International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11

Commentary

Widening the harm reduction agenda: From drug use to sex work
Linda Cusick ∗
Institute for Applied Social and Health Research, University of Paisley, The Gardner Building, Paisley PA1 2BE, United Kingdom

Received 27 May 2005; received in revised form 3 November 2005; accepted 6 December 2005

Abstract

Harm reduction emerged in the 1980s as a public health response to HIV and injecting drug use. This paper reviews the literature to structure
the harms associated with sex work and expand the domains of harm reduction. Sex work-related harms are often rooted in debates where
moral arguments and health and criminal justice policies compete for priority. Like drug users, sex workers have a social history in which
they have been stigmatised, criminalised, pathologised, and on occasion, celebrated. Yet, by focusing on drug-related harm specifically, the
‘harm reduction movement’ is missing opportunities to better promote health among sex workers. Harms associated with sex work include:
the vulnerabilities that may lead to sex work; harms that are introduced by sex work; and mutually reinforcing harms such as problematic
drug use. These harms are overwhelmingly concentrated in street sex markets and where sex workers’ pre-existing vulnerabilities can be
most exploited. They include predation and victimisation, violence and child abuse, trafficking and slavery, stigma, sanctions and penalties,
STIs, exposure to mutually reinforcing harms and public nuisance. Existing interventions and policy developments to reduce these harms are
discussed.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sex work; Prostitution; Harm reduction; Literature review

Introduction mous with the reduction of drug-related harm but it may be

Applied to drug use, harm reduction principles aim to
reduce individual, community and societal harms includ-
ing harms to health, social and economic functioning
(Newcombe, 1992). Largely developed to prevent the spread
of HIV and AIDS, harm reduction is contrasted with drug
use prevention and prohibition characterised as the ‘war on
drugs’. Riley et al. (1999) describe harm reduction princi-
ples as pragmatic, value neutral and focused on prioritising
achievable goals. Lenton and Single (1998) define a harm
reduction policy or programme as one: ‘(1) where the pri-
mary goal is the reduction of drug related harm rather than
drug use per se; (2) where abstinence-oriented strategies are
included, strategies are also included to reduce the harm
to those who continue to use drugs; and (3) strategies are
included which aim to demonstrate that, on the balance of
probabilities, it is likely to result in a net reduction in drug
related harm’. Harm reduction principles are thus synony-
∗ Tel.: +44 141 848 3449; fax: +44 141 849 4264.
E-mail address: linda.cusick@paisley.ac.uk.
possible to apply these principles more widely. As Myers,
Aggleton, and Kippax (2004, p. 325) argue, ‘public health
seeks critical understanding of issues and promotes the use
of community empowerment approaches that are well beyond
traditional ones, and harm reduction cannot be constructed in
isolation from an understanding of the many social processes
that affect health today.’
At present, harm reduction is a feature of sex work inter-
ventions mainly where sex workers are a sub-set of prob-
lematic drug users (Rogers & Ruefli, 2004). As a result, sex
workers who are not problematic drug users are relatively
neglected by harm reductionists and the wider problems of
sex work fall outside their remits. Those interested in sex
work as an area for harm reduction in its own right will
nevertheless be able to learn much from existing harm reduc-
tionists. Drug users and sex workers after all, share similar
social and political histories of being stigmatised, crimi-
nalised, pathologised and occasionally celebrated (Sloan &
Wahab, 2000).
A literature review of sex work harms found three types of
association: factors thought to predict, explain or cause sex

0955-3959/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2005.12.002
4 L. Cusick / International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11

work; harms introduced by sex work; and mutually reinforc- and sex workers victimised by predatory pimps, drug deal-
ing factors. ers, abusers and a host of other players who can profit from
controlling sex workers (Williamson & Cluse-Tolar, 2002).
The experiences and effects of stigma and of physical, sex-
Factors thought to predict, explain or cause sex work
ual and mental abuse are described (Farley, Baral, Kiremire,
& Sezgin, 1998). Opportunities are exposed for the system-
In this literature, commercial sex phenomena are
atic sexual abuse of children through unregulated businesses
described as social problems (Gould, 2001) and in many
and statistics are reported on the prevalence of ‘child prosti-
instances, involvement in sex work is assumed to be a neg-
tution’ (Munir & Mohd Yasin, 1997; Willis & Levy, 2002).
ative experience or an expression of deviance. Background,
Trafficking, slavery and debt bondage are linked to health
personal or structural factors are posited to predict, explain
risk, violence and denial of human rights (Cwikel, Ilan, &
or even cause involvement in sex work. This literature tends
Chudakov, 2003). The risks, incidence and prevalence of
to be older. In studies of sex work in developed countries, sex
sexually transmitted infection are reported, often alongside
work is often depicted as sexual deviance, sexual abuse or the
recommendations for sex workers and services to prevent
result of ‘a lack’ or ‘failure’ of some kind (Nadon, Koverola,
their transmission (Mayaud & Mabey, 2004; Nagot et al.,
& Schludermann, 1998). Studies of sex work in developing
2002). With attention on the potential for sex work to intro-
countries draw similar conclusions but also point to explana-
duce harms to communities, public nuisance is pointed up and
tions for sex work as filial obligation in contexts of cultural
a range of measures suggested to reduce or at least displace
acceptance (McCaghy & Hou, 1994).
it ‘elsewhere’ (Benson & Matthews, 1995).
A host of social background and personal factors are asso-
The nature and extent of the harm reported in this literature
ciated with entry to sex work and the literature review found
varies with the type of sex market studied. Street sex markets
no example of a paper that settles on only one explanatory
are much more frequently studied and researcher access to
factor. Variously referred to as vulnerabilities, factors, situa-
study other types of sex market is often described as prob-
tional and personal variables, characteristics, risks and harms,
lematic (Hart & Whitaker, 1994; Shaver, 2005). When sex
the list of items thought to lead to sex work includes: pathol-
markets are directly compared, the harms introduced by sex
ogy, especially mental health (Choicy, 1961); low self-esteem
work are overwhelmingly concentrated in street sex markets
(James & Davis, 1982); childhood neglect or abuse (Dunlap,
and where sex workers’ pre-existing vulnerabilities can be
Golub, & Johnson, 2003; Silbert & Pines, 1981); family
most exploited (Church, Henderson, Barnard, & Hart 2001;
(especially maternal) inadequacy (Toby, 1957); moral failing
Pyett & Warr, 1997).
(Denman, 1910) and youth deviance (especially promiscuity
in girls) (Davis, 1971; James, 1977).
Benefits introduced by sex work
Similarly, a host of structural factors are given to explain
sex work and to explain why some individuals become
A relatively small literature exists on the potential ben-
involved in sex work. These include: poverty and a desire
efits that sex work may introduce (Chuen-Juei Ho, 2000).
to escape it (Muecke, 1992); political instability and war
Potentially positive impacts of sex work include positive
(Richter, 1999); inequality, especially gender inequality
body image, job satisfaction, autonomy, control of work
(Balos & Fellows, 1999); and lack of education, training
(Manopaiboon et al., 2003; O’Connell Davidson, 1998)
or skills for alternative occupations (Rabinovitch & Strega,
and status especially amongst sex workers and ‘the wise’
2004). Variations on this theme conceive sex work as an
(Goffman, 1963). Positive sexual experience is however,
outcome of differential association (Sutherland, 1939) and a
almost exclusively discussed by sex working authors or with
differential opportunity structure (Cloward & Ohlin, 1960).
reference to male sex workers (Minichiello et al., 2001). In
These sociological theories hold that behaviours and beliefs
the analysis for this paper, sex work benefits are used as ‘neg-
are learned in specific situations where licit and illicit means
ative cases’ (Mays & Pope, 2000) to check and improve on
to achieving economic success are unevenly distributed.
the understanding of associations.
Thus, individuals become sex workers in response to an
excess of attitudes favouring sex work which they have
learned from others plus relatively good opportunities for
Mutually reinforcing factors
doing sex work.
This final type of association avoids causal explanations
Harms introduced by sex work for involvement in sex work but shows connections between
sex work and variables that indicate vulnerability (Barnard,
A second type of association indicates harms that are said 1993). Assumptions about sex workers ‘lacking’ some per-
to be introduced or increased by sex work (Weitzer, 1999). sonal attribute or structural opportunity are less obvious in
This literature includes articles that may be considered incau- this literature but ‘spirals of decline’ and the corrosive poten-
tious around inferred causality. However, the inferences seem tial of sex work and its associated variables remain popular
plausible overall. It shows how vulnerability can be exploited themes (Graham & Wish, 1994).
 L. Cusick / International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11
Addiction is frequently associated with sex work and gen-
erally discussed in terms of negative consequences for the
sex worker’s health, safety when working or risk of becom-
ing trapped by the mutually reinforcing aspects of certain
behaviours or substances (Gossop, Powis, Griffiths, & Strang,
1995; Hunter, 2002). Predictably perhaps, drug use is the
principal factor of interest here. There is a huge volume of
literature providing evidence of the extent of overlap between
drug using and sex working populations (Miller & Neaigus,
2002; Morse, Simon, Baus, Balson, & Osofsky, 1992) and the
nature of relationships between various types of sex market
and drug market (Kwiatkowski & Booth, 2000). Other mutu-
ally reinforcing behaviours and attitudes include desire for
money to pay for general goods and other lifestyle enhancing
expenses (Hwang & Bedford, 2004). By pointing to com-
mitment and the ongoing nature of lifestyle expenses such
as mortgage repayments and school fees, the literature here
goes further than articles which merely posit desire to escape
poverty as a motivation for sex work. Finally, a small propor-
tion of articles deal with the mutually reinforcing potential of
rewards that are internal to sex work careers. These include
pursuit or enjoyment of sex and the power or status of a
successful sex work career (Weinberg, Shaver, & Williams,
1999).
Where do sex work related harms arise?
A great variety of types of sex work are revealed in the
literature. These are variously distinguished by sex worker
demographics, sexual orientation of the client, the physi-
cal environment and business operating styles (de Graff, van
Zessen, Vanwesenbeeck, Straver, & Visser, 1996; Plumridge,
Chetwynd, Reed, & Gifford, 1996). Thus, male/female
sex workers, gay/straight clients, indoor/outdoor, and par-
lour/internet styles emerge as obvious examples of com-
parative categories. Whether each of these is staffed by a
distinct population of sex workers or has a distinct popula-
tion of clients is not clear (Rissel, Richters, Grulich, de Visser,
& Smith, 2003). Nonetheless, sex workers and researchers
appear to agree that these categories are meaningful in some
way and that they distinguish important features of the various
sex markets (Plumridge & Abel, 2001; Rickard & Growney,
2001).
Many studies contrast two or more types of sex market.
Their overwhelming conclusion is that risk behaviours, harms
– and benefits where these are discussed – vary between sex
market types (Plumridge & Abel, 2001; Weitzer, 1999). It is
clear, therefore, that harms introduced by some kinds of sex
work are not introduced to all types of sex work. Violence, for
example, is concentrated amongst female sex workers, often
soliciting on the streets and providing sex services in iso-
lated and dilapidated environments (Plumridge & Abel, 2001;
Surratt, Inciardi, Kurtz, & Kiley, 2004). Similarly, the bene-
fits introduced by some kinds of sex work are not introduced
to all types of sex work. The autonomy and control of work-
5
ing conditions enjoyed by home-based internet-entrepreneurs
contrasts sharply with the restrictive rules used to manage
some parlour based sex workers (Brewis & Linstead, 2002;
Sloan & Wahab, 2000).
The greatest concentrations of harms introduced by sex
work are described in studies of low status, street based,
open sex markets (Miller, 1993; Potterat et al., 2004; Surratt
et al., 2004). Characterised by their reputations as ‘prob-
lem areas’, these sex markets often co-exist with open drug
markets and are not effectively controlled so that violence,
child abuse, trafficking and pimping are frequently observed
(May, Edmunds, & Hough, 1999). Little is known about
the clients using these sex markets although it is thought
that more respectable clients are most easily displaced by
policing (Cameron, 2004; Hubbard, 1998a; Plumridge et al.,
1996). The sex workers operating in these sex markets are
almost always described as vulnerable and a host of variables
reported which indicate their poor circumstances (Green,
Day, & Ward, 2000; Williamson, 2003). Sex workers and
clients in these sex markets are the key targets for many ser-
vices (Jeal & Salisbury, 2004) and are much more heavily
policed than other sex markets (Benson & Matthews, 2000).
This analysis concludes that sex work conditions are the cru-
cial factor for controlling exposure and vulnerability to the
harms that sex work may introduce.
This conclusion was examined again using the literature
review of ‘benefits introduced by sex work’ as a negative case
in analytic induction (Denzin, 1978). Although the literature
in this area is much more limited, benefits were linked to con-
ditions in which sex workers had strong control over business
arrangements and where they were able to operate without
penalties or fear (Plumridge & Abel, 2001; Sanders, 2004).
The refined conclusion is, therefore, that the harms and ben-
efits of sex work depend on the conditions in which sex is
bought and sold. In summary, this analysis indicates that the
ways in which sex work is organised determines whether it
introduces harm, increases the vulnerability of sex workers
or allows sex workers to benefit from sex work.
The mechanics of deriving harm from sex work
A section of the research literature is interested in the
actual mechanics or opportunities for harms to be introduced
by sex work. With reference to this literature, the question for
this paper becomes: what it is about ‘sex work’ that allows
these harms to be introduced?
From the substantial literature on sexually transmitted
infections amongst sex workers we can be confident that these
are introduced via the ‘sex’ in sex work. Another substantial
literature focuses on drug use or other issues that encour-
age continuation with sex work: those mutually reinforcing
money, status and lifestyle factors. Here, money is the link for
reinforcing these harms/benefits. No further harms (or bene-
fits) were identified as arising from the exchange of money
and sex. That is, some harms like STIs were introduced by
6 L. Cusick / International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11
sex, other harms like drug dependency were reinforced by
availability of money but no additional harms were intro-
duced by the actions of exchanging sex and money. All of the
remaining harms identified in the literature as arising from
sex work were limited to and dependent on the specific con-
ditions of some sex markets. Each of these is outlined below.
Predation and victimisation such as abusive pimping
were found in studies of sex markets where sex workers
were fearful of authority, isolated and personally vulnera-
ble (Williamson & Cluse-Tolar, 2002). Children, drug users
and migrant sex workers who cannot access indoor sex mar-
kets, who do not have the resources or confidence to work
as entrepreneurs and who do not know enough about their
options are the key targets for sex market predators (Nixon,
Tutty, Downe, Gorkoff, & Ursel, 2002; Outshoorn, 2001).
Paedophiles, pimps, drug dealers and other individuals, often
posing as ‘boyfriends’ (Swann, 1999) control and abuse sex
workers in sex markets that are not controlled by a gate
keeping colleague. By way of contrast, sex markets run
from premises controlled by gatekeepers at least comply
with enough local legal and social requirements to remain in
business: effectively a guarantee of at least some minimum
standards (Whittaker & Hart, 1996).
Violence and child abuse were found in many sectors of
sex work (Raphael & Shapiro, 2004) but the youngest, the
most serious assaults and the greatest number of murders
were concentrated in sex markets where sex workers worked
alone and where they lack status (Pyett & Warr, 1999).
Trafficking, slavery and debt bondage were concentrated
in large cities and exist in a system suspended between organ-
ised crime on the one hand and policing and immigration
controls on the other (Chapkis, 2003; Outshoorn, 2001). Fear-
ful of both criminal gangs and authority figures, these sex
workers may be controlled, abused and passed around as
chattels in a system that prevents them emerging as free citi-
zens. Some trafficked and enslaved sex workers give accounts
of being held prisoner while others describe moving around
quite freely in their day to day routines but too fearful to
attempt escape from the secretive and deprived conditions of
their sex markets.
Stigma and negative effects on self-esteem or mental
health are said to arise from all types of sex work (Chudakov,
Ilan, Belmaker, & Cwikel, 2002; Farley, 2003) but the auto-
matic nature of these relationships has been challenged by
both academics (Frable, Wortman, & Joseph, 1997; Link &
Phelan, 2001) and sex workers who deny their reach (Taylor,
1991). Stigma, reduced self-esteem and negative mental
health effects of sex work may, therefore, be introduced by
some sex work experiences more readily than others. More
research on this topic will be useful but it seems likely that,
as with other harms introduced by sex work, these effects are
not universal or evenly distributed.
State sanctions, penalties and corrupt levies are dispro-
portionately applied to sex workers and their clients in street
and other open sex markets (Benson & Matthews, 2000;
Fabre, 2001). Otherwise, official police attention is directed
mainly at those who organise and are suspected of making the
most substantial profits from indoor sex markets (Mills, 2004;
Narboni, 2004). Sex workers who have the assets, knowledge
and organisational skills to work collaboratively or indepen-
dently mainly do so without coming to the attention of the
police, services or tax collectors (West, 2000).
Viruses do not respect organisational or social distinc-
tions and thus STIs are found amongst sex workers in almost
all sex markets (Desai et al., 2003; The Synergy Project,
2002). There are of course some exceptions as some sex mar-
kets do not provide physical sexual contact (Exotic Dancer’s
Alliance, 2005). Where genital contact is the norm, condoms
are widely used and STIs effectively prevented (Kerrigan
et al., 2003; Kunawararak et al., 1995). Indeed, in the UK
during an epidemic of STIs amongst the general population,
their prevalence fell amongst sex workers attending a London
clinic (Ward, Day, Green, Cooper, & Weber, 2004). Explain-
ing these findings, Ward et al. (2004) point out that those
sex workers who were best able to use condoms in all com-
mercial sex transactions belonged to peer-networks and used
their sex work careers strategically. Even here, it appears that
opportunities to control the harms that might be introduced
by sex work are dependent on the conditions in which sex
workers operate (Agha & Nchima, 2004; Pauw & Brener,
2003; Pyett, Haste, & Snow, 1996).
The mutually reinforcing harms of sex work and addic-
tion or dependency have been mentioned above. From the
high volume of good quality literature on this topic, it is clear
that sex workers who appear to be drug users are most often
denied work in indoor and co-operative sex work establish-
ments (Plumridge & Abel, 2001). The open, street-based and
low status sex markets thus become the only ones acces-
sible to drug using sex workers. These markets are often
so strongly entangled with street drug markets that contin-
ued and escalating drug use is virtually guaranteed (Inciardi
& Surratt, 2001). Exposure to the reinforcing harms of sex
work and problematic drug use therefore arise almost exclu-
sively where sex and drug markets share space (May et al.,
1999).
Public nuisance is introduced by sex markets that are obvi-
ous rather than discrete (McKewon, 2003). These are often
busy places also populated by the public who are having a
night out, sex workers’ clients, drug dealers, drug purchasers
and vigilantes with a mission to halt sex markets (Hubbard,
1997, 1998b). Other sex markets may cause public nuisance
where they share space with residential or recently gentrified
areas, irrespective of whether the sex market or the gentrified
property occupiers were the earlier settlers (Kerkin, 2003).
Again, the public nuisance harm introduced by sex work is
introduced by sex working conditions that are least private,
where the most vulnerable sex workers are concentrated and
where they can be fully exposed to legal and illegal measures
to displace them.
In conclusion, the harms that are introduced by sex work
depend on sex work taking place in conditions of vulnerabil-
ity.
 L. Cusick / International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11
What can be done to reduce sex work related harm?
This commentary provides two lessons for those inter-
ested in reducing sex work related harm. First, the literature
on personal and structural factors said to predict, cause or
explain entry to sex work shows that there are many valid
explanations – recognising circumstances, motivations and
available options – which impact on individuals becoming
sex workers. Second, the literature on the harms said to be
introduced or reinforced by sex work shows that these harms
are not inherent problems of sex work but of vulnerability.
The tasks for harm reductionists in this field may, there-
fore, be stated as: to reduce existing vulnerability amongst sex
work entrants; and to ensure that sex work does not introduce
further vulnerability.
Reducing existing vulnerability amongst sex work
entrants
Some harm reduction programmes already exist to address
the structural factors underlying sex work careers that begin
in the context of poor opportunities to pursue alterna-
tives. Education, training and skills programmes are increas-
ingly considered as appropriate interventions (Norton-Hawk,
2001), and are often developed through sex worker initia-
tives and campaigns (Arnott, 2004). The task of reducing
existing vulnerability amongst sex work entrants is nev-
ertheless a daunting one as identified in the literature on
those personal, background and structural factors predict-
ing, explaining or causing sex work. Since these factors
include personal pathologies, low self-esteem, childhood
neglect and abuse, family dysfunction and youth deviance,
the harm reductionists who might work in this area will be
a much wider group than those whose interests are specifi-
cally with sex work. The pre-existing vulnerabilities found
amongst sex workers are not unique to this group (Schissel
& Fedec, 1999) and neither is it likely that these vulner-
abilities first come to light when the vulnerable person
becomes a sex worker (Shaw & Butler, 1998; Zigman, 1999).
Social, educational and family policies will all have a part
to play and there is already a wide literature on best prac-
tice for multi-agency working to support vulnerable people
(Christian & Gilvarry, 1999; Shaw & Butler, 1998). Simi-
larly, for global problems like poverty, political instability,
war and gender inequality, sex work may be an expression
of these problems but the solutions do not rest with sex
work.
Ensure that sex work does not introduce further
vulnerability: abolitionist and prohibitionist approaches
Some argue that since harms arise from sex work, ideally
sex work should be abolished or prohibited using penalties
against sex workers, third parties and/or clients to achieve
this (Hammer & Maynard, 1987; Jordan, 2002). Such aboli-
tionist and prohibitionist aspirations are mentioned in every
7
book on sex work history in the British Library. Organisa-
tions differ in their ambitions to abolish/prohibit sex work
with respect to geographic scope (Rouart & Agacinski,
2000; United Nations, 1949) and type of sex work (Holli,
2000; International Programme on the Elimination of Child
Labour, 2002). The success of an abolitionist/prohibitionist
programme might be measured by its impact on the number
of clients, sex workers or sex work premises operating in the
area/sector targeted. Since these impacts are notoriously dif-
ficult to demonstrate amongst hidden populations, evidence
often takes the form of case studies in which individuals ‘are
saved’ from sex work (Yahne, Miller, Irvin-Vitela, & Tonigan,
2002). Meanwhile, the wider literature points to a growth in
the number of sex workers, clients and premises (Raymond,
1998; Weitzer, 2000).
Can harm reductionists embrace the
abolitionist/prohibitionist ideal?
As with abstinence from drug use, there is no reason
for harm reductionists to reject the abolitionist/prohibitionist
ideal as an end point. However, with reference to drug related
harm, Lenton and Single (1998) specifically argue against
extending harm reduction definitions to include abstinence or
prohibition programmes. They reason that such a definition
would be over-inclusive as abstinence programmes cannot
reduce harm to current users. Like drug related harms, the
harms that are introduced by sex work are currently affecting
many vulnerable people and there is a pressing need to reduce
them. In a civilised society, responses that might realistically
reduce those harms may be valued for their pragmatic and
humane qualities.
Ensure that sex work does not introduce further
vulnerability: challenges for existing harm reduction
programmes
Sexually transmitted infections, mutually reinforcing
aspects of sex work and drug use and public nuisance are
all harms which are being tackled by programmes informed
by harm reduction principles (Hanslope & Waite, 1994;
Smarajit, Basu, Rotherham-Borus, & Newman, 2004). Many
of these follow techniques to inform, educate, communicate,
reach out and motivate which were developed to reduce drug
related harms (WHO, 1995). It is here that those working to
apply harm reduction principles to sex work will benefit from
the experience of colleagues working to reduce drug related
harm (Des Jarlais, 1998; Stimson, 1998).
The remaining harms identified in the literature are as fol-
lows: predation and victimisation; violence and child abuse;
trafficking and slavery; stigma; low self-esteem; mental ill-
ness; and the effects of sanctions and penalties. Parallel with
the conclusion that these harms arise from the conditions in
which sex is bought and sold, they are concentrated where sex
work is illicit (Scambler & Scambler, 1995) and have been
reduced where it has been decriminalised or in some cases
8 L. Cusick / International Journal of Drug Policy 17 (2006) 3–11
where it has been legalised or licensed (Lewis & Maticka-
Tyndale, 2000; Pyett & Warr, 1997).
One explanation for this relationship is that the illicit
and immoral status of sex work stigmatises and penalises.
Respectable investment and involvement are thereby discour-
aged and control of sex work left in criminal hands (Brants,
1998). Hence, child abuse, trafficking and slavery are prof-
itable. An extension of this explanation reckons that violence,
stigma and fear of authority are used to manipulate vulnerable
sex workers to further maximise those profits (Kuo, 2002). If
these harms are fostered by the illicit status of sex work, harm
reductionists might tackle that illicit status (Castle, 1995;
Dasgupta, 2002; Gangoli, 1998).
To disentangle sex work from criminal control it will be
necessary to decriminalise sex work and, some also argue,
for sex workers to campaign for their human and employ-
ment rights (Kilvington, Day, & Ward, 2001). Decriminali-
sation and consistent application of legislation as for other
businesses has been demonstrated as effective in reducing
harm in Nevada, USA (Brents & Hausbeck, 2005) and in
The Netherlands (Outshoorn, 2004). In contrast, in Australia
where regulation has been patchy, violence and exploitation
have been concentrated wherever sectors of the sex industry
remain underground and sex workers are criminalised (West,
2000). Meanwhile in France where recent policy has been
influenced by concern about public order, organised gangs
increasingly dominate sex work organisation with subsequent
negative impacts on public health and the living standards of
sex workers (Mathieu, 2004).
To conclude, commercial sex is a suitable area for develop-
ment of the harm reduction agenda. The current focus on drug
related harm neglects opportunities to reduce these wider
harms.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for positive feedback on an oral
presentation of this paper at the sixteenth International Con-
ference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm, Belfast
2005. Additional thanks are expressed to Prof. Avril Taylor,
Dr Susan Sherman and Dr Marina Barnard for their com-
ments on the drafts of this paper.
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