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For many, `Lean manufacturing and `Agile manufacturing sound similar, but they are different. Lean manufacturing is a response to competitive pressures with limited resources. Agile manufacturing, on the other hand, is a response to complexity brought about by constant change. Lean is a collection of operational techniques focused on productive use of resources. Agility is an overall strategy focused on thriving in an unpredictable environment. Focusing on the individual customer, agile competition has evolved from the unilateral producer centered customer-responsive companies inspired by the lean manufacturing refinement of mass production to interactive producer-customer relationships. Agility enables enterprises to thrive in an environment of continuous and unanticipated change. It is a new, post-mass-production system for the creation and distribution of goods and services. Agile manufacturing requires resources that are beyond the reach of a single company. Sharing resources and technologies among companies becomes necessary. The competitive ability of an enterprise depends on its ability to establish proper relationships, and thus cooperation seems to be the key to possibly complementary relationships. An agile enterprise has the organizational flexibility to adopt for each project the managerial vehicle that will yield the greatest competitive advantage. Sometimes this will take the form of an internal cross-functional team with participation from suppliers and customers. Sometimes it will take the form of collaborative ventures with other companies, and sometimes it will take the form of a virtual company. Agile manufacturing is attracting an increasing amount of attention from both the academic and industrial communities. Extensive programs are being conducted on relevant issues to propagate agile manufacturing concepts, to build agile enterprise prototypes, and eventually to realize an agile industry.
Lean Delivers
Lean is proven to deliver
Increased Efficiency & Productivity - 15% more output with the SAME resources (staff, machines, work space) Better Quality outputs (reducing re-work) Better on time delivery performance (stop chasing work!) Improved morale and employee engagement
Lean Isnt
Lean is.
Lean is the set of management practices based on the Toyota Production System (TPS). It has been applied in many sectors; engineering, manufacturing, call centres, service, legal.- This guide is for those involved in manufacturing.* One way of defining lean is in two parts:
Eliminate WASTE and non-value-added activity (NVA) through continuous improvement. Practice respect for people.
The customer must be willing to pay for the activity. The activity must change the product, making it closer to the end product that the customer wants and will pay for The activity must be done right the first time.
2.
3.
Bring WIP down and the amount of cash required to keep the business running comes down.
E.g. we can reduce overdrafts, loans, finance arrangements.
If A is customer order date and B is customer delivery date then we want A to B to be a short as possible. The shorter we can make this then the less time we have to find cash for. Normally the shortest time to produce often comes out as the least cost, so we have to find less cash as well.
The 7 Wastes
Waiting
Waiting for design sign off and approval. Waiting for machines to come free waiting for maintenance & repairs to finish. Waiting for tooling changes, changeovers, or tools to be free. Waiting for material and parts to be delivered. Waiting for quality checks. Either the Machine or Operator is inactive during the process. Waiting for previous jobs to finish.
The 7 Wastes
Defects and Rejects
Reworking errors Re-inspection and sorting, recalls Cost of Scrap and rejects Extra labour costs (overtime) to make up production shortfalls due to poor quality Extra transportation to remove and store rejects Delays in process due to rejects produced Information incorrectly recorded on job sheets Incorrect specifications and information sheets
The 7 Wastes
Inventory
The often obvious sign of inventory waste is products made but not sold. Sub assemblies made up but no finish dates or waiting for final build. Batch Processing rather than single flow. High Levels of consumables and raw materials. Large amounts of racking and warehousing space. The final sign is holding production progress or expediting meetings
The 7 Wastes
Overproduction
Making in large batches that dont match daily, weekly, monthly demand is symptomatic of Overproduction. Making more products or units than you can sell immediately. Making products or units before they are required by the internal or external customer.
The 7 Wastes
Over (Extra) Processing
Too many inspections or quality checks Product features not requested by the customer Excessive movement in the manufacturing process. Large machine set-up or maintenance down time. Bottlenecks in the manufacturing process.
The 7 Wastes
Motion
Searching for tools and materials to complete work. Handling the units more than once Turning, Stretching, bending, reaching to do the work. Visiting other workstations or central locations to get stock, tools, consumables etc. Visiting other areas for paperwork, quality checks, photo copying etc.
The 7 Wastes
Transportation
Unnecessary moving or handling of parts. Handling equipment moving with no parts. Raw material batch sizes not matching production batch size. Materials, parts, stored a long way from point of use.
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
Product and process design is at the heart of all business activity and integration with costing enables better decisions to be made and this helps to reduce business risks. Such integration is still elusive and it is due to lack of a unifying methodology. The development of such a methodology requires effective integration of the key variables and a user-friendly interface. Advances in computer systems and software now allow us to attempt this and a research project was therefore undertaken to study this possibility. What emerged from the effort was software that proved to be of value to industry and for teaching of manufacturing engineering in universities. The concepts underlying this software are outlined here and we commence by looking at the nature of product and process design.
Product
Product Planning
Product Optimisation
Part Planning
Part Optimisation
Assembly Planning
Assembly Optimisation
perspectives. From the manufacturers perspective it is the time from the conception of product to its nal withdrawal from the marketplace. From the marketing perspective it is the growth, maturity and decline of sales. From the customers perspective it is the purchase of the product to its nal disposal. In reality, it is from the conception of the product to its nal disposal regardless of other stages. Product design is broken down into its constituent parts in order to make the manufacture possible, these parts then require manufacturing and assembly. This creates a number of problems and the foremost among them is the number of parts. If the number of parts can be reduced by even a small amount then the benets
cascade down into all the activities that follow. This leads to signicant cost savings in manufacture and increases the products reliability as there is less to go wrong. To assist parts rationalisation various concepts have been developed and they form the basis of design for manufacture and assembly guidelines [3]. These concepts have been applied in industry to streamline design but the increasing functionality and the sophistication of products is taking us toward more and more parts and this requires new approaches for parts rationalisation, such as those based on costing [1]. The methodology outlined in this monograph focusses on this.
Create workelements
Manufacturing sequence
Workelement analysis
1.3.1 Workstations
Volume manufacture requires concurrency of tasks and in physical systems this is provided by the workstations. The number of workstations is determined by the volume to be produced, shift time and the total time of overall tasks. This leads to the cycle time per station. Often it is impossible to aggregate the task times involved to be exactly the same as the cycle time, some stations therefore end up being less than fully
Create workelements
Assembly sequence
Workelement analysis
Product Product Product Planning Optimisation Part Part Planning Optimisation Product Attributes Lifecycle Issues Number of Parts Part Attributes Task Sequence Tooling Assembly Attributes Task Sequence Time
Assembly Assembly Planning Optimisation Time and Cost No Acceptable Yes Workstations Workstations Optimisation Layout Layout Planning Optimisation Throughput Throughput Strategy Optimisation Manufacturing System No Acceptable Yes Production
Manufacturing Time Product Volume Line Balance Process Equipment Transfer Systems Layout Design Just in Time Kanban Buffer Levels
occupied and this leads to inefciencies. The cycle time reects the throughput rate or how many will be made per hour or per day, as for example in a bakery or in a car plant. If the production requirement is very high then the cycle time can be signicantly less than the smallest task time. This leads to problems which are overcome by parallel workstations performing the same task. This helps to reduce
the task time by producing more in the same time through concurrent activity. This application of parallel tasking at micro-levels helps to solve manufacturability problems to meet high production rates. If the task time is in seconds then a dedicated automation is often the only answer. In more complex products manufacture in high volumes the nancial and the human resource issues become much more critical and generally involve high levels of business risk.
manufacturers, are applying such concepts to improve the productivity of their working capital. In summary, process design translates product design into manufacturing requirement and this leads to time and cost of manufacture. It is about establishing the macro-tasks involved and to determine their micro-requirements. There is an underlying unity to part planning and assembly planning and this centres on the need for task analysis in both cases. This unity can be leveraged for integrated manufacturing process design and costing. In the following chapters we look at this in detail.
References
1. Otto, K., & Wood, K. (2001). Product designtechniques in reverse engineering and new product development. NJ: Prentice Hall. 2. Prabhakar Murthy, D. N., & Blischke, W. R. (2005). Warranty management and product manufacture. Springer, UK. 3. Boothroyd, G., Dewhurst, P., & Knight, W. (1994). Product design for manufacture and assembly. Marcel Dekker, New York.