Review - Linear Systems

Shift Invariant Systems

y(t) =

h(t )x( )d h(t)

= x(t)

Output is convolution of input x(t) and impulse response function h(t)

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Fourier Transform

Fourier transform X(f ) =

x(t)ej2f t dt. Period T and frequency f

ej2f t = cos(2f t) + j sin(2f t) 1 1 d(t) f= = T 2 dt

where (t) = 2f t = t. Inverse Fourier transform

x(t) =

X(f )ej2f t df.

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Example -Rect and Sinc Functions

rect
T

Dene rect function t T 8 < 1, = : 0, t < T t>

1 2 1 2

where T is the width of the pulse. Then X(f )

= = = sin(f T ) f T AT sinc(f T ) AT

x(t)ej2f t dt

where the sinc function is dened as sinc(x) = sin(x) x

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Symmetry Properties

If x(t) is real, then X(f ) = Xr (f ) + jXi (f ) and

X(f ) = X (f ) Xr (f ) = Xr (f ) |X(f )| = |X(f )| Xi (f ) = Xi (f )

(f ) = (f )

(f ) = arg X(f ) = tan1

where |X(f )| =

Xr (f )2 + Xi (f )2 is the magnitude
Xi (f ) Xr (f )

is the phase.

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Complex Analytic Signals

For x(t) real dene new frequency function Z(f ) 2X(f ) for f > 0 Z(f ) = X(0) for f = 0 0 for f < 0

One sided frequency function No loss of information about x(t)

Inverse transform of Z(f ) is z(t) and is called complex analytic signal

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Complex Analytic Signals-cont.

1 (z(t) + z (t)) x(t) = 2 = Re{z(t)}

Using X(f ) = X (f ), z(t) and x(t) are related by

For example if x(t) = cos(2f t), then z(t) = ej2f t = cos(2f t) + j sin(2f t).

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Eigenfunctions (Modes) of Linear Systems

Letting x(t) = ej2f t . Output y(t) is convolution

y(t) =

h( )ej2f (t ) d h( )ej2f d
j2f t

= ej2f t = H(f )e

where H(f ) is the Fourier transform of h(t).

Output is a scaled version of the input that maintains the same functional form

ej2f t is an eigenfunction or mode

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Eigenfunctions -cont.

The function H(f ) is called the transfer function

For each frequency f0 , the value H(f0 ) is the eigenvalue of the system at f0 .

The output y(t) is then a superposition of the input with the each eigenfunction ej2f t weighted by the corresponding eigenvalue H(f )

y(t) =

X(f )H(f )ej2f t df.

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Time and Frequency Representations

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Bandwidth &Timewidth

Bandwidth is a single number used to represent an entire function (often H(f ))

Multiple denitions
1 2

Half-power or -3 dB dened by |H(f )|2 =

Full Width Half Maximum (FWHM) dened as full width of funtion at half max

Root Mean Square (RMS) width

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RMS Timewidth

Dene centroid of a function mt =

1 Ah Z t h(t)dt

where Ah is the area of h(t).

RMS timewidth t is then

2 t

1 Ah Z

(t mt )2 h(t)dt

2 where t is dened as the time variance .

Expanding the square and simplifying yields

2 t

t2 h(t)dt m2 . t

1 Ah

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RMS width - cont.

RMS works well for non-negative functions

When the concept of RMS width is valid, variance of the 2 2 output, y , is the sum of the input variance x and the 2 impulse response variance h
2 2 2 x + h = y .

This equation states that the RMS widths of any linear system with nonnegative input and impulse response add in quadrature.

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Quadrature Rule Figure

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Gaussian Pulses
x(t) = e
t2 /2 2

Gaussian pulse .

is the RMS width of this pulse.

Transform pairs for circular and radian frequency t2 /2 2 2 2 2 f 2 2e e 2 2 /2 2e

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Reciprocal Scaling of Gaussian Pulses

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Random Signals

Two fundmental sources of randomness 1) Random nature of information to be sent 2) Random uctuation of optical elds, voltages (noise)

Wide variety of statistical properties of optical sources

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Random Optical Signals

U (r, t) = p I(r, t)ej[0 t+(r,t)]

Dene a complex optical eld U (r, t)

The quantity I(r, t) is the intensity (W/m2 ).

Optical sensors only respond to slowly-varying changes with respect to carrier frequency 0 . p The baseband optical eld I(r, t)ej(r,t) is the narrowband low-pass equivalent of the real eld.

The baseband signal It contains random components from data that we wish to transmit as well as noise uctuations.

Both the amplitude and the phase affected by the noise.

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Demodulated Electrical Signal

Demodulated electrical signal at the output of the optical sensor s(t) = RPo = R |U (r, t)|2 dA A

where A is the area of the sensor, Po is the total optical power

R is a scaling factor called the responsivity of the sensor.

Demodulation introduces - shot noise

The responsivity is average of the conversion process.

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Electrical and Optical Power

Electrical signal s(t) is proportional to the optical power Po . The electrical power P is proportional to s2 (t) and thus
2 P C Po .

where C depends on modulation.

Must be careful in specifying signal and noise power.

Default units will be electrical, many references use optical units.

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Coherence Function
r( ) = U (t)U (t + ) .

First-order coherence function of the eld r( ) at r

If the optical eld is ergodic, then

T

1 r( ) = 2T
T

U (t)U (t + )dt.

T (T

1/fc where fc = c /(2) (T 1014 sec), and 1/fmax ) where fmax is the max of s(t).

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Autocorrelation Function

Autocorrelation function of the eld R( ) is spatial integration over sensor area R( ) =

A

U (r, t)U (r, t + ) dA.

From the denition of r( ) r(0) = I R(0) = Po

Coherence (autocorrelation) function is conjugate symmetric.

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Intensity Coherence and Electrical Autocorrelation

The intensity coherence function or the second-order coherence is dened as rI ( ) = I(t)I(t + )

Associated optical power autocorrelation or electrical autocorrelation function is I(t)I(t + ) dA

A

Re = R 2

= R2 Po (t)Po (t + ) = s(t)s(t + )

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Power Spectral Density

The power spectral density is the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function S2 (f )

(1)

where S2 (f ) denotes a two-sided power spectral density. The units of S are Watts per Hertz.

The one-sided power spectral density S(f ) is related to the two-sided density by S(f ) = 2S2 (f ) where S(f ) is dened only for f > 0.

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Power Spectral Density-cont.

The relationship between the optical power and the one-sided power spectral density is given by

Po = S(f )df
0

If the power spectrum S(f ) is normalized by the total power Po , then it can be interpreted as a probability density function of the random frequency components in the signal.

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Power Response of Linear Systems

When a random signal with a one-sided power spectral density Si is input to a system with a transfer function H(f ), the output power spectral density is related to the input by the following expression So (f ) = Si (f )|H(f )|2 .

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Coherence Time, Bandwidth and Wavelength Width

Coherence time c is the width of coherence r( ) (autocorrelation R( )) function

Bandwidth f is width of S(f )

1 c

f = Exact if use , gaussian functions, and RMS widths

Conversion between frequency and wavelength functions is accomplished using the differential relationship S ()d = S(f )df.

Taking the derivative of each side and neglecting the sign (because we are only interested in the widths) yields f = . Noting that f = c0 , we can write f f = c0 . 2

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