2012

DURGAPUR PROJECTS LIMITED

PRESENTED BY: students of TECHNO INDIA COLLEGE OF

TECHNOLOGY,RAJARHAT.

SWARUP MONDAL ARNAB MISRA ANIRBAN SOM AVIK HAZRA TANMOY SAHA HIMADRI SEKHAR BHATTACHARYYA

[VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROJECT]

A SUMMARY TO HAVE BRIEF IDEA ABOUT A THERMAL POWER PLANT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We,the students of Techno India College Of Technology,Rajarhat (Stream:EE,2
Year) owe our earnest gratitude to the various respected engineers, senior managers and technicians of The Durgapur Projects Limited for the immense support they have rendered us during the tenure of our vocational training at DPL from 18.06.2012 to . We have been nicely presented an overview of the mechanical (i.e steam generation and turbine rotation part)as well as the electrical (generation, transmission and distribution) portion related to this power plant. We have drawn references from books like Ashfaq Husain, P.S Bhimra and also from the Internet to prepare this project. We are specially thankful to the under mentioned faculty/staff of DPL for dealing with us patiently and politely, taking time out of their busy schedule, and enlightening us about the different aspects of this power plant.
nd

1. Mr. Anup Kumar Ghoshal (Training Officer,DPL) 2. Mr. A.K Bhattacharya (Training Co-ordinator) 3. Mr. Partha Roy (DGM,(E)) 4. Mr. K.S Khara (Sr. Manager, (E)) 5. Mr. Susmit Roy (DGM, ALDC) 6. Mr. Swapan Kumar Pal (Asst. Manager, (E)) 7. Mr. Gautam Ghosh (Sr.Manager (T)) 8. Mr Sujit Malakar (Asst.Manager (E) ) 9. Mr B.K Jash 10. Mr. Biswanath Chattopadhyay (SOA/STA)

INDEX
1) OBJECTIVE OF VOCATIONAL TRANNING 2) INTRODUCTION 3) TABLE OF DIFFERENT UNITS OF DPL 4) PRESENT CONDITION OF THE UNITS 5) WATER CIRCUIT a) CONDENSATE CYCLE b) FEED CYCLE 4) STEAM PATH 5) FLUE GAS CIRCUIT 6) COAL AND ASH CIRCUIT 7) SEAL AIR FAN 8) BOILER DRUM 9) COOLING WATER CIRCUIT 10) FEATURES OF TWO MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS a) GOVERNER b) TURBINE 11) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REACTION & IMPULSE TURBINE 12) BABBITT 13) MICROSTRUCTURE OF BABBITT 14) CATENARY & COMPOUNDING 15) FUNCTION OF PRIMARY OIL PRESSURE

INDEX
16) EXCITER 17) ALTERNATORS 18) MOTORING 19) TRANSFORMER 20) AUTO TRANSFORMERS 21) SWITCHGEAR a) CIRCUIT BREAKERS b) BREAKER RATINGS c) ISOLATER d) LIGHTNING ARRESTER e) RELAY CIRCUIT f) TYPES OF RELAY & OPERATION g) POLE N THROW h) BUS i) C.T j) P.T 22) INDUCTION MOTOR 23) PROTECTION

OBJECTIVE OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING

1. Introduction The objectives of Vocational Education System in the context of fulfillment of national goal are to train the students for employment in the growing sectors of economy both organized and unorganized, to provide an alternative channel for higher education and to prepare students for self-reliance and gainful employment. There has been a great improvement in the demand for computer professionals during the past few years. 2. Course Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To develop professional competence in the use of computers and related hardware equipment programming skills and To train the students to acquire skills and mastery in the use and development of different software. To prepare for self and wage employment.

3. Skills 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Skills to operate different hardware devices. Skills in maintenance procedures. Skills in configuring the system software and installation procedures. Skills in using specific packages and Languages. Skills in programming techniques and data processing.

4. Job Opportunities (a) Wage Employment: Junior Programmer Computer operator Computer Instructor Computerized Accounts Assistant

(b) Self Employment: 1. DTP operator. 2. Internet and E-mail center maintenance 3. Maintaining and establishment of small networks

INTRODUCTION

The Durgapur Projects Ltd (DPL), a five-decade-old multi-utility growth propeller, is one of the major planks of expansion and prosperity of West Bengal's industrial belt Durgapur. The Durgapur Projects Ltd was incorporated on 6th September, 1961 and consists of Coke Oven Batteries, Bye-products Plant, Gas Grid Project, Thermal Power Plant and Water Works. It is under the administrative control of the Department of Power and Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of West Bengal. The Durgapur Projects Ltd is the first undertaking of the State Government which has been engaged in development of infrastructure for Industries and was given the stature of an Industry for Industries. Its main objective was to promote development of various large, medium and small scale industries in and around Durgapur and also at other places within the State. Primarily a power utility organization but it has already made a mark in the market also as a manufacturer of world standard coke for various metallurgical applications. It also produces coke oven gas, which is being supplied to the neighbouring industries. It produces another by-product, namely, crude coal tar. It has rich human resources of 550 highly skilled engineers and professionals besides around 3500 work force under the control and guidance of a 8-member Board of Directors. DPL today is a renovated and upgraded power utility. A total of seven units of different capacities have an aggregate 701-mega watt of installed capacity out of which 2X30 mega watt units have been decommissioned reducing the aggregate installed capacity to 641 mega watt. After fulfilling total requirement of its command area customers, DPL surplus power goes to the West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Company Ltd (WBSEDCL). Environment is a key concern to the DPL authorities. The Environment laboratory is equipped with bacteriological testing kits, ambient air quality testing instruments, stack monitoring instruments, gas analyzers etc. On 6th of September 2011, The Durgapur Projects Limited celebrated its Golden Jubilee. On this auspicious occasion we remember our respected Ex Chief Minister Late Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy. Bidhan Roy is often considered the great architect of West Bengal, who founded the Industrial City of Durgapur.

TABLE OF DIFFERENT UNITS:-

UNITS

UNIT-1

UNIT-2

UNIT-3

UNIT-4

UNIT-5

UNIT6 110

UNIT-7

CAPACITY (MW)

30 (De commissioned ) SEIMENS

30 (De commissioned ) SEIMENS

77

77

77

300

GENERATOR MAKER NO. OF BOILER BOILER MAKER COAL I/P(MT/D)

SEIMENS

SEIMENS

SEIMENS

BHEL

DANG FANG 1

B&W (UK) 504

B&W (UK) 504

B&W (UK) 1260

B&W (UK) 1260

MITSUBISHI

ABL

DANG FANG 4882

1293

1848

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE UNITS:-

At present unit 1 & 2 are decommissioned due to back dated infrastructure while unit 3,4,5,6&7 are running; unit 8 is under construction

THE DIFFERENT PLANT OPERATIONAL CIRCUITS ARE:

1) WATER CIRCUIT It is subdivided into condensate cycle and feed cycle A) CONDENSATE CYCLE: There are 5 extractions from the turbine. At each extraction steam has a different pressure and temperature. This is done in order to reduce the burden on the condenser. The condensate cycle comprise of: (i)CONDENSER: After taking the required work from steam it is condensed. This is done with the help of ejector. Initially vacuum is created in the condenser by ejector where steam is used to create vacuum (take out air). Then vacuum is maintained by two main ejectors. The steam is condensed by the cross flow of normal water.

The adjacent diagram depicts a typical water-cooled surface condenser as used in power stations to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine driving an electrical generator as well in other applications. There are many fabrication design variations depending on the manufacturer, the size of the steam turbine, and other sitespecific conditions.
Fig : condenser

The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes. The shell is fabricated from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to provide rigidity for the shell. At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In some designs, a sump (often referred to as the hot well) is provided. Condensate is pumped from the outlet or the hot well for reuse as boiler feed water

For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to remove any noncondensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The Venturi effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation of steam jet ejectors.

(ii) HOTWELL: After condensation water is collected in the hot well at a temperature of about 45C. (iii) CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP : They pump the water from hot well to the de-aerator. In the path the water is heated up in stages. For this there is chimney steam cooler ( the heat evolved in cooling process is utilized to heat up the water), gland steam cooler, sludge cooler, vacuum heater(the extraction done at vacuum pressure is used) and LP heater.

Fig : condensate extraction pump

(iv) DE-AERATOR: It is used to remove oxygen from water thermally, mechanically and chemically. Mechanically water is sprayed in the de-aerator, which causes oxygen gas to evolve due to decrease in partial pressure. Chemically: N2H4 + H2O ->NH3+O2+H2 O

Fig : de-aerator pressure control

(B) FEED CYCLE: It comprise of the following:

1. BOILER FEED PUMP: It is placed at a height lower than the feed tank to get a net positive suction head in order to prevent cavitations which can cause the pump to fail to raise the water up to the height of the boiler drum, the BFP is maintained at a pressure of around 115 kg/cm2. 2. HIGH PRESSURE HEATER

3.ECONOMISER: In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and

improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to fill it (the feed water).The first successful economizer design was used to increase the steam-raising efficiency of the boilers of stationary steam engines It consisted of an array of vertical cast iron tubes connected to a tank of water above and below, between which the boiler's exhaust gases passed. This is the reverse arrangement to that usually but not always seen in the fire tubes of a boiler; there the hot gases usually pass through tubes immersed in water, whereas in an economizer the water passes through tubes surrounded by hot gases. The water circulation between down comer and riser is natural due to density difference. Down comer has100% water whereas riser has 20% steam and rest is water. Drum level is at zero i.e. in the middle when feed water flow equals steam flow. If steam flow increases then drum level also rises. After a certain rise of the drum level ,turbine trips because then the steam entering the turbine will be accompanied with moisture (causing damage to the turbine). If drum level decreases beyond a limit then boiler trips. This is because insufficient water in the water tubes will cause excess heating, as a result tubes will damage.

Fig : boiler tubes

2) STEAM PATH: The steam from the boiler is saturated steam. It is not devoid of moisture. This steam passes through platant super heater. It is in the radiant zone. This steam then moves to primary super heater and finally to secondary super heater. Between primary and secondary super heater lies the attemperator. In the attemperator, steam temperature is controlled by use of water spray. Primary and secondary superheaters lie in the convection zone. After passing through the superheaters the saturated steam becomes dry saturated steam. Now the steam enters turbine. For Units 6 & 7 reheater is also present which increases the temperature of H.P turbine outlet before the steam enters L.P turbine. i)SUPERHEATER: Fossil fuel power plants can have a superheater and/or re-heater section in the steam generating furnace. In a fossil fuel plant, after the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the super heater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapour picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is low.

Fig: de-superheater and superheater

ii)REHEATER: Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is passed through these heated tubes to collect more energy superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine. Before driving the intermediate and then low pressure turbines.

Fig : reheater

3) FLUE GAS CIRCUIT: The flue gas circuit starts from the furnace and ends at the chimney. The flue gas is used to heat various parts , mainly the down comer and riser tubes that contain water. Thus the heat of the flue gas provides the heat for steam generation simultaneously for air and water preheating, superheating, reheating etc. The main object of the flue gas circuit is to reduce the amount of heat lost via the flue gases by utilizing the heat carried by them at various steps in different devices. The various elements involved in the circuit are discussed next. a) FURNACE: This is the place where the coal gets burnt in the presence of air to produce hot flue gasses. The air and coal dust mixture reaches the furnace simultaneously. It is made up of cold water wall of carbon steel by fusion welded plate to form a complete gas tight steel. Furnaces may be front fired or corner fired accordingly as the burners are located at one side or at the corner of the furnace. Units 1 to 4 and 6 are front fired while units 5 and 7 are corner fired. The furnace also contains mechanical steam sprayers called soot blowers which clear the soot layer from on the furnace wall. Initially, when firing up the boiler unit ,oil is used as starting fuel. The oil used is either the heavy Furnace oil(F.O.) or the Light Diesel Oil (LDO).LDO is costlier than F.O. Steam is used to atomize the oil and then is ignited by the Pilot Torch controlled by the Burner Management System(BMS).Once the firing up is completed the temperature reaches the ignition temperature of the coal. At this temperature(=10500c),the coal + air mixture is instantly burnt to produce the fuel gas comprising of mainly Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen,

Oxygen, Moisture, etc. From the furnace, the flue gases then rise up and flow through the goose-neck and over many components rejecting heat to them and finally passing out through the chimney. b) INDUCED DRAUGHT (I.D.) FAN: The induced draught fans are used to provide the pressure gradient required to remove the flue gasses from the furnace and hence it must create a negative pressure within the furnace. In unit 4 there are two I.D. fans. The I.D. fans send the flue gasses to the chimney. c) CHIMNEY: The chimney produces a natural draught, chimneys alone do not suffice the rate of removal of flue gases required. So, I.D fans are used to assist in producing the Draught. Higher the chimney, more the Draught produced.

Fig : chimney

4) COAL AND ASH CIRCUIT: This circuit deals with the coal that is used as fuel and the waste ash which is required to be disposed of in a proper manner. The selection of coal for a power plant depends on a no. of factors such as calorific value, weather ability, sulphur content, ash content, particle size, grindability index and caking characterics.

The general specification of coal that is used as follows:

ITEMS Fixed Carbon (F.C.) Inherent Moisture (I.M.) Ash Volatile Materials(V.M.) Sulphur Density Calorific Value(C.V)

QUANTITY 18.46-27.49% 13-16% 42-46% 16.9-17.14% .34-.41% 800Kg/m3 2700-3200Kcal/Kg

a) COAL STORAGE: The coal comes from different coal supply organisations like ECL,BCCl and Rajmahal coalfiled via the railway and is stored at the coal handling plant.From there the coal is sent to the coal mills using the conveyor belts. b) COAL MILLS: The coal mills are used to pulverize the coal.Coal is pulverized to increase its surface area to facilitate rapid combustion.Pulverization is done by grinding in the mills.Different types of mills available are i)ball mill,ii)hammer mill,iii)ball and race mill,iv)bowl mill. Here,ball and race mills are used.This type of mill has large heavy balls rolling within a race.

Fig: bearing ball

The coal that enters gets grinded and crushed due to rolling of balls on them.

The advantages of pulverizing are: Its becomes easy to burn a wide variety of coal.Low grade coal can be burnt easily. Powdered coal has greater surface area for which rate of combustion is high. Pulverized coal requires low percentage of excess air. The system is free from clinker troubles. By using pulverized coal,rate of combustion can be adjusted easily to meet the varying loads. However,certain disadvantages faced are: It requires additional equipment to pulverise the coal.The initial maintenance cost of the equipment is high. Pulverised coal firing produces fly ash(fine dust) which requires a separate fly ash removal equipment. The flame temperatures are high and conventional types of refractory lined furnaces are inadequate. The chances of explosion are increased.

Fig : conveyor belt

c) COAL FEEDER: The coal mills are used to pulverise the coal.However, they do not control the amount of coal going into the furnace.The coal feeder is a device that controls the amount of coal entering the furnace.The feeder has a motor controlled chain drive,the speed of which controls the amount of coal entering.From the coal feeder the coal is taken to the furnace using the hot air from the Primary Air Fan through coal pipes. 5) SEAL AIR FAN: These fans provide air to seal the mill bearings, coal feeders and coal pipes. Speed depends on type of arrangement and fans.The Ash Circuit starts next from the furnace.It comprises the bottom ash and fly ash handling systems. Ash handling involves: o Removal of ash from furnace ash hoppers o Transfer of this ash to a fill or storage o Disposal of stored ash 5) BOILER DRUM: The boiler drum is the place where the steam generation takes place.The drum is placed at the highest point of the furnace.When the feedwater enters the boiler drum it heats the cyclotron separator which separate the dissolved steam within the water,if any.Old boilers have a Mud drum associated with it which contains the

Fig ; boiler drum and economiser

various sediments.From the boiler,downcomer tubes come down along the sides of the furnace wall.The water in these tubes get heated up and again move upwards through riser tubes due to natural convection current.The water in these tubes is at a very high temperature and when it goes up to the boiler drum,steam gets released at the separator.Generally,half the boiler drum is filled with water,while the other half is filled with steam.Thus the water cycle ends at the boiler drum and the steam cycle begins here.Here, the boiler is made by Alstrom Boilers Limited. To start a mill, at first Seal Air Fan is started.It avoids inraise of coal dust in the bearing.Then PA fan is started.Hot primary air moves into the mill.Then mill is started and at last coal feeder is operated.All these stages are dependent on each other. COOLING WATER CIRCUIT: (i) (ii) COOLING TOWER BASIN: It receives de-mineralised water work.Water works provides the make-up water ,oil rest comes from cooling water. COLD WATER PUMP: It delivers cold water to condenser at proper pressure.

FEATURES OF TWO MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS:

(a) GOVERNER: It is a device to control the speed of the turbine within a limit to avoid damage of any moving part due to overspeed.They are of 3 types: 1. Mechanical 2.Hydraulic 3. Electrical In DPL, all are hydraulic governers, because values are operated by oil pressure.Mathematically, P N2, where P is the primary oil pressure (also called sensing oil pressure,usually 2.2Kg/cm2 at 3000rpm) and N is the speed of rotor. P 1/S, where S is the secondary oil pressure.

As speed increases P also increases,as a result S decreases .Hence secondary oil flows and governer valve closes.When N=3000 rpm,then the valves of governer closes hence speed remains constant.The speeder is operated by motor as the limiter is operated manually. (b) TURBINE: Unit 6 has perfect impulse turbine whereas units 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 & 7 are reaction turbine (50% reaction & 50% impluse). In reaction turbine, at every stage there is drop of pressure. The turbines used are axial flow, three cylinder, tandem compound and condensate type. A turbine can trip because of the following reasons:

(i) Drum level height (ii) Low vacuum (iii) High bearing temperature (iv) Lubricating oil pressure in the bearing is low

Fig: Plant Overview of mechanical domain of DPL

Fig : main steam extractor

DIFFEENCE BETWEEN REACTION & IMPULSE TURBINE

In an impulse turbine, the water (or steam) hits the blades and continues almost straight through as in a jet engine. In a reaction turbine, the water hits a semicircular cup and is completely reversed in path, normally dropping down the center with little or no momentum left. These are rarely used with gases because of having to get the output out of the way, but they work especially well with water at lower pressure as when the dam supplying the water is not very high. Both kinds are used in various situations. In impulse turbine steam is expanded in nozzle only because blades have equal cross section area, but in case of reaction turbines, blades have diverging or converging areas so steam expansion takes place not only on nozzles but also on blades. 1) In impulse turbine the water flows through the nozzles and impinges on the buckets whereas in reaction turbine the water is guided by the guide blades to flow over the moving vanes. 2) In impulse turbine, the entire water energy is first converted into kinetic energy but there is no energy conversion in reaction turbine. 3) ) In impulse turbine the water impinges on the buckets with kinetic energy where as in reaction turbine the water glides over the moving vanes with pressure energy. 4) In impulse turbine the work is done only by the change in the kinetic energy of the jet but in reaction turbine the work is done partly by the change in the velocity head, but almost entirely by the change in pressure head. 5) In impulse turbine the pressure of flowing water remains unchanged and is equal to the atmospheric pressure but in reaction turbine the pressure of flowing water is reduced after gliding over the vanes. 6) In impulse turbine it is not essential that the wheel should run full. Moreover, there should be free access of air between the vanes and the wheel whereas it is essential that the wheel should always run full and be full of water in reaction turbine.

7) In impulse turbine the water may be admitted over a part of the circumference or over the whole circumference of the wheel but in reaction turbine the water must be admitted over the whole circumference of the wheel. 8) It is possible to regulate the flow of water without loss in impulse turbine but in reaction turbine it is not possible to regulate the flow without loss.

BABBITT
Babbitt, also called Babbitt metal or bearing metal, is any of several alloys used for the bearing surface in a plain bearing. The original Babbitt metal was invented in 1839 by Isaac Babbitt in Taunton, Massachusetts, USA. Other formulations were later developed (and Isaac Babbitt's exact formulation is not known with certainty). To deemphasize the term's eponymous character, modern writers often lowercase it (babbitt metalas with "diesel engine"). It is preferred over the term "white metal", which also refers to bearing metal, because "white metal" is an ambiguous term with various meanings. MICROSTRUCTURE OF BABBITT: Babbitt metal is most commonly used as a thin surface layer in a complex, multimetal structure, but its original use was as a cast-in-place bulk bearing material. Babbitt metal is characterized by its resistance to galling. Babbitt metal is soft and easily damaged, which suggests that it might be unsuitable for a bearing surface. However, its structure is made up of small hard crystals dispersed in a softer metal, which makes it a metal matrix composite. As the bearing wears, the softer metal erodes somewhat, which creates paths for lubricant between the hard high spots that provide the actual bearing surface. When tin is used as the softer metal, friction causes the tin to melt and function as a lubricant, which protects the bearing from wear when other lubricants are absent. There are many Babbitt alloys in addition to Babbitt's original. Some common compositions are:

90% tin, 10% copper 89% tin, 7% antimony, 4% copper 80% lead, 15% antimony, 5% tin 76% copper, 24% lead 75% lead, 10% tin 67% copper, 28% tin, 5% lead

Internal combustion motors use Babbitt metal which is primarily tin-based because it can withstand cyclic loading. Lead-based Babbitt tends to work-harden and develop cracks but it is suitable for constant-turning tools such as saw blades.

CATENARY AND COMPOUNDING

CATENARY In physics and geometry, the catenary is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in appearance to a parabola (though mathematically quite different). It also appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid -- the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings. The catenary is also called the "alysoid", "chainette",or, particularly in the material sciences, "funicular". COMPOUNDING PRESSURE COMPOUNDING Pressure compounding is the method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages rather than in a single nozzle. This method of compounding is used in Rateau and Zoelly turbines. CONSTRUCTION: The arrangement consists of a number of simple impulse turbines in series mounted on a common shaft. The exit steam from one turbine is made to enter the nozzle of the succeeding turbine. Each of the simple impulse turbines would then be termed a "stage" of the turbine. Each stage comprises its ring of nozzle and blades. The steam from the boiler passes through the first nozzle ring where its pressure drops and velocity increases. The high velocity jet steam is directed onto the first moving blades wherein nearly all of its velocity is absorbed. The steam pressure remains unaltered. The steam from the first ring of moving blades enters the second ring of

nozzles where its pressure is further reduced. The next ring of moving blades absorbs the velocity obtained from this second ring nozzle. The process is repeated in the remaining rings until the whole of the pressure has been absorbed.

EFFECT: Thus the total pressure drop of the steam does not take place in a nozzle, but is divided equally between all the nozzle rings in the arrangement. The effect of absorbing the pressure drop in stages is to reduce considerably the velocity of the steam entering the moving blades.

Fig: Diagram of a Rateau turbine

COMPOUNDING IN IMPULSE TURBINE: If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30000 rpm which is too high for practical use. It is therefore essential to

incorporate some improvements for practical use and also to achieve high performance. This is possible by making use of more than one set of nozzles, and rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. This is called compounding. Two types of compounding can be accomplished:(a) Velocity compounding(b) Pressure compounding Either of the above methods or both in combination are used to reduce the high rotational speed of the single stage turbine.

THE VELOCITY - COMPOUNDING OF THE IMPULSE TURBINE

The velocity-compounded impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the problems of a single-stage impulse turbine for use with high pressure and temperature steam. The Curtis stage turbine, as it came to be called, is composed of one stage of nozzles as the single-stage turbine, followed by two rows of moving blades instead of one. These two rows are separated by one row of fixed blades attached to the turbine stator, which has the function of redirecting the steam leaving the first row of moving blades to the second row of moving blades. A Curtis stage impulse turbine is shown in Fig with schematic pressure and absolute steam-velocity changes through the stage. In the Curtis stage, the total enthalpy drop and hence pressure drop occur in the nozzles so that the pressure remains constant in all three rows of blades. Velocity is absorbed in two stages. In fixed (static) blade passage both pressure and velocity remain constant. Fixed blades are also called guide vanes. Velocity compounded stage is also called Curtis stage. The velocity diagram of the velocitycompound Impulse turbine is shown in Figure Velocity diagrams for the VelocityCompounded Impulse turbine. The fixed blades are used to guide the outlet steam/gas from the previous stage in such a manner so as to smooth entry at the next stage is ensured. K, the blade velocity coefficient may be different in each row of blades

Work done =1End thrust =2 The optimum velocity ratio will depend on number of stages and is given by Work is not uniformly distributed (1st >2nd ) The fist stage in a large (power plant) turbine is velocity or pressure compounded impulse stage.

THE PRESSURE - COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE To alleviate the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage impulse turbine, the total enthalpy drop through the nozzles of that turbine are simply divided up, essentially in an equal manner, among many single-stage impulse turbines in series . Such a turbine is called a Rateau turbine, after its inventor.Thus the inlet steam velocities to each stage are essentially equal and due to a reduced h.

Fig ;Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine

FUNCTION OF PRIMARY OIL PRESSURE:-

Depending on the primary oil pressure the control valves present at the inlet of a steam turbine operate.The control valves control the amount of steam entering the blades of the turbine i.e,if primary oil pressure is high the control valves will allow high inrush of steam.So,by controlling the primary oil pressure we can indirectly control the rpm of the turbine.

EXCITER
INTRODUCTION All synchronous machines excepting certain machines like permanent magnet generators require a DC supply to excite their field winding. As synchronous machine is a constant speedy machine for a constant frequency supply, the output voltage of the machine depends on the excitation current. The control of excitation current for maintaining constant voltage at generator output terminals started with control through a field rheostat, the supply being obtained from DC Exciter. The modern trend in interconnected operation of power systems for the purpose of reliability and in increasing unit size of generators for the purposes of economy has been mainly, responsible for the evolution of new excitation schemes.

Fig : pilot exciter

Former practice, to have an excitation bus fed by a number of exciters operating in parallel and supplying power to the fields of all the alternators in the station, is now obsolete. The present practice is unit exciter scheme, i.e. each alternator to have its own exciter. However in some plants reserve bus exciter/stand by exciter also provided in case of failure of unit exciter should be capable of supplying necessary excitation for alternator in a reasonable period during normal and abnormal conditions, so that alternator will be in synchronism with the grid.

In DPL static exciter system is presently used for unit 3 to 7.

STATIC EXCITER STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM: In order to maintain system stability in interconnected system network it is necessary to have fast acting excitation system for large synchronous machines which means the field current must be adjusted extremely fast to the changing operational conditions. Besides maintaining the field current and steady

Fig: block diagram static exciter

state stability the excitation system is required to extend the stability limits. It is because of these reasons the static excitation system is preferred to conventional excitation systems. In this system, the AC power is tapped off from the generator terminal stepped down and rectified by fully controlled thruster Bridges and then fed to the generator field thereby controlling the generator voltage output. A high control speed is achieved by using an internal

fig : main exciter

free control and power electronic system. Any deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by an error detector and causes the voltage regulator to advance or retard the firing angle of the thyristors thereby controlling the field excitation of the alternator.In Shows a block diagram for a static excitation system. Static Excitation system can be designed without any difficulty to achieve high response ratio which is required by the system. The response ratio in the order of 3 to 5 -can be achieved by this system. This equipment controls the generator terminal voltage, and hence the reactive load flow by adjusting the excitation current. The rotating exciter is dispensed with and Transformer & silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRS) are used which directly feed the field of the Alternator. Description of Static Excitation System. Static Excitation Equipment Consist of a. Rectifier Transformer b. SCR output stage c. Excitation start up & field discharge equipment

Regulator and operational control circuits In the above 1, 2, 3 are power Circuit of Static Excitation System 4 is control Circuit of Static Excitation System.

Rectifier Transformer: The excitation power is taken from generator output and fed through the excitation (rectifier) transformer which steps down to the required voltage, for the SCR bridge and then fed through the field breaker to the generator field. The rectifier transformer used in the SEE should have high reliability as failure of this will cause shutdown of unit/power station. Dry type cast coil transformer is suitable for static excitation applications. The transformer is selected such that it supplies rated excitation current at rated voltage continuously and is capable of supplying ceiling current at the ceiling excitation for a short period of ten seconds.

SCR OUTPUT STAGE : The SCR output stage consists of a suitable number of bridges connected in parallel. Each thyristor bridge comprises of six thyristors, working as a six pulse fully controlled bridge. Current carrying capacity of each bridge depends on the rating of individual thyristor. Thyristors are designed such that their junction temperature rise is well within its specified rating. By changing the firing angle of the thyristors variable output is obtained. Each bridge is controlled by one final pulse stage and is cooled by a fan. These bridges are equipped with protection devices and failure of one bridge causes alarm. If there is a failure of one more thyristor bridges then the excitation current will be
Fig:carbon brush

limited to a predetermined value lesser than the normal current. However, failure of thethird, bridge results in tripping and rapid de-excitation of the generator. The above is applicable for 4 bridges thyristor with (n-1) principle operation.

EXCITATION START UP AND FIELD DISCHARGE EQUIPMENT: For the initial build-up of the generator voltage, a field-flashing equipment is required. The rating of this equipment depends on the no-load excitation requirement and field time constant of the generator. From the reliability point of view, provision for both the AC & DC field flashing is provided. The field breaker is selected such that it carries the full load excitation current continuously and also it breaks the max. Field current when the three phase short circuit occurs at the generator terminals. The field discharge resistor is normally of non-linear type for medium and large capacity machines i.e. voltage dependent resistor. To protect the field winding of the generator against over voltages, an over voltage protection along with a current limiting resistor is used to limit the over voltage across the

field winding. The OVP operates on the insulation break over Principle. The voltage level at which OVP should operate is selected based on insulation level of field winding of the generator.

RATINGS OF EXCITERS

FIELD EXCITATION RATING:-

UNITS

VOLTAGE(VOLT)

CURRENT(AMPS)

1&2 3 4&5 6&7

205 385 400

408 680 700

EXCITER RATING:i) UNITS 1&2 Voltages: 110 V Speed: 3000 rpm

Power: 4 KW Current: 36 A Separately Excitation: Voltage:190V

Current:1.6A

ii)

UNITS 3 , 4 & 5 (Static Exciter)

Rated Load Field Current: 700 A (DC)

Rated Load Field Voltage: 400 V (DC)

Simoreg Rated Voltage: 690 V (DC)

Simoreg Rated Current: 1000 A (DC)

Excitation Transformer: 750 KVA , 11 KV/ 500 V

iii)

UNIT 6:

Power: 660 KW

Voltage: 440 V

Current: 1500 A Separately Excitation: Voltage:

Speed: 1000 rpm

Current: 8.4 A

ALTERNATORS

Fig : unit 5

INTRODUCTION An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature but occasionally, a rotating armature is used with a stationary magnetic field; or a linear alternator is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbine is are called turbo-alternators.

OPERATION Alternators generate electricity using the same principle as DC generators, namely, when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.

The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating

Fig : unit 6

magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other. The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by induction (as in a "brushless" alternator), by permanent magnets (as in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor's magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet material. Since
Fig : unit 1&2

the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.

An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value.

Fig: operating principle

Alternators used in central power stations may also control the field current to regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against the effects of momentary faults. A symmetric rotating magnetic field can be produced with as few as three coils. Three coils will have to be driven by a symmetric 3-phase AC sine current system, thus each phase will be shifted 120 degrees in phase from the others. For the purpose of this example, magnetic field is taken to be the linear function of coil's current. The result of adding three 120-degrees phased sine waves on the axis of the motor is a single rotating vector. The rotor (having a constant magnetic field driven by DC current or a permanent magnet) will attempt to take such position that N pole of the rotor is adjusted to S pole of the stator's magnetic field, and vice versa. This magnetomechanical force will drive rotor to follow rotating magnetic field in a synchronous manner. A permanent magnet in such a field will

Fig :unit 4

rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was utilized in early alternating current electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause

serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and to overcome it, threephase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three phase system to create a rotating field

utilized in electric motors is one of the main reasons why three phase systems dominated in the world electric power supply systems. Because magnets degrade with time, synchronous motors and induction motors use shortcircuited rotors (instead of a magnet) following a rotating magnetic field of multicoated stator. (Short circuited turns of rotor develop eddy currents in
fig: rotor

the rotating field of stator which (currents) in turn move the rotor by Lorentz force). Note that the rotating magnetic field can actually be produced by two coils, with phases shifted 90 degrees. In case two phases of sine current are only available, four poles are commonly used.

Fig: alternator

 Maximum diameter of rotor must be 1.2m. otherwise very high centrifugal force willed generated which will cause disintegration of rotor parts. COOLING OF TURBO-ALTERNATORS

(a)The various systems of cooling turbo-alternators are, (i).Axial system(for rotor):This is the conventional method of cooling rotors of turbo-alternators. Narrow sub-slots, just below the main slots, are formed through the rotor core as shown in fig(a).Large quantities of air are forced through these subslots.

Fig :cooling

ii).Radial system: Here, the stator corehas radial ventilating ducts every 5 to 7cm of its length as shown in fig(b).All the air for cooling the stator is forced into the air gap from both ends. This air than flows radially outward through the radial ventilating ducts as shown. (iii).Radial Axial System: This is also used for stator and is a combination of the first and second systems. (iv).Multiple Inlet System: This is the modern method of cooling and applicable to any length of machine. In this system, the stator frame and core are divided into a number of compartments as shown in .In some compartments ,the direction of air is radially outwards and in the others it is radially inwards. Air under pressure is forced into the stator casing from where it flows radially inwards in to the stator ducts .The air passes down and goes into other compartments through the air gap and axial holes from where it flows radially inwards into the stator ducts. The air passes down and goes into other compartments through the air gap and axial holes from where it flows radially outwards through ducts. The air is drawn from these latter compartments, cooled and re circulated. (b).Cooling media: Cooling media nay be either air or hydrogen giving

correspondingly air-cooled alternators and hydrogen-cooled alternators. Air-Cooled alternators: Here air may be circulated through alternator by any of the above four methods. In small alternators air may be supplied by fans mounted on their shafts whereas in large machines it is a separate system with motor driven fans. Modern practice has become to spray the air with water so that, in addition to getting cooled, the air loses all dust particles that it may carry. Hydrogen cooled Alternator: It is applied for alternator of more than 60MW .Advantages of Hydrogen as the medium when compared to air are, (i).Noise and losses due to windage are less.(density ofH2=1/14 air).

Fig : hydrogen cooling

(ii).Better cooling medium.(Specific heat of H2=14 times of air-Rapid cooling). (iii).Low-temperature gradient-Thermal conductivity of H2=7 times air. Hot particles of H2distributes its heat to surrounding particles, more rapidly than a particle of air. This property has lower the temperature gradients. (iv).Higher rating can be secured. (v).Power required for circulation is less.(10% of air).

MOTORING
Motoring or power reversal occurs when something causes the prime-mover that rotates the generator to stop producing torque. Because the generator remains connected to the grid, it will act as electric motor, drawing power from the grid(power reversal) . There are two consequences:-

EFFECTS OF MOTORING (a) IMPACT ON GRID:Assume that generator normally produce power P. When acting as a motor it will draw/absorb power P. Therefore net effect on the grid is same as if it experienced a step increase in load =2P. Depending on size of grid and strength of remaining generators, step increase of 2P may result in significant frequency change on the grid. b)IMPACT ON PRIME-MOVER: If prim-mover is a steam turbine, then there will be a loss of prime-mover torque as a result of which there will be disruption of steam flow. When the generator becomes a motor, the turbine becomes its load. In absence of steam flow turbine blades will be spinning in air and can over heat, and since it is present in an encloser, the blades may get damaged. During the absence of steam flow, the generator is rotating absorbing power from grid and the turbine is coupled with generator, so turbine will also rotate with generator. Steam is mainly used for two purposes 1. Giving mechanical power 2. Cooling of the blades. So under this condition when the moving blades rotate core loss, windage loss and stray loss will occur as well as temperature will also rise & consequently the moving blades will expand which may come in contact with fixed blades & get damaged, causing a great economical loss. This phenomenon is called churning.

 During motoring there is heating of the generator rotor & stator which occurs usually when there is very low excitation or no excitation. During motoring the direction of rotation does not change as direction of rotation does not depend on current flow and torque flow and speed of rotation will also be same as per grid frequency

RATING OF ALTERNATOR

UNITS POWE R (WBA) 1&2 3 37.5 88.5

VOLTAG CURRE POWER SPEED E NT FACTOR (RPM) (KVA) (AMPS) 6.3 11+7.5% 11+7.5% 11+7.5% 3440 4650 0.8 0.87 3000 3000

FREQUENCY (HZ)

CONNECTIO N

50 50

YY YY

4&5

90.5

4750

0.8

3000

50

YY

6&7

0.8

3000

50

YY

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled (mutual induction) conductorsthe transformer's coils, without change of frequency. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling. If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding, and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: VS/VP = IS/IP

Fig: Transformer

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np. The windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all

electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical. BASIC PRINCIPLES The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and voltage in the directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).
Induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage:

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.
Ideal power equation If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to

flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient. All the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic fifield and into the secondary circuit.

Fig: ldeal transformer

If this condition is met, the input electric power must equal the output power: giving the ideal transformer equation:

This formula is a reasonable approximation for most commercial built transformers today. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it

appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss , but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to not be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage
Fig: leakage flux

flux and the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary. In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audiofrequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current component flowing through the windings. Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current).

Energy losses

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers, energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses. Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected. Eddy currents losses Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores. Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field,

an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers that can cause losses due to frictional heating. This buzzing is particularly familiar from low-frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) mains hum, and high-frequency (15,734 Hz (NTSC) or 15,625 Hz (PAL)) CRT noise. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

CONSTRUCTION:

Core form and shell form transformers As first mentioned in regard to earliest ZBD closed-core transformers, transformers are generally considered to be either core form or shell form in design depending on the type of magnetic circuit used in winding construction .
That is, when winding coils are wound around the core, transformers are termed as being of core form design; when winding coils are surrounded by the core, transformers are termed as being of shell form design. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more

Fig: shell type & core type

labor intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage. Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in

prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer. Power loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances Rp and Rs. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to the mutual coupling, and thus can be modeled as reactance of each leakage inductance Xp and Xs in series with the perfectly coupled region. Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. Since the core flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer. A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current Im to maintain the mutual flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux. Saturation effects cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be ignored in most circuit equivalents. With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced EMF by 90 and this effect can be modeled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an effective inductance) Xm in parallel with the core loss component, Rc. Rc and Xm are sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch of the model. If the secondary winding is made opencircuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing branch represents the transformer's no-load current. The secondary impedance Rs and Xs is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor (Np/Ns)2.

Fig: equivalent circuit diagram

implicit assumption that the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and referred secondary impedances, resulting in so-called equivalent impedance. The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

TYPES: There are several types. They are a) Auto Transformer b) Polyphase Transformer c) Leakage Trans former d) Resonant Transformer e) Audio Transformer f) Output Transformer g) Instrument Transformer (C.T & P.T)

Cooling

Though it is not uncommon for oil-filled transformers to have today been in operation for over fifty years high temperature damages winding insulation, the accepted rule of thumb being that transformer life expectancy is halved for every 8 degree C increase in operating temperature. At the lower end of the power rating range, dry and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation.

Fig: air cooling

As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by such other means as forced-air cooling, force-oil cooling, water-cooling, or a combinations of these. The dielectric coolant used in many outdoor utility and industrial service transformers is transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings. Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that inherently helps thermally stabilize winding conductor insulation, typically paper, within acceptable insulation temperature rating limitations. However, the heat removal problem is central to all electrical apparatus such that in the case of high value transformer assets, this often translates in a need to monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions. Indoor liquidfilled transformers are required by building regulations in many jurisdictions to either use a non-flammable liquid or to be located in fire-resistant rooms. Air-cooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at capacity ratings where oilcooled construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building construction cost. Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with superconducting windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen or helium.

METHODS OF COOLING There are several methods which are generally used to cool transformers. a. Air natural cooling: in a dry type self cooled transformer, the natural circulation of surrounding air is used for its cooling. The windings are protected from mechanical injury by a sheet metal enclosure. b. Air blast cooling: the dry type forced air cooled transformer is similar to that of dry type self cool transformer. c. Oil natural cooling: the majority of transformers of medium and large rating have their windings and core immersed in oil which acts both as a cooling medium and insulating medium. Oil immersed transformers are enclosed in sheet steel tank. d. Oil blast cooling: in this type of cooling forced air is directed over cooling elements of transformer immersed in oil. e. Forced oil and forced air flow cooling: oil is circulated from top of the transformer tank to a cooling plant. f. Force oil and water cooling: in this type of cooling forced oil flow with water cooling of oil in the external water heat exchanger take place.

CONSERVATORS AND BREATHERS conservators Oil is not allowed to come in contact with the atmospheric air which may content moisture. The moisture spoils insulating properties of the oil. Atmospheric air may cause acidity and slugging of the oil. A conservator is an air tight metal drum placed above the level of top of the tank and connected with it by a pipe. It is partially filled with

Fig: conservators

Breathers When the oil expands, or contracts by the change in temperature , there is a displacement of air. when the transformer cools, the oil level goes down and the air is drawn in. This is known as breathing. The air coming in is passed through a device called breather for the purpose of extracting moisture. The breather consists of a small vessel which contains a drying absorbing agent like silica gel crystal . silica gel is checked regularly and dried and replaced.

Fig :Breathers

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore lowcurrent) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers

have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterization of soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally standardized Epstein frame method.

VECTOR GROUPS
A vector group is the International Electro technical Commission (IEC) method of categorizing the primary and secondary winding configurations of threephase transformers. It indicates the windings configurations and the difference in phase angle between them. For example, star(H.V)-delta(L.V) 30 degree lead is denoted as Yd11. The phase windings of a polyphase transformer can be connected internally in different configurations, depending on what characteristics are needed from the transformer. For example, in a three-phase power system, it may be necessary to connect a three-wire system to a four-wire system, or vice versa. Because of this, transformers are manufactured with a variety of winding configurations to meet these requirements. Different combinations of winding connections will result in different phase angles between the voltages on the windings. This limits the types of transformers that can be connected between two systems, because mismatching phase angles can result in circulating current and other system disturbances.

SYMBOL DESIGNATION The vector group provides a simple way of indicating how the internal connections of a particular transformer are arranged. In the system adopted by the IEC, the vector group is indicated by a code consisting of two or three letters, followed by one or two digits. The letters indicate the winding configuration as follows:

D: Delta winding, also called a mesh winding. Each phase terminal connects to two windings, so the windings form a triangular configuration with the terminals on the points of the triangle. Y: Wye winding, also called a star winding. Each phase terminal connects to one end of a winding, and the other end of each winding connects to the other two at a central point, so that the configuration resembles a capital letter Y. The central point may be connected outside of the transformer. Z: Zigzag winding, or interconnected star winding. Basically similar to a star winding, but the windings are arranged so that the three legs are "bent" when the phase diagram is drawn. Zigzag-wound transformers have special characteristics and are not commonly used where these characteristics are not needed. III: Independent windings. The three windings are not interconnected inside the transformer at all, and must be connected externally.

STANDARD PHASE SHIFTS It is convenient to use a clock face number reference instead of degrees to describe the phase shift.

LETTER DESCRIPTION FOR VARIOUS WINDING METHODS

Fig: Yd1

Fig: Dy11

Fig :Dd6

Fig :Dd0

Fig: Dy5

Fig: Dy7

PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS CONDITIONS a) The transformers must have the same phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages .i.e. they must belong to same group number. b) The phase sequence must be the same. c) The line-voltage ratios must be the same. d) The per-unit impedance of transformers should be same. e) Both the transformers should have the same polarity.

Fig: parallel operation

HARMONICS IN TRANSFORMERS Harmonics in transformer occur due to the effect of saturation and hysteresis which are to produce on-sinusoidal current if the applied voltage is in sinusoidal. Upon saturation, the flux waveform is flat topped and contains mainly 3rd harmonic component. EFFECTS OF HARMONICS CURRENT Additional I2r losses due to circulating currents. Increased iron loss in core.

 Magnetic interference with protective gear and communication circuit. VOLTAGE Increase dielectric stress Electric field interference with communication circuits Harmonic resonant may occur between the induction of transformer windings and the capacitance of a feeder to which it is connected. VOLTAGE REGULATION Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments working on these systems are therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within certain agreed tolerance limits. In many applications this voltage itself may not be good enough for obtaining the best operating condition for the loads. A transformer is interposed in between the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are additional drops inside the transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of the supply provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about. If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage becomes too low and aects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop that takes place inside a transformer when certain load current, at any power factor, is drawn from its output leads. This drop is termed as the voltage regulation and is expressed as a ratio of the terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too important).

PER-UNIT IMPEDENCE AND PERCENTAGE IMPEDENCE Since the transformer has two sides H.V side and L.V side, so we will get two different values of impedances depending on how we r viewing the transformer. If viewed from H.V side then equivalent impendence will be say Z 1, and If viewed from L.V side then equivalent impendence will be say Z2. So we will be getting two different values of impedances for a single transformer. To overcome this inconvenience we consider the entire transformer to be a single unit and the equivalent impedance of the unit is calculated which is called per-unit impedance. 100* P.U impedance = % impendence How to measure % impendence? Ans a) short circuit the high voltage windings . b) apply voltage source on low voltage side. Increase secondary current until it reaches full load rated current. The voltage of which secondary full load current is obtained is called impedance voltage. % of impendence voltage is % impendence.

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER Transformers used to step down the distribution voltage to a standard service voltage or from transmission voltage to distribution voltage are known as distribution transformers. They are kept in operation all the 24 hrs. a day whether they are carrying any load or not. They are a good voltage regulation and are designed for a small value of leakage reactance.

POWER TRANSFORMERS Power transformer are used in generating stations or substations at each end of a power transmission line for stepping down or stepping up the voltage. They are put in operation during load periods and are disconnected during light periods. They are designed to have maximum efficiency at or near full load. Power transformers are designed to have considerably greater leakage reactance. For power transformers the voltage regulation is less important than the current limiting effect of higher leakage reactance.

STATION OR RESERVE TRANSFORMER This transformer is used to draw power from the national grid for running the auxiliaries of a thermal power plant viz. CE pump, PA fan, FD fan, ID fan, Pulverized motor etc when there is no generation in the power plant. This transformer steps down 132kV to 6.2kV as per requirement of the auxiliaries.
Fig :reserve transformer.

RESERVED TRANSFORMER RATING:

Power: 25 (MVA) Voltage(KV) (On load) Current(A) H.V 65.6 I.V 2091.9 L.V Unloaded H.V 220 I.V 6.9 L.V 6.48

Type of Cooling

ONAN(oil natural air natural)

ONAF(oil natural air force) 85%

Rating

70%

Frequency: 50 Hz Vector Group: YNy0d11 Weight of Core & Winding: 30 Tons Total Weight: 77 Tons

AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER These transformers are used to step down 11kV voltage to 6.3kV and again 6.3kV to 440V for running internal auxiliaries like PA fan,ID fans,pulveriser motor etc.

AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER RATING: (3 Phase)

POWER (KVA) H.V L.V H.V CURRENT(A) L.V

12000/16000 11 6.9 629.9(ONAN) 839.8(ONAF) 1004.1(ONAN) 1338.8(ONAF)

Frequency: 50 Hz Impedance Voltage: 7.831% Vector Group: Dy11 Weight of Core & Winding: 15.76 Tons Weight of Oil: 7.82 Tons Total Weight: 35.27 Tons

RATINGS OF TRANSFORMERS

Generator Transformer (3 Phase)

I)

UNITS 1 & 2

Makers name: Frequency: Cooler control: Turns ratio: KV ratting: Vector group REF no: KVA rating:

ENGLISH ELECTRIC 50 Hz 440 Volt 200:5 132 32 Yd 37500 11:15 p.u

Impedance voltage at 75 0C:

Weight of the core & winding: 35 Ton Total weight including oil: Oil: 35 Ton

160 Galons/min

H.V SIDE VOLTS AMPS SWITCH CONNECTS 138500 135300 132000 128700 125400 156.2 160.0 164.0 168.2 172.7 5 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 3 3 to 7 7 to 2 VOLTS

L.V SIDE AMPS CONNECT LINES 3608 a 2 ,b 2 ,c 2

6 KV

ii)

UNIT 3,4&5

TYPE OF COOLING

OIL NATURAL AIR NATURAL (ONAN) 42.5

OIL NATURAL AIR FORCE(ONAF) 59.5

OIL FORCE AIR FORCE(OFAF) 85

H.V(MVA)

L.V(MVA)

42.5

59.5

85

On Load Voltage H.V: On Load Voltage L.V: Line Current H.V: Line Current L.V: Frequency: Vector group: Insulation Level H.V: Insulation Level L.V:

132 KV 10.5 KV 372.22 A 4679.3 A 50 Hz YNd1 650 KVp/275KV (rms) 110 KVp/50KV (rms) 102.04 Tons

Weight of Core & Winding: Oil Quantity:

24275 Kg 132.27 Tons

Total Weight(including oil):

iv)

UNIT 6 OIL NATURAL AIR NATURAL(ONAN) OIL NATURAL AIR OIL FORCE AIR FORCE(ONAF) FORCE(OFAF)

TYPE OF COOLING

Ratting (MVA)

62.5

87.5

125

VOLTAGE ON LOAD

H.V(KV)

235

L.V(KV)

11

LINE CURRENT

H.V(A)

307

215

153.5

L.V(A)

6561

4592.7

3280.5

Weight of Core & Winding: 108.37 Tons Oil Quality: 40500 Kg Total Weight (Including oil): 214.25 Tons

AUTO TRANSFORMERS

An autotransformer (sometimes called auto step down transformer) is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The auto prefix refers to the single coil acting on itself rather than any automatic mechanism. In an autotransformer portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary. The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made. An autotransformer can be smaller, lighter and cheaper than a standard dual-winding transformer however
Fig: Auto Transformer

the autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation. Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input, allowing equipment from a 100 or 120V region to be used in a 230V region. OPERATION An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and one or more terminals at intermediate tap points. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from two terminals, almost always having one terminal in common with the primary voltage. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding

One end of the winding is usually connected in common to both the voltage source and the electrical load. The other end of the source and

Fig: equivalent ckt of auto transformer

load are connected to taps along the winding. Different taps on the winding correspond to different voltages, measured from the common end. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the entire winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding. In a step-up transformer, conversely, the load is attached across the full winding while the source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding. As in a two-winding transformer, the ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns of the winding they connect to. For example, connecting the load between the middle and bottom of the autotransformer will reduce the voltage by 50%. Depending on the application, that portion of the winding used solely in the higher-voltage (lower current) portion may be wound with wire of a smaller gauge, though the entire winding is directly connected.

LIMITATION An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings as an ordinary transformer does; if the neutral side of the input is not at ground voltage, the neutral side of the output will not be either. A failure of the insulation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in full input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the part of the winding that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer acting as an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may result in near full input voltage being applied to the output). These are important safety considerations when deciding to use an autotransformer in a given application. Because it requires both fewer windings and a smaller core, an autotransformer for power applications is typically lighter and less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a voltage ratio of about 3:1; beyond that range, a two-winding transformer is usually more economical. In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of not suppressing harmonic currents and as acting as another source

of ground fault currents. A large three-phase autotransformer may have a "buried" delta winding, not connected to the outside of the tank, to absorb some harmonic currents. In practice, losses mean that both standard transformers and autotransformers are not perfectly reversible; one designed for stepping down a voltage will deliver slightly less voltage than required if used to step up. The difference is usually slight enough to allow reversal where the actual voltage level is not critical. Like multiple-winding transformers, autotransformers operate on timevarying magnetic fields and so will not function with DC. Two winding connected as an autotransformer will have greater VA rating than when connected as two winding transformer. Transformation ratio of an auto transformer is always greater than 1. The basic difference between auto transformer and power distribution transformer is that auto transformer working principle is based on self induction and power distribution transformer working principle is based on mutual induction.

APPLICATION
Power distribution

Autotransformers are frequently used in power applications to interconnect systems operating at different voltage classes,. Example In DPL 132 kV and 220 kV power systems are interconnected by an autotransformers whose rating has been given in page . Common neutral end. On long rural power distribution lines, special autotransformers with automatic tap-changing equipment are inserted as voltage regulators, so that customers at the far end of the line receive the same average voltage as those closer to the source. The variable ratio of the autotransformer compensates for the voltage drop along the line. A special form of autotransformer called a zig zag is used to provide grounding (earthing) on three-phase systems that otherwise have no connection to ground (earth). A zig-zag transformer provides a path for current that is common to all three phases (so-called zero sequence current).

Audio

In audio applications, tapped autotransformers are used to adapt speakers to constant-voltage audio distribution systems, and for impedance matching such as between a low-impedance microphone and a high-impedance amplifier input.

AUTO TRANSFORMER RATINGS:

POWER: 1000(MVA)

Voltage(KV) (No Load) Current(A)

H.V

220

I.V

132

L.V

33

H.V

262.43

I.V

437.4

L.V

Unloaded

Type of Cooling

ONAN(oil natural air natural) 50%

OFAF(oil force air force)

Rating

100%

Frequency: 50Hz Vector Group: YNyn0d1 Weight of Core & Winding: 49.5 Tons Quantity of Oil: 49 Tons Total Weight: 136 Tons

SWITCHGEAR
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is important because it is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply.

The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything other than isolation of a deenergized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with electrically operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely Fig: switchyard

controlled by automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications. High voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for operating motors and other electric machines. The technology has been improved over time and can be used with voltages up to 1,100 kV. Typically, the switchgear in substations is located on both the high voltage and the low voltage side of large power transformers. The switchgear on the low voltage side of the transformers may be located in a building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers for distribution circuits, along with metering, control, and protection equipment. For industrial applications, a transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one housing, called a unitized substation or USS.

Types
A piece of switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gas insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear. The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these four types :
Oil

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.
Gas

Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker: Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF 6 to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum

Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched to a very small amount (<23 mm). At or near current zero the arc is not hot enough to maintain a plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the rise of voltage. Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts. Unlike the other types, they are inherently unsuitable for interrupting DC faults .

SWITCHGEAR PART 1) BREAKER:

Function:- All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details
vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source.

Fig: SF6 Breaker

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be

manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.

Types of circuit breakers

Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via DIP switches on the front panel. Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

a) Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application.

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.

b) Magnetic circuit breakers

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid.

c) Thermal magnetic circuit breakers

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal

portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature, which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively.

d) Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating. When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles.

e) Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over current sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breakersWith rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. Air circuit breakersRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

f) High-voltage circuit breakers

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electro technical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc. 1)Bulk oil, 2) Minimum oil , 3)Air blast , 4)Vacuum, 5) SF6 Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric).

g) Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers

A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

h) Other breakers
The following types are described in separate articles. Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device: a. Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a residual current circuit breaker) b. Residual current breaker with over-current protection c. Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)This detects earth current directly rather than detecting imbalance. d. Auto re-closer. e. Poly switch (poly fuse).

BREAKER RATING:
[Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) Breaker]
TYPE- 3AP1FG YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION- 2000/IND/10/006 RATED VOLTAGE U- 145 kV RATED LIGHTINING IMPULSE WITHSTAND VOLTAGE UW- 650KV RATED POWER FREQUENCY WITHSTAND VOLTAGE UW- 275KV RATED FREQUENCY f- 50Hz RATED NORMAL CURRENT in- 3150 amp RATED SHORT CIRCUIT BREAKING CURRENT Isc- 40 kA RATED SHORT CIRCUIT DURATION tth - 3S RATED OUT OF PHASE BREAKING CURRENT Id- 10 Ka FIRST POLE TO CLEAR FACTOR 1.5 RATED LINE CHARGING BREAKING CURRENT It-50amp RATED OPERATING SEQUENCE- 0-0.3S-CO- 3min-CO RATED PRESSURE OF SF6 00C +200C (Gauge 6.0 bar weight of SF6 filling) approx 8Kg WEIGHT INCLUDING SF6 (excluding structure)- 1500Kg approx NOMINAL SUPPLY VOLTAGE OF AUXILLIARY o CONTROL VOLTAGE DC 110V o OPERATING MECHANISM VOLTAGE AC 240V o HEATING VOLTAGE AC 240V

2) ISOLATER

A dis-connector or isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. Highvoltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is not intended for normal control of the circuit and is used only for isolation; in such a case, it functions as a second, usually physically distant master switch (wired in series with the primary one) that can independently disable the circuit even if the master switch used in everyday operation is turned on.

Fig : 33kv isolator with solid core isolator

The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnected system while it supplies a circuit.
Sample ratings
Range: 11KV to 400KV Type: Single/Double Break Operation: Manual & Motorized

3) LIGHTNING ARRESTER A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.

Fig: Lightning Arrester

If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.
COMPONENTS

A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material such as silicon carbide or zinc oxide. Some spark gaps are open to the air, but most modern varieties are filled with a precision gas mixture, and have a small amount of radioactive material to encourage the gas to ionize when the voltage across the gap reaches a specified level. Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the amount of energy they can absorb, and the break over voltage that they require to begin conduction. They are applied as part of a lightning protection system, in combination with air terminals and bonding.
4) RELAY CIRCUIT

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power

signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

Fig: relay circuit

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

DESIGN OF RELAY

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of

Fig: relay circuit contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.".

OPERATION
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in

series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. A solid-state relay uses a thyresistor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An op to coupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

TYPES OF RELAY
Latching relay

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core.
Reed relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid.

Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used.

Polarized relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity.
Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts.
Ratchet relay

This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to retain its operation.
Contactor relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for motor starters Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.
Solid-state relay

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability.
Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles are required.

Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

Fig: internal cut of Buchholz relay

Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together
Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided. POLE N THROW Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) Normally-closed (NC).

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), The following designations are commonly encountered: SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which ca n be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity. SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each). DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).

APPLICATIONS
Relays are used to and for: Amplify a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating power. Some special cases are: A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio amplifiers,

 Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an automobile, Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays).
5) BUS

Various factors affect the reliability of a substation or switchyard, one of which is the arrangement of thebuses and switching devices.

Fig : bus (main bus and transfer bus)

In addition to reliability, arrangement of the buses/switching devices will impact maintenance, protection, initial substation development, and cost. There are six types of substation bus/switching arrangements commonly used in air insulated substations: i. Single bus ii. Double bus, double breaker iii. Main and transfer (inspection) bus iv. Double bus, single breaker v. Ring bus vi. Breaker and a half

Main and Transfer Bus

This scheme is arranged with all circuits connected between a main (operating) bus and a transfer bus (also referred to as an inspection bus). Some arrangements include a bus tie breaker that is connected between both buses with no circuits connected to it. Since all circuits are connected to the single, main bus, reliability of this system is
Fig: single flow diagram of switchyard

not very high. However, with the transfer bus available during maintenance, deenergizing of the circuit can be avoided. Some systems are operated with the transfer bus normally de-energized when maintenance work is necessary, the transfer bus is energized by either closing the tie breaker, or when a tie breaker is not installed, closing the switches connected to the transfer bus. With these switches closed, the breaker to be maintained can be opened along with its isolation switches. Then the breaker is taken out of service. The circuit breaker remaining in service will now be connected to both circuits through the transfer bus. This way, both circuits remain energized during maintenance. Since each circuit may have a different circuit conguration , special relay settings may be used when operating in this abnormal arrangement. When a bus tie breaker is present, the bus tie breaker is

fig: ECR

the breaker used to replace the breaker being maintained, and the other breaker is not connected to the transfer bus.

A shortcoming of this scheme is that if the main bus is taken out of service, even though the circuits can remain energized through the transfer bus and its associated switches, there would be no relay protection for the circuits.

Fig : switchyard

Depending on the system arrangement, this concern can be minimized through the use of circuit protection devices (enclosure or fuses) on the lines outside the substation. This arrangement is slightly more expensive than the single bus arrangement, but does provide more exibility during maintenance. Protection of this scheme is similar to that of the single bus arrangement. The area required for a low prole substation with a main and transfer bus scheme is also greater than that of the single bus, due to the additional switches and bus.

6) CURRENT TRANSFORMER

A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry. DESIGN Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing
Fig: current transformer

in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur. Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic molded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.

The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.

Standard C.T secondary current is 5 amp A plot of secondary excitation voltage (Y-axis) vs. secondary excitation current (X-axis) would show a saturation point at the maximum permeability of the core material. The secondary excitation voltage corresponding to the tangent to the curve gives the knee-voltage of the CT. You might recall that this curve is very much similar to the B-H curve used for the selection of Bam for the design of mains transformers. Knee-voltage is the maximum secondary voltage that the CT will provide to a standard burden without saturating the transformer.

Knee point voltage:

SAFTY PRECAUTION Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

Why secondary of C.T never kept open circuited? Ans. If C.T secondary is kept open circuited then very high secondary voltage will be developed which will result in almost zero back elf. there by creating very high primary current which may rupture insulation of primary coil. A buzzing transformer is an indication of an open secondary.
RATING OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

7) POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

These transformer are extremely accurate ratio step down transformers and are used in conjunction with standard low range voltmeters(usually 150 volt)whose deflection when divided by voltage transformation ratio, gives the true voltage on the high voltage side. In general, they are of the shell type and do not differ much from the ordinary two windings transformers discussed so far expect that their power rating is extremely small. Up to voltage of 5000,potential transformer are usually of the dry type ,between 5000 &13000 volts, they may be either dry type or oil immerge type, although for voltages above 13800 they are always oil immerge type. since their secondary windings are lights ,their ratings are usually of 40 to 100
Fig: potential transformer

watt. For safety the secondary should be completely insulated from the high voltage primary and should be, in addition, grounded for affording protection to the operation. While connecting the wattmeter, relative polarities of the secondary terminals of the transformers with respect to their primary terminals must be known for connections of the instruments.

Fig: equivalent circuit of potential transformer

INDUCTION MOTOR
An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic, rather than a commutator or slip rings as in other types of motor. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are rugged and have no brushes. Single-phase versions are used in small appliances. Their speed is determined by the frequency of the supply current, so they are most widely used in constant-speed applications, although variable speed versions, using variable frequency drives are becoming

more common. The most common type is the squirrel cage motor, and this term is sometimes used for induction motors generally.
Fig: induction motor

CONSTRUCTION The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding.

Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor, so they must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. There are three types of rotor: squirrel cage rotors made up of skewed (to reduce noise) bars of copper or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, slip ring rotors with windings connected to slip rings replacing the bars of the squirrel cage, and solid core rotors made from mild steel. For information on die-cast copper rotors in energy-efficient induction motors, see: Copper die-cast rotors. OPERATION In both induction and synchronous motors, the stator is powered with alternating current (polyphase current in large machines) and designed to create a rotating magnetic field which rotates in time with the AC oscillations. In a synchronous motor, the rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field. By contrast, in an induction motor the rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. Therefore the magnetic field through the rotor is changing (rotating). The rotor has windings in the form of closed loops of wire. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor as in a transformer. These currents in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor, that interact with (push against) the stator field. Due to Lenz's law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose this the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field to make the relative speed between rotor and rotating stator magnetic field zero. For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (NS), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called "slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An

induction motor can be used as , or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.
Synchronous speed

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is the rotation rate of the rotating magnetic field created by the stator. It is always an integer fraction of the supply frequency. The synchronous speed ns in revolutions per minute (RPM) is given by:

where f is the frequency of the AC supply current in Hz and p is the number of magnetic pole pairs per phase. When using total number of poles, use 120 as constant instead of 60! For example, a small 3-phase motor typically has six magnetic poles organized as three opposing pairs 120 apart, each powered by one phase of the supply current. So there is one pair of poles per phase, which means p = 1, and for a line frequency of 50 Hz the synchronous speed is 3000 RPM. SLIP Slip s is the rotation rate of the magnetic field, relative to the rotor, divided by the absolute rotation rate of the stator magnetic field

where Nr is the rotor rotation speed in rpm. It is zero at synchronous speed and 1 (100%) when the rotor is stationary. The slip determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces large torque. At full rated load, typical values of slip are 4-6% for small motors and 1.5-2% for large motors, so induction motors have good speed regulation and are considered constantspeed motors.
Torque curve

The torque exerted by the motor as a function of slip is given by a torque curve. Over a motor's normal load range, the torque line is close to a straight line, so the torque is proportional to slip. As the load increases above the rated load, increases in slip provide less additional torque, so the torque line begins to curve over. Finally at a slip of around 20% the motor reaches its maximum torque, called the "breakdown torque".

If the load torque reaches this value, the motor will stall. At values of slip above this, the torque decreases. In 3-phase motors the torque drops but still remains high at a slip of 100% (stationary rotor), so these motors are self-starting. The starting torque of an induction motor is less than other types of motor, but still around 300% of rated torque. In 2-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to the stator such as shaded poles to provide starting torque. If we reverse the direction of the stator magnetic field, it would act as a braking action to the rotor plugging

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT The equivalent circuit of an induction motor has the equivalent resistance of the stator on the left, consisting of the copper and core resistance in series, as RS. During operation, the stator induces reactance, represented by the inductor XS*Xr represents the effect of the rotor passing through the stator's magnetic field. The effective resistance of the rotor, RS , is composed of the equivalent value of the machine's power and the ohomic resistance of the stator windings and squirrel cage. The induction motor equivalent circuit when idle is approximately RS+XS , which is mostly reactive. Induction motors generally have a poor power factor, which can be improved by a compensation network. The idle current draw is often near the rated current, due to the copper and core losses existing without load. In these conditions, this is usually more than half the power
Fig: equivalent ckt of induction motor

loss at the rated load. If the torque against the motor spindle is increased, the active current in the rotor increases by RS. Due to the construction of the induction motor, the two resistances induce magnetic flux, in contrast to synchronous machines where it is induced only by the reactive current in the stator windings. The current produces a voltage drop in the cage factor of Rr and a slightly higher one in the stator windings. Hence, the losses increase faster in the rotor than in the stator. RS and the copper factor of RS both cause I2R losses, meaning the efficiency improves with increasing load and reduces with temperature. XS gets smaller with smaller frequency and must be reduced by the delivered drive voltage. Thus, increases engine power losses. In continuous operation, this is an approximation because a nominal torque generated by the cooling of the rotor and stator is not included in the calculation. Above the rated speed or frequency, induction motors are more effective at higher voltages. Today, RS and Rr are measured automatically and thus can be used on a motor to automatically configure itself and thus protect it from overload. Holding torques and speeds close to zero can be achieved with vector controls. There can be problems with cooling here, since the fan is usually mounted on the rotor. induction motor speed can controlled by changing the frequency of applied current

STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR At start the squirrel cage induction motor is just like a transformer with short-circuited secondary and, it will draw heavy current (5 to 7 times the rated full load current) from the supply lines if rated voltage were applied at start. OF course, the induced emf in the rotor circuit decreases with the increase in speed of rotor and consequently both the rotor and stator currents drop to values determined only by mechanical load. It is essential to reduce the starting current to an extent that the line voltage drop does not affect the operation of other equipment connected to the same distribution work. One obvious way to reduce the starting current is to impress the lower voltage across stator winding at start. The objection to it is that it reduces the starting torque as the starting torque varies as the square of impressed voltage. The various methods of starting squirrel cage induction motor are given below. 1. Primary resistors (or rheostat) or reactors, 2. Auto-transformer or auto starter, 3. Star-Delta switches. 4. Direct on Line Starting Method or Full Voltage Method

Primary Resistors:
These resistors drop some voltage and hence reduce the voltage applied across the motor terminals. Thus the initial current drawn by the motor is reduced. This method is useful in starting only small motors because when the applied voltage across the motor terminals is reduced by 50%, then the current drawn by the motor also reduces by 50%, but the torque is reduced to 25% of the full-load value. Thus this method is used only for starting small motors. If voltage across stator terminals is reduced to K times of the line voltage V then at start Voltage applied to motor = KV Starting Current, Ist = KIsc Starting torque, Tst = K2Isc Though this starting method is simple and cheap but lot of power is wasted in the external series resistors.

Auto-Transformers Starter: These are other-wise called as auto-starters or compensators, consists of auto-transformer with necessary switches. With necessary connections and switches, the voltage applied across the motor terminals can be varied or reduced till the motor reaches 80% of its full rated speed. Once the motor reaches its full rated speed, then just by interchanging switches, the full supply voltage is applied across the motor terminals. For small motors, the interchanging switches may be an air switch, but for bigger motors the switch is usually immersed inside oil as to prevent sparking. The motor protective devices like over-load and no-voltage protection can be incorporated in the circuit.

If the transformer tapping used reduces the voltage V to kV then starting line current will be K2Isc and starting torque will be K2 times the torque developed by direct switching. Star-Delta Starters: This starter is used if the motor is designed to run in delta-connected stator winding. This starter consists of two-way switch, which can be changed from star to delta while running. At start, the winding is star connected, so that the applied voltage over each phase of stator winding is reduced by a factor 1/3 and hence the torque developed becomes 1/3 of the torque that is developed if the motor is directly delta connected. Thus the line current is reduced to 1/3. Thus during starting, the star connected motor, takes only 1/3 of the starting current and develops 1/3 rd as much torque when connected directly in delta.

Direct on Line Starting Method or Full Voltage Method: Squirrel cage motors of capacity up to 1.5 kW, double cage rotor motors and squirrel cage motors of large capacity having a high rotor resistance are started by this method. The starting torque with DOL starting is given as Tst = (Isc/IF) Sf Tf Where Sf If and Tf are slip, current and torque respectively at full load and Isc is the short circuit current.

 INDUCTION GENERATOR: Three phase squirrel cage induction motors can also be used as generators. For this to work the motor must either be connected to a grid supply or an arrangement of capacitors. If the motor is run as a self exciting induction generator (SEIG) the capacitors can either be connected in a delta or c2c arrangement. The c2c method is for producing a single phase output and the delta method is for a three phase output. For the motor to work as a generator instead of a motor the rotor must be spun just faster than its nameplate speed, this will cause the motor to generate power after building up its residual magnetism.

APPLICATIONS IN THERMAL POWER PLANT

squirrel cage induction motor with relatively low resistance is used for fans(ID fans, PA fans etc),most machinery tools, centrifugal pumps, wood working tool, cage induction motor relatively high resistance is used for crusher, compressor, reciprocating pump, and cage motor with high resistance is for punching presses, shears, hoists n elevator. Wound rotor im is used load requiring severe starting condition or for load requiring speed control they r also used for hoists, compressor n elevator. Induction motors are used in thermal power plants in ID,FD,PA fans. Also in the boiler feed water pump and for coal mills.

INDUCTION MOTOR (SAMPLE RATING):

Makers name: Rotor type: SL: Fame: Duty: Kw: Stator volts: Stator amps: r.p.m: Phase: Insulation class: Specification: Connection:

BHEL Squirrel cage 44457B401-11-01 1LA-7566-6P Continuous 375 6000V 48V 988 3 F 1S-325 Stator Rotor Y(Star) D(Delta)

Ambient temp: Degree of protection: Frequency: D.E Bearing: N.D.E Bearing: Year: Weight:

500C 1 PW 55 50Hz NU 224M 622473 NU 219M 2005 4250Kg

PROTECTION
1. GENERAL No person will open any switchgear cabinet, other than for visual inspection, unless a second person is in attendance. This second person should be familiar with the following safety procedures: a. If a person is the victim of electric shock, first aid should be administered as soon as the electric current through the victims body has been stopped. b. If the victim hangs on to an electric conductor, this can be done by following the switching sequence below.

Fig : monitoring of different protection relay

Cubicle isolation procedure: ULAN SUPPLY Turn Cubicle Main Switch off ( ACB 1 ). This is the large black handle at the lower half of cubicle 2.

Or, alternatively pull the right hand GENERA TOR 22KV switch in the far comer of the generator room (the COQ switch bank). GENERATOR Turn circuit breaker control to MANUAL (top of SUPPLY cubicle 2). Press the OPEN button on the generator supply breaker (ACB2 ). The button is on the lower half of cubicle 2. Or, alternatively turn the DUTY SELECT switch on the generator operator's panel (cubicle 1) to the OFF position. This will stop the generator. 2. 22KV ISOLATION SWITCH ( COQ ). The middle switch on the COQ switch bank is used to isolate the ULAN 22KVsupply to the mountain. The switch bank is in the far comer of the generator room. DANGER: In operating this switch do not go to the line earth position (switch position 1) without first ensuring that the ULAN supply has been isolated. If not the earth position will short out the incoming ULAN 22KV line. BANG!!. Isolation should be effected by ULAN personnel at the service pole. Similarly when operating the GENERATOR switch DO NOT earth this switch (Switch position 1) with the generator supply on. Otherwise the generated supply will be shorted to earth. ANOTHER BANG! !. 3. USE OF RECLOSER MANUAL HANDLE. Closing the Recloser using the manual handle should only be attempted as a last resort. All attempts must first be made to close the recloser electrically under MANUAL breaker control with the generator running. If the Recloser needs to be closed with the manual closing tool the following procedures should be strictly adhered to. As the manual tool only allows relatively slow closing of the Recloser a SERIOUS SAFETY RISK can occur if the Recloser is closed on an energized line, and/or the generator has not been isolated. PROCEDURE FOR USE OF THE RECLOSER MANUAL CLOSING TOOL A. ENSURE ISOLATION 1. Pull open the middle ULAN SUPPLY 22KV switch on the COQ switch bank located in the far comer of the generator room. This will remove any load to the

Recloser. (Go to the intermediate position or position DO NOT continue to the earth position 1) 2. Ensure that the generator circuit breaker ( ACB2 -the electrically operated one) is in the OFF state. Open the lower door of cubicle 2 and check the state of the breaker. If it is ON or if you want to ensure it is OFF, turn the breaker control switch to MANUAL and press the OPEN button for the breaker. B. ENSURE RECLOSER STATE Before the Recloser can be closed the LOCK OUT state must be determined. On the right hand end of the Recloser is a circular yellow lever. When this is hanging down the Recloser is in the lock out state and will not lock closed. The lever has to be in a horizontal position. If down, push the lever up with a link stick (REMEMBER 22KV ABOVE) until the lock out lever clicks into the horizontal position. C. CLOSE RECLOSER With the above checked, take the closing handle and place it into the closing mechanism at the front of the Recloser ( REMEMBER 22KV ABOVE ). Rotate the handle in a clockwise direction until you feel that the Recloser has locked into the closed position. NEVER force the handle, opposition to handle movement may require some checks to be made. Forcing the tool beyond the mechanism stop may shear the pin on the closing shaft. The closing mechanism will stay in the upward position and the Recloser indicator will show CLOSED. Remove the closing stick. D. RESTORE SUPPLY Go to the COQ switch bank and close the middle ULAN SUPPLY switch (to switch position .This will restore the ULAN supply. 3. ISOLATING MAINS SUPPLY TO THE CONTROL PANEL When any work is done on the control panel (bottom of cubicle 1) the following isolation precautions should be put in place. a. Turn the DUTY SELECTOR switch located on the operator's panel to the OFF position. This will disable the system from starting should a ULAN failure occur. b. As a secondary precaution turn the circuit breaker ACB3 at the back of cubicle 2 to the OFF position. This will ensure 240V/415V isolation of the panel. To isolate the 24V DC supply, pull the supply fuse at the back of cubicle 1.

4. Transformer Protection The primary objective of the Transformer Protection is to detect internal faults in the transformer with a high degree of sensitivity and cause subsequent de-energyzation and, at the same time be immune to faults external to the transformer i.e. through faults. Sensitive detection and de energyzation enables the fault damage and hence necessary repairs to be limited. However, it should be able to provide Backup protection in case of through faults on the system, as these could lead to deterioration and accelerated aging, and/or failure of the transformer winding insulation due to overheating and high impact forces caused in the windings due to high fault currents. In addition to the internal faults, abnormal system conditions such as over excitation, over voltage and loss of cooling can lead to deterioration and accelerated
Fig:circuit of transformer protection

aging or internal failure of the transformer. Hence protection again these failures should be considered in as part of the comprehensive transformer protection scheme. Transformer protection can be broadly categorized as electrical protection implemented by sensing mainly the current through it, but also voltage and frequency and, as mechanical protection implemented by sensing operational parameters like oil pressure/ level, gas evolved, oil & winding temperature. Like in most things in Transformer Protection too, the extent of protective devices applied to a particular Transformer is dictated by the economics of the protection scheme vis-vis the probability of a particular type of failure and the cost of replacing and repairing the transformer as well the possibility of the failure leading to damage of adjacent equipment or infrastructure. Failure costs include all the direct and indirect costs associated with it. The protection scheme cost includes the cost of the protective device but is mainly the cost of the disconnecting device i.e. the Circuit Breaker and other auxiliaries like batteries and necessary infrastructure. Further the life cycle cost is taken into account. There are no strict guidelines as to what protection devices should be used for a particular transformer. However, typically Transformers below 5000 KVA (Category I & II) are protected using Fuses.

Transformers above 10,000KVA (Category III & IV) have more sensitive internal fault detection by using a combination of protective devices as shown in pic. For ratings between the above a protection scheme is designed considering the service criticality, availability of standby transformers, potential of hazardous damage to adjacent equipment and people etc.

Transformer over Current Protection Over current protection is commonly used for protection from phase and ground faults. Its used as primary protection where differential protection is not used typically for category I & II transformers and as backup protection if differential protection has been used typically for category III & IV transformers. The protection zone of over current devices is normally more than the transformer. Hence they are part of the system protection and need to be coordinated with the other system protection devices. Typically, fuses are used as primary protection for transformers below 10MVA. Above 10MVA over current relays are used as back up along with differential relays as primary protection for transformers. Instantaneous over current relays are also used for back up where differential relays have been used. Typically they are set to 150% to 200% of the maximum of 1. Magnetizing current inrush (If harmonic restraint is not used) 2. Short time load Cold Pickup 3. Maximum 3 phase short circuit current Transformer Differential Protection Factors to be considered Differential Protection provides the best overall protection. However in case of ungrounded High impedance grounding it cannot provide ground fault protection. Differential protection is normally applied to Transformers 10MVA and above or depending upon its criticality. The following factors affect the differential current in transformers and should be considered while applying differential protection. These factors can result in a differential current even under balanced power in & out conditions

1. Magnetizing inrush current The normal magnetizing current drawn is 2 5% of the rated current. However during Magnetizing inrush the current can be as high as 8 30 times the rated current for typically 10 cycles, depending upon the transformer and system resistance. 2. Over excitation This normally of concern in generator transformer units. But it can also be of concern in certain transmission transformers where line capacitance is dominant and light load conditions can lead to high voltage on the transformer. Transformers are typically designed to operate just below the flux saturation level. Any further increase from the max permissible voltage level (or Voltage / Frequency ratio), could lead to saturation of the core, in turn leading to substantial increase in the excitation current drawn by the transformer. 3. CT Saturation External fault currents can lead to CT saturation. This can cause relay operating current to flow due to distortion of the saturated CT current. Alternatively the harmonic current present in the saturated CT can cause a delay in the operation of the differential relay during internal faults. Proper selection of CT ratios is essential to minimize problems due to the saturation. CT selection is discussed later 4. Different primary and secondary voltage levels, that is the primary & secondary CTs are of different types and ratios 5. Phase displacement in Delta-Wye transformers. Transformer Protection 7 of 12 6. Transformer voltage control taps 7. Phase shift or voltage taps in regulating transformers Transformer Differential Relay To account for the above variables less sensitive Percentage Differential Relays with percentage characteristics in the range of 15 to 60% are applied to transformers. Additionally, in modern microprocessor and numeric relays harmonic restraints can be applied. The second harmonic is the dominant harmonic in the magnetic inrush current. Hence a second harmonic restraint is utilized to prevent the relay from operating during the inrush. The excitation current contains high magnitudes of the odd harmonic, typically 25% of the third component and 11% of the fifth component. The fifth component is utilized to sense over excitation. If an over excitation relay has been applied, the fifth harmonic signal is used to block the differential trip signal so as to have easy fault discrimination during trip analysis. Otherwise, it is used to

restraint the relay operation. In addition to the fixed the percentage differential relays, variable percentage relays are also used. In this case, the percentage restraint increases as the transformer through current increases. This limits the adverse effect of CT saturation if any. Gas Analysis In oil immersed transformers different types of gases are generated due to different faults or due to degradation of different materials in the transformer. The major advantage of this gas evolution is that substantial amount of gas is evolved even for very incipient faults or material degradations. Thus analysis of this gas forms a very important means for monitoring the health of the transformer or for determining the fault in case of a fault. The gas evolved is present dissolved in the oil. The gas is analyzed either online in case of such systems have been installed on the transformer. Alternatively, oil samples are periodically withdrawn and the oil is analyzed in a lab. The periodicity depends on the size and criticality of the transformer. In case a Gas Accumulation Relay (Buchholz Relay) is installed. These gases do get accumulated in it. Gas samples or gas relays can be used in this case.

The implication of a few of the gases that may be observed in the oil is mentioned below. Actual cause analysis is done by observing the ratio in which these gases are observed and is beyond Hydrogen is generated by Corona or partial discharges. In conjunction with other gases observed with it the source of the discharge can be determined Ethylene is associated with thermal degradation of oil. Trace quantities of methane and ethane are generated at 150 C. Ethylene is generated in significant quantities at 300 C. Carbon dioxide &Carbon monoxide are evolved on when cellulose (paper) insulation gets over heated. Acetylene is produced significant quantities by arcing in oil