Biomechanics glossary 1

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Biomechanics glossary 1
Topic: Def: Notes:
Line drawn on force-elongation/ stress-strain graph parallel to the linear part of graph & passing through the 0.1% strain value(=0.1% gauge length). 0.1% Proof Stress the stress which results in a 0.1% plastic strain. For materials where the yield stress is not easily identified (aluminium). (proof stress not usually quoted for polymers) Alloy A substance containing two or more metals mixed in the liquid phase. Process involving heating to & holding at a temp. high enough for recrystallization to occur and then cooling slowly. Results in a softened state (more ductile), to facilitate cold-working, improved machine-ability and mechanical properties.; eg. Orthop. wires (stainless steel 316L, annealed)

Annealing

Barba's Law

Takes into consideration % Elong.= {[a x sq.rt.(csa)/gauge length] + the effect of csa on % b} x100 elongation in Tensile testing. (For test-pieces of the same csa, % elong. of a shorter gauge length will be greater than a longer gauge length). *Bone fails in TENSION. Shear failure is a tension failure, but crack propagates in spiral because of the ANISOTROPY of bone.; *Haversion canals help to prevent crack propagation. Pressure= Force/Area Break a material, & the broken ends fit together perfectly (i.e. no reduction in csa). A substance chemically comprised of metallic and non-metal elements/molecules (eg. ZnO, SiO, TiO2)) Properties determined by ionic bonds, stronger than covalent bonds of polymers & metallic bonds of metal.; Very High Melting Point. High chemical resistance. High Elastic Modulus. Highly Crystalline -> Brittle. Hard -> High wear resistance. Inert/ Biocompatible. Bioactive (eg. calcium hydroxyapatite). Can withstand high stresses, but cannot produce high strains. ; NB- because of high melting point large ceramics are prepared by compressing together small powder particles(sintered ceramics). This always has small defects -> stress risers -> Brittle + very WEAK. Normal joints= 0.008-0.02; metal-on-metal= 0.8; metal-UHMWPE= 0.02; metal-bone= 0.1-0.2; ceramic-ceramic= v. low; ceramic-UHMWPE= v. low; metal-ceramic= v. high UTS(MPa) Etens.(GPa) UCS(MPa) Ecomp.(GPa); Canc. 3-20 0.2-5 1.5-50 0.1-3; Cort. 107-146 11.4-19.1 156-212 15.1-19.7; Sawbone 172 18.6; Tufnol 120 8.0; (6F/45); Last-A-Foam 10.2 0.354 14.7 0.36

Bone Fracture

Boyle's Law Brittle Fracture

Ceramics

Coefficient of Friction

the resistance encountered in moving one object over another.

Composite Bone Mechanical Properties

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Composites

Def:
= a multiphase material. The constituents must be chemically dissimilar & seperated by a distinct interface. (matrix & dispersed phases). It should provide distinctive properties that cannot be obtained by the individual components alone. High strength to weight ratio. Destruction of metal by electrochemical action

Notes:
Types:; 1) Particle Reinforced: a) Large particle (concrete), b) dispersion strenthened (atomic); 2)Fiber Reinforced: whisker, fiber, wire; continuous, discontinuous; aligned(anisotropic),random(isotropic); 3) Structural: a) Laminar(wood), b) Sandwich panels.; For fiber-reinforced: longit: Ec=EfVf+EmVm,

Corrosion

Types:; 1) Pitting; 2) Crevice; 3) Galvanic; 4) Intergranular; 5) Stress (Corrosion Fatigue); 6) Fretting.; mechanical or chemical (chloride) breakdown; Corrosion rate can be reduced by passivation.; Surface stresses/ fatigue can be reduced by peening, polishing & heat treatment. *Metals with different chemical reactivities or the same metal in different environment -> electrical currents by destruction of the more reactive metal.; *Differences in oxygen concentration often leads to corrosion (low oxygen beneath screw head= anode).

Corrosion Mechanism

Coulombs Law of Friction

The shear stress is always parallel to the relative velocity & equal to the product of the contact pressure & the dynamic friction coefficient as determined from measurements on particular combinations of materials. [Shear Stress= Compressive stress Coefficient of Friction] Continued straining of a material under constant stress. It is stress, time & temp. dependent (fatigue is stress & time dependent only). Kinematics= Analysis of motion w/out reference to forces.; Kinetics= Analysis of motion under the action of given forces or moments. (= static / dynamic); Statics= study of forces & moments acting on a body in equilibrium (at rest or constant speed).; Dynamics= study of forces & moments acting on a body in motion (accelerating/ decelerating) Materials which develop significant permanent deformation before they break are called 'Ductile'. Measures of Ductility:; 1. Percentage Elongation =[final-initial length]/[initial length] x 100.; Ductile material (mild steel)= >20%; Brittle material (cast iron)= <1%; 2. Percentage Reduction in cross-sectional area= [Ao-A]/Ao.; Percentage elong./red. csa for polymers is measured at the moment of fracture, for metals it is measured after elastic recovery (rupture) has occurred. (due to large elastic recovery in polymers). On force-elong. curve: elong. used for plastics is that value at rupture, & for metals it is the value at a line drawn from fracture point parallel to elastic range.; 3. Bend tests; 4. Cupping

Creep

Definitions

Ductility/ Brittleness

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Def:

Notes:
tests(Erichson); 5. Impact tests(Charpy) ductile materials absorb appreciable energy (higher energy to # than brittle material).

Dynamics Elastic Limit

Linear Motion

v=u+at; v=u+2as; s=ut+0.5at

The stress at which the Yield Stress = stress at the elastic limit material starts to behave (yield point) in a non-elastic manner. The ability to do work. Potential E=mgh (energy a body possesses); Kinetic E=mv (energy a body has due to motion); KE=I.w (angular motion- I=mass moment of inertia, w=angular velocity); Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Pcrit = C.(E.I/L); where Pcrit is the critical load, C is the end conditions, E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the cross sectional moment of inertia, L is the column length. Euler angles= the situation where the first & last axes about which a rotation take place are the same.; Cardan angles= when all three axes are different. ; Some literature sources use the term Euler angles to describe both.

Energy (Joules)

Euler's Column Law

Determines critical load for scoliosis.

Euler/ Cardan angles

Describe the pathway thro which a joint segment moves from one position to another in terms of three independent rotations. These angles describe the attitude/ orientation of the second position w/ respect to the first. When a material loses its ability to satisfy the original design function.

Failure

Types(6): fatigue, corrosion, fracture, creep, plastic buckling, alteration of properties & characteristics. * Ductile metals may fail in a brittle manner at low temps, in thick sections, at high strain rates or where thre are flaws.

Failure

Fatigue

The reduction of strength by the application of cyclic loads below the tensile strength of the material.

Low cycle fatigue = max. stress in a cycle > yield stress. High cycle fatigue = max. stress in a cycle < yield stress.; Fatigue limit for polished steels = half the tensile strength. This is reduced by surface scratches.; Peening= light hammering of the surface with a round-nosed hammer -> increased Fatigue Life by inducing residual compressive stresses in material.; Occurs in 3 steps:; 1) Nucleation of a crack- occurs at locations of highest stress & lowest local strength. These are usually at or near the surface & include surface defects, such as scratches or pits, sharp corners, inclusions, grain boundaries or dislocation concentrations.; 2) Propagation of a crack- towards lower stres regions. The crack propagates a little bit further each cycle, until the load-carrying capacity of the metal is approached.; 3) Catastrophic failure- in a brittle manner. ; Beach marks are formed when the load is changed during service. Striations, which are on a much finer scale, may show the position of the crack tip after each cycle.

Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue- Miner' Law

Estimates the fatigue life Failure will occur when Sum(n/N)=1, of a component. where n= number of cycles in a regime, N= number of cycles to failure.; S-N curves show Fatigue Limit

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The main requirement is to have, for a range of elements of varying shapes, solutions of the governing differential equations for arbitrary boundary conditions. ; In order to carry out such analysis it is necessary to define: Geometry(nodal coordinates, connectivity information), Element Properties(Youngs modulus, cross-sectional area) and Loads(boundary conditions).

Finite Element = The ability to model Modelling/Analysis structures of complex (FEM) geometry as an assemblage of simple elements.

Free Body Diagram

The segment of the body of interest. The segment is assumed to be in equilibrium. The undesirable effect when two surfaces move in contact with each other. F=R (= coefficient of friction) (frictional force, F, is proportional to the normal component of the reaction force, R); =tan ( is the critical angle on an incline when motion starts to occur= 'angle of friction') Hardness Tests: ; 1. Brinell- 10mm steel ball, HB=F/piD[D-sq.rt(D-d)]; 2. Vickerspyramid-shaped diamond, HD=1.854F/d; 3. Rockwell

Friction

Hardness

Measure of a materials resistance to abrasion or indentation. Hardness is proportional to Tensile Strength. It is a non-destructive indicator of strength.

Hooke's Law (Robert Hooke, 1678)

Force is directly -> Elastic Modulus= Stress/Strain proportional to displacement. Extension proportional to force (Normal stress proportional to strain for elastic part of load-extension curve - up to the 'Limit of Proportionality') *Tubes with a wall thickness:radius ratio of less than one eighth tend to behave as curved sheets rather than tubes. These thin-walled tubes are subject to buckling. (Bone is thick-walled).; *A wider diameter hollow tube is stiffer than a solid smaller diameter tube with the same amount of material. And the outer fibre stress for a given bending moment is reduced. (This is why bones have a medullary canal). This is more Efficient.; *A slot/slit reduces torsional stiffness by 98% -> quicker healing with callus. Fluid-film lubrication = the bearing surfaces are completely separated by a film of fluid for most of their working life.; Boundary lubrication = the bearing surfaces come much closer together & the frictionless characteristics of the bearing are determined by the properties of the surface materials.; Hydrodynamic lubrication = the action when the load carrying capacity of a fluid film bearing depends on motion of the bearing surfaces.; Elastohydrodynamic = when the bearing materials deform elastically under hydrodynamic pressures.; 'Squeeze film action' occurs in hydrodynamically lubricated bearings.

Intramedullary Nails

Lubrication Regimes

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Material Properties

Def:

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Isotropic= has same properties in all directions.; Anisotropic= different properties in diff. directions.; Orthotropic= the properties in a particular direction are the same throughout the material and the properties in all directions perpendicular to that direction are the same (but diff. from the first). METALS: High tensile strength & modulus of elasticity, medium hardness, can be ductile, poor resistance to corrosion, high electrical & thermal conductivity. AlloysMild steel= iron & carbon; Stainless steeliron, chromium, carbon & manganese. Carbon improves strength. Chromium improves corrosion resistance. Vitallium= chromium, cobalt & molybdenum alloy (historical).; POLYMERS: 1) Thermosets= decompose when heated. Bakelite. 2) Thermoplastics= soften when heated. Polythene. Low modulus of elasticity; low hardness; medium tensile strengths; ductile; low densities; high corrosion resistance; low electrical & thermal conductivities; tend to creep; properties depend on temp. Can withstand high strains, not high stresses.; CERAMICS: brittle; hard; high modulus of elasticity; stronger in compression than in tension; high abrasion resistance[hard]; low electrical conductivity. Can withstand high stresses, not high strains.; COMPOSITES: two different materials bonded together. More expensive to produce.

Material Properties

Mechanical Twinning

= a form of Deformation where atoms in each succesive plane within a block will move different distances, with the effect of altering the direction of the lattice so that each half of the crystal becomes a mirror image of the other half. As compared to 'slip' where all atoms in one block move the same distance. 1. Mass Moment of Inertia= resistance to angular acceleration.; 2. Area Moment of Inertia= resistance to Bending.; 3. Polar Moment of Inertia= resistance to Torsion. linear momentum= m.v; angular momentum= I.w (I=mass moment of inertia) 1. A body will remain at rest or continue moving with a constant velocity along a straight line, unless a resultant external force acts on it.; 2. The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is in the direction of this force. (F=ma); 3. To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. Conditions existing on a metal surface because of the presence of a protective film that markedly lowers the rate of corrosion. Methods:; 1) Surface Treatment- with a highly oxidizing solution (nitric acid).; 2) Some alloys & metals spontaneously form a passive film (Type 316 stainless steel, Titanium).; 3) Altered environment by incr. passivating/ oxidizing agents (chromate,

Moment of Inertia Represents the resistance a structure has to angular acceleration Momentum

Newton's Laws of Motion

Passivity

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nitric acid); 4) Applying a current (anodic protection)

Poiseuille's Law

Rate of flow of fluid through a pipe/vessel is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, & inversely proportional to the length. The lateral/transverse compressive strain is proportional to the longitudinal tensile strain, within the elastic range of a material. v(mu)= lat. strain/longit. strain.; It may take on values betw. 0(a fully compressible material) and 0.5(a material which maintains a constant volume during deformation). Values >0.5 imply expansion of volume during deformation.

Poisson's Ratio

Polar Moment of Inertia (J)

Measure of the Torsional J = [pi/2]x[Ro4-Ri4] = 2.I; T/ = JG/L (T/= Stiffness of a column/ torsional stiffness, T= torque, = angle of shaft twist, G= shear modulus, L= length of shaft) Base resin - The polyethylene granules or powder; the raw source polymer. Medical-grade polyethylene is a very small percentage of the worldwide production of polyethylene. Only ultra-high molecular weight material is used in the manufacturing of components for total joint replacement. ; ; Calcium stearate - A compound mixed with the polyethylene powder (in some grades of the material) before it is formed into a solid. The calcium stearate serves as a scavenger of residual acid. In ram extrusion, it also acts as a lubricant, and has been shown to help prolong the life of the manufacturing equipment. It also results in the poly ethylene having a whiter color. However, some reports have indicated that fusion defects are more common in polyethylene that contains calcium stearate. Fusion defects may make the component more susceptible to crack initiation and propagation. Consequently, many manufacturers now use grades of polyethylene that do not contain calcium stearate. However, the quantitative effects of calcium stearate on the wear properties of polyethylene components are a subject of ongoing debate. ; In several retrieval studies, components manufactured from 1900 PE resin have shown significantly lower levels of oxidation following sterilization by gamma irradiation in air. The reason(s) for this have not been clearly identified. ; ; Chain scission - Breakage of the long chains of polyethylene into shorter molecules. Extensive chain scission can substantially increase the crystallinity, density, stiffness and brittleness of the polyethylene, weakening the material. Oxidation is a primary cause of chain scission in polyethylene. ; ; Compression molding - A consolidation method that subjects the polyethylene powder to high temperature and pressure, fusing it into a solid form, either into bulk stock for subsequent machining, or into net-shape components. ; ; Consolidation - The fusing of polyethylene powder into a solid form by application of heat and pressure. The two principal methods of consolidation are

Polyethylene Glossary

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compression molding and ram extrusion. ; ; Cross shear - The particular type of stress applied to the surface of the polyethylene component due to the crossing-path motion of the femoral ball. Crossing-path motion is also present, albeit to a lesser extent, in some designs of knee prostheses. Studies have shown that polyethylene wear is 10 to 100 times greater with crossing path motion than with simple linear reciprocating motion. ; ; Crosslinking - The process by which chemical bonds link carbon atoms in adjacent polyethylene molecules by combining two free radicals. Cross linking has been shown in laboratory wear simulators (both hip and knee) to markedly improve the wear resistance of polyethylene. ; ; Electron beam irradiation Also known as E-beam, the polyethylene is bombarded with high-energy electrons which induce crosslinking. Because there is more attenuation of an electron beam than gamma rays, a high beam energy (e.g., 10 MeV) is used to produce crosslinking in the polyethylene. Residual free radicals generated by the electron beam can be extinguished by an appropriate post-crosslinking thermal treatment to avoid long-term oxidative degradation. ; ; EtO sterilization - A sterilization method that utilizes ethylene oxide gas (EtO). EtO does not induce free radicals or oxidation; it also does not induce crosslinking. To eliminate the toxic gas, components must be outgassed for a sufficient period prior to being implanted. ; ; Free radical - An electron on an atom that is a potential reaction site for oxidation or cross-linking. ; ; Gamma irradiation Irradiation by exposure to a radioactive cobalt source, which emits gamma rays. Gamma radiation (in air) has been the predominant method used to sterilize prosthetic joint components for more than two decades, with free radical production, oxidation and crosslinking being unintentional by-products. Only recently has gamma radiation been used to intentionally crosslink polyethylene to improve its wear resistance. ; ; Gas plasma sterilization - A non-irradiation sterilization method in which a device is exposed to energized oxygen, nitrogen and argon gas particles and a peracetic acid gas in alternating cycles. The plasma sterilizes the product by inactivating microorganisms. As with EtO sterilization, gas plasma does not generate free radicals, induce oxidation or crosslinking. ; ; Inert gas packaging - Sealing the polyethylene component in a package flushed with an inert gas, such as argon or nitrogen, to remove the oxygen present during sterilization and subsequent shelf storage. ; ; Isostatic molding - A multi-step process that begins with the manufacture of a cylindrical compact of UHMWPE powder from which most of the air has been mechanically expelled. Subsequently, the compacted rods are

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sintered in a hot isostatic pressure (HIP) furnace in an argon-filled pouch to minimize oxidative degradation of the UHMWPE. The resulting rod stock may be considered to be a compression-molded form of that resin. Finished implants are then made by either turning or milling operations. ; ; Oxygenless packaging Polyethylene components are sealed in a package in an atmosphere with minimal oxygen during sterilization and subsequent shelf storage. Current versions include combinations of inert gases partial vacuum, and enclosing a packet containing an oxygen scavenger. ; ; Oxidation - Reaction of an oxygen molecule with a free radical on the polyethylene molecule. This typically leads to chain scission, indirectly increasing the crystallinity, density and stiffness of the polymer and reducing its resistance to fracture and wear. ; ; Ram extrusion - A consolidation process in which a ram is used to force the polyethylene powder through a heated nozzle, resulting in a fused bar as large as six inches in diameter. Careful control of the processing variables (principally, the extrusion rate and the nozzle temperature) is required to produce a fully and uniformly consolidated material (e.g., containing minimal fusion defects). ; ; Thermal stabilization - Heating the polyethylene to neutralize residual free radicals and, thereby, stabilize it against long-term oxidation. Bulk polyethylene (molded blocks or extruded bars) can be heated above the melting temperature (about 150o C), held there for a number of hours, and then cooled ("remelting") to extinguish the free radicals before being machined into a final component. ; In contrast, if radiation crosslinking is applied to the finished components, they cannot be remelted, but they can be heated to below the melt temperature and held at that temperature for a number of days ("annealing") to substantially reduce the residual free radicals. Because annealing occurs with the polyethylene still in a semi-crystalline state (i.e., below the melting temperature), it is not as effective as remelting in eliminating the residual free radicals. ; ; Vacuum packaging Typically, the polyethylene components are placed in a barrier package, flushed with an inert gas (i.e., nitrogen) and then evacuated to minimize the oxygen present during radiation, sterilization and subsequent shelf storage.

Polymers (Plastics) Power (watts) Second Moment of Area/ Area Moment of Inertia (I).

made up of long-chain molecules based on carbon & hydrogen. The rate of doing work. A property which measures the distribution of the material around the cross section. (a measure of bending stiffness)

*viscoelastic (deformation time & stress dependent); *Hysteresis P=W/t The further the material is from the neutral axis, the stiffer the construct under a given load.; Circle: I = [pi.r4] /4 (hollow: r= outer radius-inner rad.); Bending Stiffness = E.I (where E is Youngs

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Modulus)

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Rectangle: I= wh 12; The region of a bone/nail with the smallest I is subjected to the largest deformation under load & will fail first.; Indirect bone healing (thick periosteum) -> incr. I -> incr. stiffness & strength.

Slip

=plastic deformation in metals, one layer or plane of atoms gliding over another. Slip occurs step by step with the movement of 'dislocations' within the crystal.

Dislocations are faults or distorted regions. (types of dislocations= edge & screw dislocations); Material deformation occurs by slip or 'twinning'.

Stiffness

Ability of a material to For a tube (bone):; Axial Stiffness(A) = resist bending. Measured [pi/4]x [Do-Di]; Bending Stiffness= Area as Elastic Modulus. Moment of Inertia(I) = [pi/4]x[Ro4-Ri4]; Torsional Stiffnes= Polar Moment of Inertia(J) = [pi/2]x[Ro4-Ri4] = 2.I; {Do= outer diameter, Di= inner diameter} L-Lo/Lo = a ratio = how far atoms are being pulled apart The increase in energy associated with the deformation of a structure, as a result of the application of a slowly increasing load. = Area under load-extension curve. Energy associated with deformation of a structure, eliminating the effects of the structures size. =area under stress-strain curve. u= stress/2xElastic Modulus. Strain energy density obtained by loading a material to rupture ; Modulus of Resilience= energy per unit volume that the material can absorb without yielding (= area under elastic portion of stress-strain curve). true strain= ln(1+ nominal strain).

Strain (epsilon)

Strain Energy(U) (Joules)

Strain Energy Density (u) (J/m)

Strain/Work Hardening Stress() (nominal, engineering) F/A= N/m= Pa= the force pulling atoms at a point in a material apart. (measure of the intensity of a force on an object) Max. Force/original csa= Strength of a material = the ability of a material to resist the application of forces without breaking.

-> incr. yield strength, decr. ductility & toughness, unchanged modulus(stiffness). True stress (t) uses true csa instead of original csa (as with nominal stress).; t= [F/original csa] x [1+ nominal strain].; t>>n because of lower csa ('Necking')

Tensile Strength() (N/m= Pa)

Titanium vs. Stainless Steel Torque

Ultimate Strength(failure): Stainless Steel > Titanium; Yield Strength(permanent deformation): Titanium > Stainless Steel Rotational Force [newton T= I x alpha ; [where I is the Mass Moment meters(Nm)] of Inertia (Nm.sec); alpha is the Angular Acceleration (radian/sec)] The ability of a material to resist breaking (i.e. absorb energy & deform plastically).Or how much energy a material can absorb before failure. A Toughness measurements:; 1) The area under a force-extension curve up to the breaking point. = Modulus of Toughness.; 2) Impact Tests- Charpy; 3) Fracture toughness- ability to resist crack propogation.

Toughness

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tough material requires more energy to break it than a less tough one. It is the work done in stretching a material per unit volume. Tough material has high ductility & large yield stress. Toughness requires a material to withstand high stresses and high strains.

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Velocity

the rate of change of the = a Vector (has magnitude, direction & position of the body. sense). Speed is scalar (only has direction).; Motion may be Linear, Angular or combined. Removal of material from solid surfaces by mechanical action. Work is done by a force when the point of application of the force moves in the line of action of that force. W=Fs ; W=Fr=M (for angular motion)

Wear

Work (Joules=N.m)

Youngs Modulus / modulus of elasticity (E) (Pa)

measure of stiffness of a =stress/strain = Hookes Law; =x/y x gauge material. length/orig. csa. (tensile test, metals); Usual values: about 200GPa for steels, 70GPa for aluminium alloys, 20GPa for cortical bone.; Usually the same value in tension & compression.; For polymers: Secant Modulus= 0.2% secant modulus= [Force to produce 0.2% strain x gauge length]/ [(L-Lo) x original csa].

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