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1.

Lambert conformal conic projection

2. The Lambert conformal conic projection is a conic map projection developed by

Johann Heinrich Lambert, a Swiss mathematician, in 1772. Like other conic projections, it encloses a cone around the earth's sphere, with two reference parallels secant to and intersecting the sphere ; the spacing of latitude lines increases beyond the two reference parallels. Unlike other conic projections, however, the Lambert projection depicts the poles as single points. 3. There are many advantages to using the Lambert conformal conic projection over other projections. One advantage for maps using this projection is that all angles are preserved (conformality). Also, shapes (especially small ones) are maintained, there is minimal areal distortion near the reference parallels, and distance is correct along the reference parallels; directions are also fairly accurate. The main limitation is an increase of distortion (of shape, distance, and area) away from the reference parallels. 4. Today, the Lambert projection is one of the most widely used projections in the United States. The USGS uses it for many of their topographic maps and for their State Base Map series. It is also used by pilots for aeronautical charts because it facilitates the approximation of a great-circle route between endpoints. 5. Overall, the Lambert conformal conic projection stands as one of the best projections for the middle latitudes and for regions having an east-west extent. Unlike the Albers Conic Equal Area projection, it displays shape more accurately than area.
6. Projection method

7. Conic projection normally based on two standard parallels, making it a secant projection. The latitude spacing increases beyond the standard parallels. This is the only common conic projection that represents the poles as a single point. Can also

be defined with a single standard parallel and a scale factor. If the scale factor is not equal to 1.0, effectively the projection becomes a secant projection. 8. Lines of contact a. If using a two standard parallel case, the two standard parallels. b. If using a single standard parallel case, and the scale factor is 1.0, the standard parallel. c. If using a single standard parallel and the scale factor is less than 1.0, the cone cuts the spheroid along two parallels.
9. Linear graticules

a. All meridians.
10. Properties

a. Shape
1) All graticular intersections are 90. Small shapes are maintained.

b. Area 1) Minimal distortion near the standard parallels. Areal scale is reduced between standard parallels and increased beyond them. c. Direction
1) Local angles are accurate throughout because of conformality.

d. Distance
1) Correct scale along the standard parallels. The scale is reduced between

the parallels and increased beyond them.


11. Limitations

a. Best for regions predominantly eastwest in extent and located in the middle north or south latitudes. Total latitude range should not exceed 35.
12. Uses and applications

a. SPCS for all zones that are more eastwest in extent. b. USGS 71/2minute quad sheets to match the State Plane Coordinate System.

c. Used for many new USGS maps created after 1957. It replaced the Polyconic projection. d. Continental United States: standard parallels, 33 and 45 N. e. Entire United States: standard parallels, 37 and 65 N.

Universal Transverse Mercator projection (UTM) The Universal Transverse Mercator projection (UTM) is a projection that was created by the U.S. military; however, UTM is used by many professional civilians. The projection is based on the Mercator projection, but as the name implies, it is transverse rather than based on a Equatorial aspect. UTM is a system which divides the world into 60 equal zones; each zone is 6 degrees wide. UTM "covers the earth's surface between 80 degrees South and 84 degrees north". Zone 1 starts at 180 degrees west and goes to 174 degrees west. Every zone is a unique projection. All the projections are transverse Mercator, but they are secant to different central meridians. The central meridian for each zone is located in the center of the zone. For example, the central meridian for zone 1 (180 degrees west to 174 degrees west) is 177 degrees west. 15. Because each zone is based on a different central meridian, you cannot accurately place maps of 2 different zones together. This may seem very inconvenient, and it is, but the UTM system is very accurate for within zone purposes. Positions are found using an easting and a northing. The area with a easting value of 0 and the northing value of 0 is called the point of origin. All measurements are made in relationship to the point of origin. The northing is a measurement in meters from the equator. The easting is slightly more complicated. Every zone has its own easting, which is always 500,000 meters west of each zone's central meridian. UTM coordinates are easy to recognize because they consist of a zone number, a six-digit number (easting), and a 7-digit number (northing). An example would be "zone 12 450980 mE 4500540 mN."
16. Projection method

a. Cylindrical projection with central meridian placed in a particular region.


17. Lines of contact

a. Any single meridian for the tangent projection. For the secant projection, two almost parallel lines equidistant from the central meridian. For UTM, the lines are about 180 km from the central meridian.
18. Linear graticules

a. The equator and the central meridian. 19. Properties a. Shape 1) Conformal. Small shapes are maintained. Larger shapes are increasingly distorted away from the central meridian. b. Area
1) Distortion increases with distance from the central meridian.

c. Direction 1) Local angles are accurate everywhere. d. Distance 1) Accurate scale along the central meridian if the scale factor is 1.0. If it is less than 1.0, there are two straight lines with accurate scale equidistant from and on each side of the central meridian.
20. Limitations

a. Data on a spheroid or an ellipsoid cannot be projected beyond 90 from the central meridian. In fact, the extent on a spheroid or ellipsoid should be limited to 1520 on both sides of the central meridian. Beyond that range, data projected

to the Transverse Mercator projection may not project back to the same position. Data on a sphere does not have these limitations. b. A new implementation called Transverse_Mercator_complex has been added to the Projection Engine which is available in ArcGIS desktop. It accurately projects to and from Transverse Mercator up to 80 from the central meridian. Because of the more complex mathematics involved, performance is affected.
21. Uses and applications

a. State Plane Coordinate System, used for zones that are predominantly north south. b. USGS 71/2 minute quad sheets. Most new USGS maps after 1957 use this projection, which replaced the Polyconic projection. c. North America (USGS, central meridian scale factor is 0.926). d. Topographic Maps of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain after 1920. e. UTM and GaussKrger coordinate systems. The world is divided into 60 north and south zones six degrees wide. Each zone has a scale factor of 0.9996 and a false easting of 500,000 meters. Zones south of the equator have a false northing of 10,000,000 meters to ensure that all y values are positive. Zone 1 is at 177 W. f. The GaussKrger coordinate system is similar to the UTM coordinate system. Europe is divided into zones six degrees wide with the central meridian of zone 1 equal to 3 E. The parameters are the same as UTM except for the scale factor, which is equal to 1.000 rather than 0.9996. Some places also add the zone number times one million to the 500,000 false easting value. GK zone 5 could have false easting values of 500,000 or 5,500,000 meters.

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