (The meal is over.) Do you like these ear-rings? ~ Yes, they're quite nice. But I think those you were wearing yesterday are prettier. this/that when introducing or identifying people On the telephone and when making introductions we use this and that. Compare the following: Hello. Who's that? This is Tom Bruce here. Is that Alison? I'd like you to meet my friend from Germany. This is Hannelore.

what or which?

Telma from Brazil writes: First of all, thank you for you comments and help. I would like to know when we should say what and when we should say which. Why do you use what and which in this example instead of only what? It is difficult to know what idioms are in fashion and which are not.

Roger Woodham replies:

which / what What and which are interchangeable in your example Telma. Both what or which would fit in both places with little or no difference in meaning. Often what and which are used for the sake of variety. The same is true in these examples of direct and indirect questions: Which / What would you say are the most polluted cities in the world and which / what are the cleanest? Do you know which / what sort of plants grow best in a shady garden? I've no idea which / what road to take to Jimmy's place. ~ What / which route did you take? However, when we are choosing between just two or three options, we usually prefer which. If there is no limit to the number of choices, what is used. Compare the following: What would you like in your sandwiches? I've got cheese or tuna. Which would you prefer? He comes from Glasgow, but do you know which football team he supports? ~ I think it's Celtic, but it may be Rangers. I'm not sure. What / which football team do you support? What is your postal / email address? What's your opinion on this? Which TV channel is the tennis on?

what / which - before nouns Before nouns what and which can be used interchangeably to ask questions about people or things: What / Which colour trousers would you like? Brown, green, blue, orange or maroon? Which / What writers have made the biggest impression on you?

which - before 'one' and 'of' However, if we wish to use the which of or which one constructions, our choice is limited to which: Which of these cars are you interested in driving? Which ones should I choose?

Which of these teams do you think will win the championship? Which one of us is going to make the presentation?

who / what / which - without nouns Note that when these words are used as pronouns with no nouns immediately following, we usually use who when referring to people: Who do you think will win the championship? Who will take over as captain if both Keane and Beckham are injured? Who are you going out with now? Is it Leslie or Keith? Which footballer would you like to go out with? However, if we are trying to identify certain people out of a group of people (e.g. in a photograph or in a crowded room), we use which, which is similar in use to which one(s): Which (one) is your boyfriend? ~ The one (who is) sitting next to Fiona. I need to know which (of these) children have not been vaccinated. If we are asking about someone's job or function, we can use what or which: What / Which would you rather be - a general doctor or a specialist of some kind?

If you would like more practice more please visit our Message Board in the You, Me and Us part of our website.

a/an and the : pronunciation

Lorena from Venezuela writes: How and when do you differentiate the pronunciation of a, an and the?

Roger Woodham replies:

The The is pronounced with an e sound, as in bee or flea, before a noun or adjective beginning with a vowel or a vowel sound, so we would say: In the ark, the angry ants, the antelopes, the elephants, the iguanas, the ostriches and the unhappy hippos all knew that the hour had come. It was time to go to sleep. The is pronounced with an er sound, as in mother, father, brother, before a noun or an adjective beginning with a consonant or a consonant sound, so we would say: The bank and the post office are in the High Street next to the university building. Now practise these sentences, each of which contains two pronunciations of the with the e sound and two pronunciations of the with the er sound. The Irish and the Welsh forwards were fitter and faster than the English and the Scots. In the qualifiers for the World Cup the Argentine team was the only one to win all their matches. Is this true? The FBI agent and the FIFA official were arguing about the best tickets for the Italy and the Brazil match. (Note that the F in FBI starts with a vowel sound, as in when or then, whereas the F in FIFA starts with a consonant sound as it is pronounced as one word) Neither the one-pound coin nor the two-pound coin could be used in the amusement arcade at the airport. (Note that the o in one is pronounced as a consonant sound as in won.) The RSPCA and the NSPCC are concerned about the protection of animals and the prevention of cruelty to children. (Note that the R in RSPCA starts with a vowel sound as in car or far and that the N in NSPCC also starts with a vowel sound as men or hen.) The RSPCA is the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the NSPCC is the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

Did you notice how much easier it is to say the, as in see, rather then the, as in brother, when a vowel sound follows, the Irish, rather than the Irish? Note how the first pronunciation just flows off the tongue, whereas the second one doesn't. Note that all abbreviations said as individual letters which begin with A, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S, or X are pronounced as vowel sounds. They are therefore preceded by the as in see and an, rather than a, see below.

A A is normally pronounced unstressed as er as in mother, father, brother. Can I use a pen or a pencil on this form? ~ A pen is best. You should use a ball-point or a fountain pen. If we wish to stress it, we can pronounce it as ay, as in say or day, though this is rather unusual: It was a breathtaking performance! It was a magnificent achievement! We might stress a in this way if the circumstances are unusual and we want to savour every syllable. A or an? Whether we use a or an depends upon the pronunciation of the following adjective or noun, not on the spelling. If the adjective or noun starts with a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant, we use an: What did you have for lunch today? ~ I had an apple, an orange and an enormous pizza. If you want to do an honest day's work you will need to be at your desk for longer than an hour and a half. An MP at Westminster paid for his lunch with an IOU the other day as he had neither money nor credit cards in his pocket. An MP is a Member of Parliament and an IOU is an I-owe-you. Note how in pronunciation the n in an flows on to, and almost becomes attached to, the following adjective or noun. An MP becomes a Nem P, an honest day's work becomes a nonest day's work. If the adjective or noun starts with a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel, we use a: A university education for a child coming from a one-parent family was unusual.

A European network of contacts for a successful businessman is essential.

too much/many, fewer/less, little, as much as

Qian Aiguo from Hong Kong writes: Could you please tell me the difference between a little, a little bit and a bit with related examples? Thank you. Enrique Luis de Simone from Argentina writes: Could you please tell me something about how to use these words: too many/much, as many as, fewer and less?

Roger Woodham replies:

little / few and a little / a few Little is used with uncountable and few is used with countable nouns. When we use few and little without the indefinite article, they usually have a negative meaning, but when we use them with the indefinite article, a little or a few, they have a more positive meaning. Compare the following: I have few friends in England and I feel quite lonely. I have a few friends in England, so I don't miss home so much. I have little interest in classical music. I much prefer pop.

I have a little wine in the cellar. Would you like some? Rather than little or few, we sometimes prefer to use a negative construction with much or many in conversational English, as it sounds slightly less formal: He has little money. > He doesn't have very much money. She had few friends. > She didn't have many friends.

a little / a bit A little, a bit and a little bit are often used as adverbs in colloquial British English with little or no difference in meaning. Compare the following: You're driving too fast. Could you please drive a little (bit) more slowly? It was a long journey and I was feeling a bit / a little (bit) tired. Bit can also combine with of before nouns to suggest a limited amount of something. Compare the following: Let me give you a bit of advice. Don't drive so fast in built-up areas. I'm not very hungry after the journey. I'll just have a bit of bread and cheese. I've got a bit of a problem. The car has overheated, so we'll have to wait for it to cool down. If we use it with a determiner or pronoun, little can also be used in this way: Would you like to try a bit of this / a little of this very sweet dessert? I'd love a bit of your / a little of your apple and walnut cake. It looks and smells delicious. fewer / less Fewer and less are the comparative forms of few and little and are used with countable and uncountable nouns, respectively. Compare the following: I've got a little (bit of) money in the bank. Not very much. Less than I had last year.

The weather was awful and fewer children took part in the procession this year. too much / too many Much and many can be used as an alternative to a lot of. Much is used with singular nouns and many is used with plural nouns. They can be used without nouns if the meaning is clear. Too expresses the idea of more than enough or more than necessary. Compare the following: There were many / a lot of people in the dining room, but there wasn't very much / a lot of food left on the breakfast buffet tables. I haven't eaten very much! ~ You've eaten far too much in my view. Much too much. I had put too much salt in the soup and nobody ate it.

too or very Make sure you can distinguish between too and very. Learners of English often confuse these two adverbs. Very means extremely and too means more than is wanted. Too is often followed by adjective + infinitive clause. Compare the following: The maths problem was very difficult. It was too difficult for me to solve. We arrived at the hotel very late - too late to have dinner there. The lake was very muddy. It was too muddy to swim in. A pity! It was perfect weather for swimming. Not too hot. as much / many as We can use as much / many as when we are talking about quantity and want to compare things or people that are more or less equal. Much and many can be used in this way as determiners or pronouns or as an adverb in the case of many. Compare the following: Share prices were falling and she didn't have as much money as she thought she had. She won't be able to buy as many clothes this year as she bought last year.

The breakfast buffet at the hotel was great. You could eat as much as you wanted. Would you like some strawberries with your cereal? Take as many as you like. I don't expect you to finish the report. Just do as much as you can this evening. You can criticise my lifestyle as much as you like. But it's my life!

THAN, THEN AND THAT

Yolanda, studying English in the UK, writes:

I WOULD LIKE TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THAT AND THAN BECAUSE I HAVE PROBLEMS IN USING THEM CORRECTLY.
Roger Woodham replies: That and than are often confused. In some languages, in Spanish and Portuguese for instance, the same word que is used for both terms. That is a very common word with various uses. Than is also often confused with then. than Than is used after comparative adjectives, adverbs and actions to describe people or things that are unequal in some way. Compare the following: This one is bigger than that one.

He's much older than her, but she seems much more grown-up than he is. I work harder than you do - it's only right that I should earn more than you. Have you noticed that the older brother dresses more smartly than the younger one? I predict that Giggs will score more goals than Scholes this season. Note that we have to use the asas structure to describe things that are equal in some way: Policemen earn as much as teachers in this country. Do you think that's right? My feet were as cold as ice after tramping through the snow all afternoon.

then Take care not to use then as an alternative to than in comparative sentences. Then is an adverb which refers to a particular time in the past or future or is used to express the idea of one thing that follows on logically from another. Compare the following: In the 1980s I was young and carefree. I didn't worry about money then. You'll stay with his family until Christmas. Until then you won't need extra money. I'll see you on Tuesday - we can decide then whether we want to go out for a meal as well as a drink. We went to the art exhibition first, then we had some lunch. Fry the onion and the bacon together in some olive oil and butter. Then add some wine. The last train has gone! ~ Then we're going to have to stay the night at Jo's.

THAT AS CONJUNCTION OR RELATIVE PRONOUN

Most frequently, that-clauses are used with reporting verbs in indirect speech and thought: I've been told that we shall not be allowed to enter the auditorium after the performance has started. I understand that you want to take unpaid leave when your maternity leave ends. Is that right? However, the conjunction that is often omitted after common reporting verbs in informal speech: I think you're right. I think it will be over by nine o' clock. She says she's bored at school. She says she's going to leave at the first opportunity. That as a relative pronoun introduces a defining relative clause Have you got any books in the library that are easy to read? ~ The books that are easy to read are on the first floor. Note that we cannot omit that if it is the subject of the relative clause as in the example above. However, if it is the object of the relative clause, it is usually omitted: The books (that) I borrowed are in my rucksack. The library (that) I borrowed them from is in the city centre.

YOU AND ME / YOU AND I

Bob Blackmor from the US writes: Which is correct: you and me or you and I? Some books say you and me is correct and others say it should be you and I. Waris from Saudi Arabia asks:

Could you please explain to me the use of I and me? If I knock on the door and someone asks: Who is it? should I say It is me or It is I. If someone says: I discovered this website by accident should I say: I too have discovered it by accident or Me too.? Rosanna from France writes:

WHY DO WE SAY THE KING AND I AND NOT THE KING AND ME? I AM TOLD THAT NOT EVEN THE QUEEN HERSELF KNOWS THE RIGHT ANSWER! YOU DO SAY SHE AND ME, DON'T YOU AND NOT SHE AND I?
Roger Woodham replies: I - me Personal pronouns in English have one form (I, he, she, we, they) when they are used as the subject of a sentence and another form (me, him, her, us, them) when they are used as the object of a verb or follow a preposition (with me, after us, etc). This applies to all personal pronouns, as listed above, except you and it which remain the same in both subject and object forms: We gave them some chocolates and they gave us some wine. I'll lend you my flared skirt if you'll lend me your blue denims. Can you see Paul and Julie? You can't see me, but I'm standing behind him and beside her in the photo. So whether you say you and I or you and me in co-ordinate phrases depends on whether they function as subjects or objects in the sentence: You and I should go and speak to Trevor about this matter. Trevor has indicated that he wants to interview you and me. Note that in colloquial informal British English, people often use you and me as subjects, even though it is known to be incorrect. This has led to an assumption that you and me can never be correct and people (even the Queen perhaps) then sometimes use you and I as objects instead of the correct form you and me.But for your own convenience, keep a clear distinction between them as the same rule applies to other personal pronouns, i.e it's she and I when they are the subject of the clause and her and me when they are the object: Do you know Geoffrey? Well, he and I are going to Stamford Bridge to watch Chelsea on Saturday. They wouldn't listen to her or me when I said we couldn't go with them.

ME TOO! - IT'S ME!

In very short answers like this, we usually prefer the object form: Who's that behind the sofa? ~ It's me! I want to go to Chris Cornell's concert at the London Astoria next Friday. ~ Me too! The response Me too is particularly useful if you readily agree with someone about something. Note the difference in tone between the use of also and too in the following sentences where also is used in a longer, more considered response: I might get one of those new mobile phones. ~ Yeah, I'm also thinking of trading up. I might get one of those new mobile phones. ~ Yeah, me too. object pronouns after asas / like / but / than Similarly, we normally use object pronouns after asas, like, but meaning except and than, although subject + verb is sometimes possible as an alternative. Compare the following: He can't run as fast as me, so he's better off as a defender. He can't run as fast as I can, so he's better off as a defender. They say you look exactly like me when I was eighteen They say you look exactly as I did when I was eighteen Well, that's Tracy for you! Nobody but her would go to shopping wearing gloves! Everybody, except Tony and me, got back before sundown. I'm taller than her, so I should stand at the back. I'm taller than she is, so I should stand at the back.

spelling and pronunciation: silent letters

Vani writes:

WHY ARE SOME LETTERS SILENT, AS IN ISLAND?

Roger Woodham replies:

It is because the pronunciation of certain words has changed over the last few hundred years whereas the spelling has remained the same. It is simply a matter of learning which letters are silent in certain combinations of letters. Here are some of the most common. Check to see how many you know and how many you still need to learn. In the following examples, all silent letters are given in brackets. They are normally not pronounced. Listen carefully to native English speakers' pronunciation of these words. Click here to listen to these words

b: clim(b), com(b), plum(b)er, thum(b) The plum(b)er's thum(b) got cau(gh)t in his com(b) as he clim(b)ed the ladder. d: han(d)kerchief, san(d)wich, We(d)nesday I have san(d)wiches every We(d)nesday and ir(o)n my wais(t)coats in the ev(e)ning. e: ev(e)ry, ev(e)ning, diff(e)rent, sev(e)ral, int(e)resting, veg(e)table, lit(e)rature, temp(e)rature, p(e)rhaps He described sev(e)ral diff(e)rent veg(e)tables on his plate. I didn't find that very int(e)resting, It certainly wasn't lit(e)rature. P(e)rhaps his body temp(e)rature was too hi(gh).

Click here to listen to these words

g: si(g)n, forei(g)n, champa(g)ne There was no si(g)n of the French champa(g)ne. gh: hi(gh), ri(gh)t, ni(gh)t, mi(gh)t, si(gh)t brou(gh)t, thou(gh)t, cau(gh)t, ou(gh)t, dau(gh)ter wei(gh), nei(gh)bour, strai(gh)t The hi(gh) and mi(gh)ty were not in si(gh)t that night. I cau(gh)t some sa(l)mon and brou(gh)t them strai(gh)t to my dau(gh)ter. My nei(gh)bour asked me how much I wei(gh)ed. h: (h)onest, (h)our, (h)onour, (h)eir "I'll be back in an (h)our," said the (h)eiress. But it was not an (h)onest or an (h)onourable ans(w)er. k: (k)nife, (k)now, (k)nock, (k)not, (k)nee, (k)nuckle, (k)nickers Did you know she has a (k)nife in her (k)nickers which could damage your (k)nuckles or your (k)nees? l: sa(l)mon, ca(l)m, wou(l)d, cou(l)d, shou(l)d, wa(l)k, ta(l)k, ha(l)f He cou(l)d wa(l)k for ha(l)f a mile and ta(l)k ca(l)mly about sa(l)monella poisoning for an (h)our and a half. n: autum(n), dam(n), hym(n), gover(n)ment He (w)rote a dam(n)ing report about the gover(n)ment's handling of the sa(l)monella crisis. Click here to listen to these words

p: cu(p)board, (p)sychiatry/(p)sychology, (p)sychotherapy, (p)neumonia/(p)neumatic The (p)sychiatrist recommended (p)sychotherapy. "There's no med(i)cine in your cu(p)board will help you," she said. "Save that for (p)neumonia." s: i(s)land, i(s)les

Ireland is an i(s)and. The British I(s)les are not part of Ireland. t: lis(t)en, fas(t)en, of(t)en, whis(t)le, cas(t)le, Chris(t)mas Fas(t)en you sea(t) belts. How of(t)en do I have to say that? I can see you're not lis(t)ening when you're whis(t)ling. w: ans(w)er, (w)rite, (w)rong, (w)ring, (w)rinkle, (w)rist, (w)retched, (w)restler I feel (w)retched," said the (w)restler. "My (w)rist is all (w)rinkled. I can't (w)rite and who wou(l)d want to wrest(l)e with me now?"

'ITS' AND 'ONE'S'

Yong Kah Choon from Malaysia writes: When referring to the possessive, I didnt know that its and ones are spelt in a different way, its without the apostrophe and ones with the apostrophe. Please explain more. Roger replies: more questions

Its is a possessive like my, your, his, her, our and their and you are quite right, it is very important not to insert an apostrophe when using it in this way. Its is the neutral equivalent of his and her. Study the following: 'Every country has its own customs and traditions.' 'It was a Manx cat and its tail was therefore very short.' 'Its coat was very thick.'

'Mary had a little lamb. Its fleece was [as] white as snow. And everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go.' (Trad. English nursery rhyme)

It is important not to confuse its with its. Its is the contracted form of it is or it has and usage is, of course, completely different. Study the following four examples. See if you can work out in which of them its is the contracted form of it is and in which of them its is the contracted form of it has. 'Whats the time?' 'Its a quarter to nine.' 'Its time for you to go to bed!' 'Whos that over there?' 'I dont believe it. Its Prince William!' 'Hows the condition of the man injured in the car crash?' 'Its improving all the time.' 'Have you seen my watch? Its disappeared from the bathroom. Its got a bright yellow strap.' (Its only in the fourth example above that its is the contracted form of it has.)

Ones is also a possessive determiner like your and is used to talk about people in general. Ones is more formal than your. Compare the following: 'A home of ones own is what most people aspire to.' 'You always want the best for your children thats only natural.' Note that one and you are similarly formal/informal: 'You cant learn a foreign language in four or six weeks. Its impossible.' 'If one wishes to perfect ones English, one has only to go to a country where it is spoken.

Finally note that one and ones (this time without the apostrophe) are sometimes used as substitute words, i.e. we use them rather than repeating countable nouns. In this aspect, ones is also possible when it is the contracted form of one is. Study the following: 'Could I try on those shoes?' 'Which ones?' 'The ones in the window at the front on the left.' 'There are so many children in this photo. Which one is your daughter?' 'The one in the blue dress.' 'I really like these sweaters, but do you have any other sizes? This ones too small and that ones too big.

PUNCTUATION: WHEN TO USE COMMAS, SEMI-COLONS AND COLONS

Hany rengier from Germany asks: In the German language, we put the comma before the relative pronoun. Does that apply to the English language? What about the semi-colon and colon and their usage? I always seem to get mixed up between German and English punctuation rules. Could you help me in this matter before I lose my mind?

Roger replies: more questions

Commas

1. Commas are used before the relative pronouns which or who only in non-identifying relative clauses where the information given is clearly extra to that given in the main clause. In identifying relative clauses, where the clauses are a necessary part of the nouns they describe, they are not used. Compare: 'Sarah, who came on holiday with me to Switzerland last summer, is going to study anthropology at the University of Manchester.' 'This book, which was discovered in the ruins of a farmhouse in Wales, is over four hundred years old.' 'The boy who introduced me to the man I married has now married my cousin.' 'The book that he discovered in the farmhouse in Wales is now worth a lot of money.' 2. I think I remember that in reported speech in German, commas are used before noun clauses that begin with that, what, where, when, etc. In English they are not: 'I had no idea where to find the Ministry of Sound nightclub.' 'Let me know what you plan to do when you get to London.' 'I wondered whether I would get an invitation to Hugo and Sallys wedding.' 'He maintained that he was innocent, but I knew that he was guilty.' Note that co-ordinate clauses connected with and, but or or (see above) are usually separated by commas. 3. In conditional sentences, they are used after the if clause when the subordinate clause comes first, but if it comes second, they are not always used. Compare: 'If Henry rings, tell him Im not at home.' 'I decided I would not answer the phone if he rang.' 4. They are used to separate items in a list, but not between the last two items: 'As a student, I am always short of money, so when I go to the supermarket, I can never afford to buy mangoes, grapefruit, steak, veal, ice cream or ready-made meals.' 5. Adverbial clauses, phrases and expressions are separated by commas, particularly when they are placed at the beginning of sentences. As is the case in all of these examples, they reflect pauses in speech: 'Easter week, as everybody knows, changes from year to year. This year it is very late.' 'In my view, he is innocent. However, in the jurys opinion, he is guilty.'

Semi-colons 1. Where the meaning is closely connected, we can use semi-colons to link two ideas together as an alternative to full stops: 'Some people like to get up early in the morning and get going; others are unable to do anything before nine or ten o clock.' 2. Like commas, semi-colons are also used to separate items on a list and are preferred to commas when the items are more grammatically complex: 'You can use our flat at the seaside as long as you observe the following: you do not play loud music late at night; you remember to lock up whenever you leave; you clean up every morning before you go out; you replace any items that you break or damage.'

Colons 1. As we saw in the last example, colons can be used before a list. 2. Colons can be used to introduce quotations or direct speech: 'In the words of Whitney Houston: "Im every woman!"' 'Speaking to the entire nation on the radio, the Prime Minister began his address by saying: "More than fifty million people are now affected by the drought..

HOLD OR KEEP?

Jana from the Czech Republic writes: Can you please explain to me the different uses of keep and hold?

I know there are some phrases where I must use keep and some where I must use hold but sometimes I don't know which one I should use. Roger Woodham replies:

HOLD OR KEEP
We use the verbs hold and keep in many different ways and with many different meanings. Only when the meaning is to prevent something from moving can they be used interchangeably: Hold / keep the ruler steady so that I can draw a straight line. Keep / hold still while I put this necklace on you. Her talk was so boring that she was unable to hold / keep my attention. This is a firm arrangement which cannot be changed. I'll hold / keep you to this. We also keep or hold data and records: He kept / held all his data on a hard disk. For tax purposes, you do not need to hold / keep financial records for more than five years. But you can only hold records in sport, etc, you do not keep them: John Lees from the UK holds the record for the fastest walk across America - 2628 km in 53 days 12 hours 15 minutes between 11 April (the eleventh of April) and 3 June (the third of June). hold on to = keep You can see from the above example that one of the slight differences in meaning is that hold sometimes suggests something temporary while keep may suggest something more permanent. There is a similar distinction between hold on to and keep, meaning not to lose: Can you hold on to these CDs for me while I'm away? Hold on to the instructions so that you know what to do if something goes wrong. Keep the instructions safely somewhere in case something goes wrong.

HOLD SOMEBODY UP = KEEP

The phrasal verb hold somebody up, meaning delay, can also be used as an alternative to keep with this meaning: I don't want to hold you up / keep you, but could I just have a word? hold = carry / put arms around / contain / organise event When hold means to carry, or to put ones arms around or to contain or to organise an event, we cannot substitute keep in its place: Can you hold my books for me while I look for my mobile phone? He held her tightly and hoped that she would stop crying soon. Old Trafford, the home of Man U, holds 67,000 spectators while Highbury, the home of their main rivals, Arsenal, holds only half that amount. I plan to hold a meeting soon to see if we can increase profitability. Referendums have been held in all central European countries in connection with EU membership.

KEEP = CONTINUE / STORE / STAY IN GOOD CONDITION

When keep means any of these, we cannot substitute hold in its place. When keep means continue, note that it may be followed either by verb-ing or by the preposition on + verbing: Don't turn left or right, just keep right on till the end of the road. You must keep taking the medication until you are quite better. I kept (on) reminding him that he should take my advice, but he ignored me. Where do you keep the keys to the shed? I can't find them. Let's buy two kilos of peaches now. They'll keep in the fridge for about two weeks If you want to keep fit, eat plenty of fruit! We also keep secrets and promises and you keep your word. You do not hold them: Can you keep a secret? Jane's going to have a baby.

He failed to keep his promise / his word and told everybody about it.

TOLD OR ASKED?

Somanath from India writes: Which of the following is correct usage: Please ask him to call me back. Please tell him to call me back. Roger Woodham replies:

TELL OR ASK?
In your example, Somanath, there is very little difference in usage and both are, of course, correct. You might argue that ask is more polite as asking for something is the same as requesting it, whereas telling someone to do something is the same as instructing or ordering them, but in this example either is appropriate. In the following example too, you can use either tell or ask: Why don't you come round at about eight for a bite to eat? ~ I told them to come round at eight for something to eat. ~ I asked them to come round at eight for something to eat But sometimes we need to use tell when the meaning is more explicitly instruct and ask when the meaning is more explicitly request. Compare the following: Be careful not to dive too close to the rocks. ~ I told them not to dive too close to the rocks.

Don't drink water from the stream. It's polluted. ~ I told her not to drink water from the stream. It's not clean. Can you show me how to operate this computer? ~ I asked her to show me how to operate the office computer. Would you let me know when Tony arrives? ~ I've asked him to let me know when Tony arrives.

VERB + OBJECT + TO + INFINITIVE

In English, there are a wide variety of verbs that have to do with requests, advice and instructions that follow the verb + object + to + infinitive pattern: advise beg encourage get instruct invite order persuade remind warn Note the difference in meaning in these examples of use: I always advise my students to have a good night's sleep before an exam. I begged her to let me see John before he left, but she refused. He's got a keyboard exam coming up soon, so I try to encourage him to practice for half an hour every day. She's not in the office at the moment, but I'll get her to phone you as soon as she gets in. When I instructed them to stop writing and put their pencils down, they just carried on as if they hadn't heard me. I'm going to invite my Chinese friend to spend Christmas with us. The gunman ordered the women to get out of the car. I can't persuade my son to have regular dental check-ups and dental care is so important.

She reminded me to cancel the newspapers before I left on holiday. I have warned them not to swim in the sea when the red flag is flying, but they take no notice.

TELL + OBJECT + THAT-CLAUSE

Note that we also use tell with a that-clause as well as with the to-infinitive pattern. Note the difference usage in this example. I've told my wife that I shan't be home for dinner this evening. I've told my wife not to expect me home for dinner this evening.

ASK + IF-CLAUSE / WH-CLAUSE

Note that we also use ask with an if- or a wh-clause when we are reporting yes/noquestions and wh-questions: Can I go home now? I've finished all the work you've given me. ~ I asked my boss if I could go home as I had finished all the work he had given me. But he said, no, I couldn't! What sort of food would you like me to prepare for the party on Saturday? ~ I asked them what sort of food they wanted for the party on Saturday When would you like to have it delivered? ~ I asked them when they wanted to have it delivered. Let me know by lunchtime on Friday. ~ I asked them to let me know by midday on Friday. Where do you keep your jewellery? ~ I asked where she kept her jewellery, but she wouldn't tell me where.

EXPRESSING VIEWS AND OPINIONS

Knut Striak from Germany writes: Would you accept the phrase: in his point of view? I would prefer to say: according to his point of view. Roger Woodham replies:

IN MY VIEW / OPINION
I think we would normally drop point of and simply say in his view (in my view / in their opinion / etc): In my view, birds should not be kept in cages. How important is it, in your view, that the twins should stay together? ~ In my opinion, it's very important. If we want to use point of view, I think we would more often say from my point of view rather than according to my point of view. Both these expressions emphasise the position or angle you are judging the situation from: From my point of view it makes no difference whether you return on Saturday night or Sunday morning. From a political point of view, the agreement of the UN is extremely important. From the point of view of safety, always wear a helmet when you are on the building site.

TO MY MIND / ETC

In my view, from my point of view, in my opinion are all fairly formal ways of expressing your opinion characteristic of written English. Less formal equivalents more characteristic of spoken English, include the following: to my mind: to emphasise that this is your opinion reckon: usually to express an opinion about what Is likely to happen feel: to express a strong personal opinion if you ask me: to express an opinion that may be critical to be honest (with you): to express a critical opinion without seeming rude as far as I'm concerned: to express an opinion that may be different from others' To my mind the quality of their football is just not good enough. I reckon it'll rain later today. Let's go tomorrow. I feel she shouldn't be getting married so young. If you ask me, it's unreasonable to pay for something which should be free. To be honest (with you), I'm surprised you got into university with such low grades. As far as I'm concerned, the matter is over and done with and we can now move forward.

ACADEMIC WRITING AND EXPRESSING OPINIONS

If you are required to write an academic essay in which you are asked to express an opinion (see below), useful alternatives to in my view include: I think that It seems to me that I would argue that I do not believe that I am unconvinced that I do not agree that How acceptable is it for wild animals to be kept in zoos?

I believe that it is quite unacceptable for animals to be kept in zoos. It seems to me that when they are confined to a cage they never have enough room to move around. I would argue that it is kinder to allow a rare animal to die naturally in the wilds rather than to prolong its life artificially in a zoo.

making concessions To achieve balance in any essay, it may be useful to incorporate opinions that are different from your own. Useful linking words and expressions include: Of course, many / some people argue It is sometimes argued Admittedly While It is sometimes argued that it is possible for conditions in the zoo to replicate the wild animal's natural habitat. While this may be feasible for smaller reptiles, it will never be possible, in my view, for the larger mammals which needs acres of space to roam around in. clarifying an opinion It may sometimes be necessary to explain a thought in greater detail. Useful linking expressions for doing this include: By this I mean Here I'm referring to To be more precise That is to say By spending money on confining wild animals to zoos, we are wasting resources. By this I mean there are more urgent economic problems to deal with: hospitals and schools should be our first priority.

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