An Asymmetric Delphi Study of Viewer Impacts and Film Attributes: Selecting Film For Instruction

AN ASYMMETRIC DELPHI STUDY OF VIEWER IMPACTS AND FILM ATTRIBUTES: SELECTING FILM FOR INSTRUCTION
by Fontaine C. Moore
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University June 2007
UMI Number: 3266270
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Fontaine Moore, 2007
AN ASYMMETRIC DELPHI STUDY OF VIEWER IMPACTS AND FILM ATTRIBUTES: SELECTING FILM FOR INSTRUCTION by Fontaine C. Moore has been approved June 2007 APPROVED: JEROME HALVERSON, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair BRUCE FRANCIS, Ph.D., Committee Member CYD STRICKLAND, Ph.D., Committee Member ACCEPTED AND SIGNED: __________________________________________ JEROME HALVERSON, Ph.D.
__________________________________________ Harry McLenighan, Ed.D. Dean, School of Education
Abstract A three-round Asymmetrical Delphi Study was used to survey an interdisciplinary group of 14 experts in fields relevant to the use of film within education. These fields include screenwriting; English and literature; film studies; cognitive psychology; neuropsychology; neuroscience; political science; and philosophy. Round 1 identified four major viewer impact categories: emotional, cognitive, aesthetic, and integrative. Round 2 posed a set of film attributes and sought links between them and impact types. Round 3 refined the attributes resulting in eight: content; character; artistic integrity; universality; uniqueness; internal logic; narrative structure; and technical competence. Impact/attribute combinations were identified that were considered most important preceding instruction and during instruction. More combinations of attribute/impacts fell into emotional categories when film was used prior to instruction and more fell in the cognitive categories when film was used during instruction. Desirable attribute/impact combinations selected by panelists provide a framework for a taxonomy of film to assist educators in a more deliberate and informed selection of instructional materials, specifically, feature films.
Dedication To my Father, Carl Macfarlane Jones and two Grandfathers, William Macfarlane Jones and Neilson Rittenhouse, who, if still alive, Ive no doubt would be proud not only that their genes survived, but even more important, their memes. And to my precious Annie who, Ive no doubt, has made doggie heaven a happier place as she did in gracing my life.
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Acknowledgments In 1997 I walked into a movie theater and out a changed person. In my 50 plus years on the planet, Id never been impacted by a filmor any fictionlike I was by James Camerons Titanic. What had happened? Was I alone or did other people share similar reactions? If so, was it just this film or did people have similar intense reactions to other films? How did this kind of transformation from a mere film happen? What mechanisms in the human psyche were at play? And even more important, how could this movie magic be tapped to make education more effective, lively, and fun for learners? Nine years and a dissertation later, Ive begun to find some answers, although many remain for the future. I am, therefore, especially indebted to James Cameron for investing such commitment and passion in a film that began my quest for answers. I often mention to friends and family that the gods must have been smiling on me to have lucked out in getting an angel committee. The support and challenges from Drs. Jerry Halverson, Bruce Francis, and Cyd Strickland have been a blessing on a personal as well as a professional level. I am forever in their debt, beyond the capability of mere words to convey. A number of others also deserve a huge shout out for not only sticking with me through a rather complex and challenging process but providing invaluable information that made a huge difference. Ones head is important, but nourishment of the heart is altogether different. And thats the kind of support I received from these very kind and very busy people. My heartfelt thanks and gratitude to Drs. Barbara Baker, Lew Hunter, Keith Oatley, Norman Holland, Karl Pribram, Suzanne Keen, Suki Stone, Cynthia Freeland, David Miall, Stephen Slaner, Jaine Foster-Valdez, and to Rose Noxon, Richard Walter, and Charles Winter. iv
Table of Contents Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... v List of Tables........................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ x CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ............................................................... 1 Impact of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 2 How the Problem Came Into Being ........................................................................................... 3 Interdisciplinary Studies and Research Traditions..................................................................... 6 Current Knowledge .................................................................................................................... 7 Approach to the Literature ....................................................................................................... 10 Purpose of the Study................................................................................................................. 11 Research Questions and Nature of the Study ........................................................................... 11 Significance of the Study ......................................................................................................... 12 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................. 14 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ....................................................................... 20 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 20 What Is Film? ........................................................................................................................... 21 The Film Viewer ...................................................................................................................... 36 Film Attributes Crossed by Viewer Traits ............................................................................... 65 Film and Learning .................................................................................................................... 67 v
Study Methodology and Reason for its Selection: The Delphi Method................................... 72 Summary of the Literature ....................................................................................................... 76 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 81 Researcher Role........................................................................................................................ 81 Researcher Biases and Expected Results ................................................................................. 82 Study Setting and Schedule...................................................................................................... 83 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 83 Ethical Considerations and Reporting of Study Results .......................................................... 84 CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS........................................................... 86 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 86 Study Participants..................................................................................................................... 88 Study Rounds ........................................................................................................................... 91 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 122 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND implications.............................................. 123 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 123 Research Methodology and Lessons Learned ........................................................................ 124 Study Findings and Conclusions ............................................................................................ 128 Future Research...................................................................................................................... 145 Application of Findings.......................................................................................................... 148 Insights ................................................................................................................................... 150 Final Thoughts........................................................................................................................ 151 vi
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 153 APPENDIX A. NOTES FROM CHOOSING A CLASSROOM FILM................................. 166 APPENDIX B. ROUND 1 QUESTIONS................................................................................... 169 APPENDIX C. ROUND 2 QUESTIONS................................................................................... 173 APPENDIX D. ROUND 3 QUESTIONS .................................................................................. 184 APPENDIX E. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS PRECEDING INSTRUCTION........................ 188 APPENDIX F. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS DURING INSTRUCTION............................... 190 APPENDIX G. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS FOR INSTRUCTIONTOTAL..................... 192 APPENDIX H. COMMENTS ON ATTRIBUTE INFLUENCE ON IMPACTS...................... 194 APPENDIX I. MATRIX PROVIDED TO PANELISTS PRIOR TO ROUND 3...................... 208
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List of Tables Table 1. Study Invitees, Acceptance, Discipline, and Participation by Study Round .................. 89 Table 2. Disciplines and Participants within Each........................................................................ 90 Table 3. Films Selected as Impactful by Release Date................................................................. 92 Table 4. Films by Impact Category.............................................................................................. 94 Table 5. Definitions for Each Impact Type ................................................................................ 101 Table 6. Definitions for Types of Development Presented to Panelists .................................... 103 Table 7. Importance of Developmental Level on Viewer Response to Film.............................. 104 Table 8. Definition of Film Attributes for Round 2.................................................................... 107 Table 9. Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Emotional Impacts ......................................... 108 Table 10. Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Cognitive Impacts........................................ 109 Table 11. Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Aesthetic Impacts......................................... 110 Table 12. Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Integrative Impacts ...................................... 111 Table 13. Revised Film Attributes for Round 3......................................................................... 113 Table 14. Comparison of Film Attributes Between Round 2 and Round 3 with Explanation ... 114 Table 15. Definition of Development Levels ............................................................................. 115 Table 16. The Most Important Factors to Consider for Film Selection Preceding and During Instruction Using Film ................................................................................................................ 116 Table 18. Film Attributes for Round 2 and Round 3 .................................................................. 136
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Table 19. Important Cells to Consider Prior to Instruction ........................................................ 140 Table 20. Important Cells to Consider During Instruction ......................................................... 141
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List of Figures Figure 1. Mind Map of Chapter 2, Review of the Literature........................................................ 20 Figure 2. A Nerve Cell Showing Axons and Dendrites................................................................ 43 Figure 3. The Seven Chakras ........................................................................................................ 56 Figure 4. Mind Map of Chapter 4, Data Collection and Analysis. ............................................... 86 Figure 5. Mind Map of Chapter 5, Results, Conclusions, and Recommendations. .................... 123
Film Selection for Education
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM Materials are a key component of the learning process at all levels, in all contexts, and throughout time. Instructional personnel use a myriad of materials to convey instructional messages and facilitate learning. While books are staples, other media are also employed, including film. Yet comparatively little attention has been paid by educators to the way different messages conveyed through different media impact learners and the learning processpossibly because this knowledge has not been integrated and organized in a way that can prove useful to educators. While this problem is constant across media, it is especially true for film, including fictional films, which have more conventionally been examined from the perspective of entertainment or art, not education. This lack of attention on the part of educators related to media and its impact on learners renders the selection of materials used for instruction an unsystematic, unscientific, and haphazard process with a concurrent loss of opportunity for significant learning. Could the viewing of the 2005 film version of Jane Austens book, Pride and Prejudice (Wright, Moggach, Bevan, Fellner, & Webster, 2005), for example, more effectively facilitate acquisition of given instructional goals and objectives than alternative materials? If so, what variables are involved and how would educators know to select this film over alternative material? What criteria can be applied to make such a decision? What are the relevant factors and attributes of a mediumboth in general and particularly, filmthat influence learner impact in the desired direction? How can medium attributesin this case filmbe described and organized to facilitate selection? In summary, how do the attributes of instructional media and
learner response interact and how can educators use this knowledge to better select materials and impact learning? Reiser and Gagn (1983) have tackled the issue of instructional material selection and decry the lack of a systematic process by which decisions are made. Other instructional design experts either briefly address the issue of materials selection or fail to address it at all. Among five books on the instructional design process, one of the most commonly used in courses on instructional design (Smith and Ragan, 1999, p. 286 287), devotes only two pages to materials selection; several only discuss the history of media within education; and the other three do not discuss material selection decisions within the instructional design process at all 1. Nor do educators typically spend significant time creating or selecting instructional materials (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Romberg and Carpenter, 1986; Reiser and Gagn, 1983). Given the time learners typically interact with instructional materials, the lack of knowledge and interest on the part of educators in attending to the potential impact of these materials and their selection, is alarming. Currently, readily-available tools that include up-to-date knowledge about media impact on learners are not to be found. Impact of the Problem According to a Department of Education study (Holton et al., 2005), in the 199899 school year, public schools average library expenditure was $8,700 per year, with expenditures among private schools, lower. This does not include textbooks issued to students or other forms
In addition to Smith and Ragan, these books include 2) Gagn, Briggs, and Wager's Principles of Instruction Design; 3) Gagn's Instructional Technology Foundations; 4) Instructional Design: International Perspectives, Volume 2: Solving Instructional Design Problems edited by Kijkstra, Seel, Schott, and Tennyson; 5) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology edited by Reiser and Dempsey.
of classroom instructional material. Nor does it include teacher-generated material or non-library or media center material. In the 2000 2001 school year, the median expenditure on instructional costs, which can be assumed to include teachers salaries as well as instructional materials, was $4,268 per student (Johnson, 2005, table 2). Since, at that time, there were over 14,000 (op cit., table 4) school districts with over 46,000,000 students throughout the United States (op cit., table 4), it is safe to say that millions of dollars are spent each year on instructional materials. These numbers do not include higher education nor expenditures for training within both the private and public sectors. Adding in these educational sectors, costs for materials used for instructional purposes likely range in the billions of dollars. Yet, as noted above, little is known about how various materials actually impact learners, in what ways, and for how long. Potentially, billions of dollars are being wasted each year due to this lack of knowledgea gap this research will seek to begin filling. Not only is money being wasted but there are likely social costs for which a price tag is harder to determine. Social costs fall under the category of lost opportunities. How much farther might learners go if provided with materials capable of making a significant impact on them? How much more fulfilling might their lives be and how many more contributions might they make to the lives of others? Losses of this variety are incalculable. How the Problem Came Into Being A number of issues shed light on how the problem developed. First, until recently little was known about the physiological processes that people bring to bear on various types of media, despite the focus on audio-visual instruction from the 1940s through the 1960s (Perlinger, 2004). The advent of cognitive psychology and neuroscience began to change this.
Film Selection for Education However, few researchers sought to better understand how physiological processes functioned related to materials in all media. Nor has this situation changed significantly as attention on the brain grew during the 1990s, the decade of the brain (Sprenger, 2002, p. 10). However, in the area of film, a new school of cognitive film theorists has begun to study viewer response, which sheds more light on the brain in relation to media (Plantinga & Smith, 1999).
Perhaps this dearth of focus on the impact of media on the part of educators stems from a widespread ignorance of how strong the potential impact can be, with implications for the efficacy of learning being lost. Or perhaps a lack of available information leads to its low prioritization on teachers laundry lists, or perhaps the claims of various audio-visual technologies of the past serving as a panacea for educational ills, has resulted in an undue amount of skepticism from the educational community. Looking at reactions to filmone an adaptation from a book and the other from a short storythe potential impact becomes clearer. About the 2005 film version of Pride and Prejudice (Wright et al., 2005), as well as Jane Austens book of the same title on which the movie is based, several readers on an Internet forum expressed the strong impact this story in different formats had on them: I do think that you almost cant watch this movie or read the book without it affecting your life. I have become much more manner conscious, I view guys in a different light, I am trying to make my brother more...umm...gentlemanly, I suppose is the word. I started playing the piano again, and even signed up to take ballroom dancing lessons. Pride and Prejudice is amazing (wiredlaura, 2006)! I dont do drugs, smoke, consume alcohol or even drink coffee. Hence, I thought I could NEVER be addicted to anything. But since this movie has left the theatres, it has been haunting me like a sickness... Im still skeptical about buying the expensive DVD, as I know the experience wont be half as good on TV. I am wondering, has anyone else also been addicted to this movie? It was too bad I caught this movie only in its last week in the theatres. Being a heterosexual male, I
thought Id hate this movie, and it was only out of morbid curiosity that I decided to check it before it went out of the theatres. But god, this movie has ruined my life. My nature is exactly like that of Darcy, and I had given up on ever finding a suitable partner for me. Until I watched this movie. Now, Im obsessed with finding my Liz Bennett. I have already posted my profile in tons of dating sites. And the music and scenes from the movie keep playing in my head, making it difficult for me to concentrate. I wish there were a rehab facility where I could de-addict myself from this movie (sies123, 2006)! I almost find that in all of my spare time I am on websites of the movie, listening to its soundtrack, or watching it. I have never ever been obsessed with something like this. This is a great movie. It has many people wishing it happened to them. And I am not excluded from that. If I could have one wish out of everything in the world it would be to live the life of Elizabeth BennettThis movie has changed my perspective on love all together. Although I sound like some romantic sap lunatic that says a romance changed her life, I cant help it. I have a lifeactually I had a life until I saw this movie. It is extremely weird. So is this movie addictive? What do you think? (krojao, 2006) As the above quotes indicate, films possess a profound ability to touch people at very deep levels and make significant differences in their lives. A perusal of the Internet Movie Database forums is full of hundreds of posts like these related to various films and often, the books and stories on which the films are based. These posts depict what can best be described as an obsession with a film as well as changes the poster has made in his or her life as a result of having viewed it. Another contributor to the lack of attention on educational materials selection stems from a lack of knowledge regarding the way people process media. This problem, in turn, results from a lack of proliferation of relevant knowledge within multiple disciplines that do not normally interact. A multi-disciplinary approach is required to gather and synthesize relevant information in one place at one time. For purposes of this exploration, educational neuronarratology will be used as an umbrella term.
Interdisciplinary Studies and Research Traditions In a related vein, knowledge germane to educational neuronarratology is often a product of qualitative rather than quantitative research. Although qualitative research is gaining purchase within various echelons of academia, it is too often suspect within more conservative academic circles and the lay community. According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003, p. 19-20), since the Renaissance, the worldview began shifting from a qualitative, faith-based view of knowledge to one based on sensory data and its measurement. This perspective gained momentum during the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, when a dualistic perspective blossomed in which belief was separated from observable, measurable facts, gleaned via a scientific approach to the physical world (Pinker, 1997, p. 212; Egan, 1997, p. 114). This scientific approach solidified into what has become known as quantitative, positivist, empirical research. Torff (2004) claims that the What Works Clearinghouses databases at the US Department of Education only includes quantitative research, an indicator of current emphasis on an underlying dualistic worldview implied by this approach. Among researchers on both sides, heightened recognition of and appreciation for both qualitative and quantitative research is needed. Federal guidelines mandating randomized trials should be rethought; blindness to the value of qualitative, mixedmethod, and quasi-experimental research needlessly restricts the database in educational research, promotes divisiveness in the education research community, and smacks of government-sponsored methodological repression (p. 30). Therefore, the prevailing social and political climate may contribute to the lack of interdisciplinary researchresearch that may not lend itself well to a quantitative, positivist tradition.
Current Knowledge While much knowledge exists relative to film and its impact on viewers, it is in piecemeal form and disseminated within a multitude of disciplines, although a comparatively new areacognitive film studieshas begun to gain ground and attract a cadre of scholars who have adopted a reader/viewer response perspective (Plantinga & Smith, 1999; Branigan, 1992; Caroll, 1988; Grodal, 1997, 1999; Smith, 2003). In addition, film studies have normally been conducted related to entertainment and art rather than instruction. Therefore, the use of film as a vehicle for education has to be extrapolated rather than directly plucked from most of the film studies literature. The selection of instructional materials is an activity conducted within the instructional design process. Instructional design models have been around for decades and, typically, tend to be used more within training than K-12 and higher education. Within training, sometimes this is as a result of standards that have been widely adopted and sometimes it is a requirement of a client. Within projects for the US military, for example, standards for the design and development of instructional programs are often detailed, including specific models that are to be used 2. However, even highly-articulated models do not cover the selection of media in any detail, if at all (Reiser & Gagn, 1983, p. 4). Within the instructional design literature, Reiser and Gagn (1983) have paid significant attention to the process of selecting instructional media. However, their treatment does not examine the process of human cognition as much as instructional purposes. Salomon (1979) and
Film Selection for Education Clark and Salomon (1986) examine the process in more depth in terms of the cognitive process
that the recipient of instructional materials brings to the table, as well as introduce the concept of attributes that particular media possess. The field of semiotics, further articulates specific mechanisms of communication, including film, that take on various values within a given medium. Criticisms of traditional instructional models have resulted in new conceptualizations of the process as more organic and learner-centered and less teacher-centered (Sims, 2006). For a more focused discussion on the process of learner response to media and its appropriate selection, however, it is necessary to turn to cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and multidisciplinary fields that have sprung up since the late 1980s, particularly narratology, narrative intelligence, and cognitive film studies. Beginning in the 1970s and 1980s, cognitive psychologists such as Jerome Bruner (1986, 1990, 2003), Mark Turner (1996), Donald Polkinghorne (1988), and Keith Oatley (1994) began examining human thought as a narrative process. This perspective is consistent with the temporal nature of human existence in which one event and the experience follows another. A narrative framework of human cognition provides a clearer link between it and literary and media theory on the one hand, and neuropsychology and neuropsychiatry, on the other. Around the same time that cognitive psychology gained predominance over its predecessor, behaviorism, computer scientists interested in exploring artificial intelligence (AI) began examining cognitive and narrative processes and synthesized a new discipline called
The author has worked as an instructional designer, primarily for US federal government clients and the US military, for over 20 years.
Film Selection for Education narrative intelligence (Mateas & Sengers, 2003). Literary and film studies, in turn, began to
develop an interest in the relationship between human cognition and media. Reader-response and receptivity theory, a post-modern movement within literary criticism, was espoused by a number of scholars including David Miall (2006) and Suzanne Keen (2006). Many of those within this school appropriated concepts from cognitive psychology to explain reader reactions to narratives. Many cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists also began examining the role of emotion in cognition, although few did so related to the narrative paradigm of thinking. These include Antonio Damasio (1999, 2000, 2003), Joseph LeDoux (1996, 2000), Candace Pert (1997), and Joseph Forgas (1999). Film theorists who embraced a cognitive perspective did the samenotably, Torben Grodal (1997, 1999), Greg Smith (2003), Nol Caroll (1988), Edward Branigan (1992), and Ed Tan (Smith, 2003, p. 70-75). Neuroscientific discoveries advanced more rapidly with the advent of non-invasive technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machines and more neuroscientific researchers became aware of the interdependence of psychological and biological systems that had previously been studied separately. New fields such as psychoneuroimmunology (Beatty, 2001) and neuropharmacology began to emerge (Pert, 1997; Schwartz, 2002; McGregor, 1992). From the 1980s on, more became known about how the brain worked and how it interacted with other parts of the body and the mind. In October 1991 the U.S. Congress passed legislation to establish an office within the National Institutes of Health (NIH), called the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) to investigate and evaluate promising unconventional medical practices (NCCAM, 2006)further blending what is
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often known as mind/body or integrative medicine (Pelletier, 2000; Weil, 1995; Chopra, 1999; Lipton, 2005). The commonality of these trends indicates a movement away from an objectivist, positivist, dualistic view of knowledge toward a more integrative perspective where reality is viewed as aspects of an integrated whole. The elephant may or may not change, but ones perspective on it does, depending on the time when the elephant is viewed and where one is standing. The common thread running through this orientation is a consensus about one object, an elephant, which is examined from multiple viewpoints. As a result of this worldview, disciplines began to meld and incorporate other academic traditions and perspectives to get a better fix on this entity known as an elephant. However, to date, none has been discovered that blends all of these disciplines together in order to examine how textsfilm in particularare able to produce some of the effects reported above, nor how this new knowledge can be tapped by educators when selecting instructional materials. However, as Nobel Laureate Eric Kandel (2006, p. 27) has claimed regarding interdisciplinary investigation, Nothing stimulates selfeducation more than pursuing a new area of research. Approach to the Literature In terms of organizing the literature review, two questions spring to mind: what, if any research has been done related to the study questions at hand and what information is known that adds specificity to study questions? Although the breadth of the topic is large and could include an extensive discussion of topics mentioned above, research related to the fundamental question, What kinds of films and what attributes within them tend to evoke what kinds of impact on and from viewers? serves to limit the scope. Discussed are the attributes of film that serve as
Film Selection for Education candidates for films impact; the types and potential causes of impacts noted during film viewing; and how this knowledge might be wedded into an instructional design process of selecting films for educational purposes. Examination of peripheral areas serves to provide context to the exploration of this question and a means to better understand study results.
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While the majority of references used in the literature review are primary sources, given the breadth of peripheral topics, more secondary sources are used than typical. In a few instances, tertiary sources are used as either a backup to other references or to provide a reference for common information. These instances, however, are limited. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to pull together relevant knowledge related to film and its impact on viewers in a form that can be used for more appropriate, useful decisions about media selection, specifically film, for educational purposes. To achieve this end, the study provides a conceptual basis for a taxonomy of film. The taxonomy is based on relevant characteristics and attributes of film and viewers with emphasis on the way viewers as learners process and respond to this medium. Future researchers may wish to employ fMRI or other scanning technologies to find out what goes on in the brain during exposure to different types of films. A taxonomy can provide a basis for selecting films that relate to the ways people process them. Research Questions and Nature of the Study The research questions for the study are: 1) What are the types of viewer impacts evoked by film? 2) What are specific film attributes that elicit these impacts? and 3) How might films be placed into a taxonomy according to their impact and corresponding attributes, to assist
Film Selection for Education educators in selecting appropriate films to achieve significant, effective learning? A multipleround survey of experts contains detailed questions aimed at answering these questions. During the first round, participants were asked to identify types of viewer impacts.
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Responses were analyzed and a synthesis provided to participants. Round 2 asked what attributes of film elicit the previously identified impacts. In round three, participants were asked to select the cells within a matrix that contained impact types as columns and film attributes as rows, that were the most important preceding and during instruction. Since responses to questions were analyzed for similar patterns and themes, and the research was not based on the testing of hypotheses, this study falls within the qualitative research tradition. Significance of the Study This study is significant for a number of reasons. First, this research and that which may follow will help answer the time-weary question common among educators: How can I get through to them? While this study is limited to films, similar studies can be conducted for other types of texts used as instructional materials. As mentioned previously, millions, if not billions of dollars are spent on instructional materials each year. It would be extremely useful to better understand how these materials impact learners so that educators can begin making more informed decisions about which are more likely to produce desired results. The hole in this knowledge is so large that it will allow not just a truck but a convoy through it. As noted, this knowledge gap likely exists because of the number of different disciplines required to fill the hole have not as yet been sufficiently integrated. This research is one small step toward that goal.
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Last, the United States is losing its edge in the battle to maintain worldwide educational superiority. Anything that can be done to ameliorate this situation is a boon. Dr. Pedro Noguera of Harvard Universitys School of Education has commented: even as the economy improved in the 1990s, the whole system of public education came under attack partially because of evidence that the performance of American children in math and science related subjects was significantly below that of their Asian and European counterparts. The shortage of qualified workers to fill jobs in the constantly expanding high tech sector of the economy, along with complaints from employers regarding the intellectual competence of high school graduates, has also fueled the demand for reform (Noguera, 2000, 1). In the 1983 report produced by the US Department of Education, A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), the following trends showing a decline in the nations schools were noted: The educational dimensions of the risk before us have been amply documented in testimony received by the Commission. For example: International comparisons of student achievement, completed a decade ago, reveal that on 19 academic tests American students were never first or second and, in comparison with other industrialized nations, were last seven times. Some 23 million American adults are functionally illiterate by the simplest tests of everyday reading, writing, and comprehension. About 13 percent of all 17-year-olds in the United States can be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy among minority youth may run as high as 40 percent. Average achievement of high school students on most standardized tests is now lower than 26 years ago when Sputnik was launched. (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1999, Indicators of the Risk). The remainder of the report is equally dismal, indicating the need to take positive action on all fronts.
Film Selection for Education Since 1983, many federal-level plans have been proposed and implemented to correct a continuing decline in US education. Currently, the No Child Left Behind legislation has been enacted and implemented in an effort to stem these declines (US Department of Education,
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2004). Although its efficacy is hotly debatedespecially within the education communityits goal of improving the American educational system generally is not. Because of the declining performance of the American school system and American learners, it becomes far more urgent to understand and fully tap the capabilities inherent in learning materials, including film. It is necessary, therefore, to understand more fully how learners respond to various media and how media attributes can be used to facilitate learning. Nor should adult learning and training in work-related environments be ignored. With competition increasing at ever-increasing rates on a worldwide scale, it is important for businesses to use the most effective training methods possible, including materials. A service industry, for example, that uses materials that allow customer service workers to put themselves in the customers place and actually feel the impact that different approaches effect, can make a significant contribution to how well that business succeedsnot to mention the potential, if unintended, benefits to employees and customers alike. Definition of Terms Diegesis (adj. diegetic). The telling of the thoughts or the inner processes of characters via a narrator, as opposed to showing. A narrator may speak to his or her reader or viewer from a first-person point of view, address them directly through a second-person perspective, or through the third-person perspective as an invisible or all-knowing narrator who relates events and characters upon which he or she may comment.
Film Selection for Education Esoterica. Literature produced outside of a scientific or academic tradition through phenomenological experiences or traditions that do not fall within the purview of aesthetics or the arts. An example of esoterica would be a text written by a non-academic regarding a
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channeled message. Esoteric literature does not normally contain references since it relies on the intuitions, insights, knowledge, or beliefs of its author. Heuristic. A particular technique or method of directing ones attention in learning, of discovery, or approach to problem-solving. Hermeneutics. The development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts. The concept of text extends beyond written documents to any number of objects subject to interpretation. A hermeneutic is a specific system or method for interpretation, or a specific theory of interpretation. Mimesis (adj. mimetic). An act of showing as opposed to telling what is going on in a narrative by the acting out of characters inner thoughts and emotions through action. Mise en Scne. French for putting into a scene. In film, it can refer to everything that appears before the camera: sets; props; actors, including their inflection, expression, and movement; costumes; makeup; lighting; color palette; and even the films style or mood. Mood. An emotional state that lasts longer than an emotion; is less forceful; more diffuse; involves more neural and physiological functions than an emotion; and serves to provide an orientation for incoming stimuli. Neuroplasticity. Changes in brain organization that result from learning and experience. The specific mechanism for the changes is the reorientation of parts of neurons or brain cells,
Film Selection for Education specifically axons, in relation to one another to formulate new channels of communication between brain cells. Neurotransmitter. A chemical substance manufactured in the brain that transmits electrical nerve impulses across the gaps (synapses) between neurons (cells of the nervous system including the brain). Examples include dopamine, noradrenalin, and serotonin. Paradigmatic Axis. A concept in semiotics that refers to a vertical axis that refers to the selection of specific items from within a category. For example, hat, coat, skirt within the category of clothing. Psychoneuroimmunology. A term coined in the early 1980s to emphasize interdisciplinary research of the relationship between psychological and neural processes and functions of the immune system. Phenomenology. Study of the world as it appears to individuals when they place themselves in a state of consciousness that reflects an effort to be free of everyday biases and beliefs. A research approach aimed at understanding how individuals construct and are constructed by social realities. (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003, p. 481) There are three major divisions: Hegels dialectic phenomenology; Husserls transcendental phenomenology; and Heideggers existential phenomenology. Schema (pl. schemata). A mental framework for organizing knowledge, creating a meaningful structure of related concepts. Semiotics. A branch of literary and media theory that studies signs, individually and grouped in sign systems. It includes examination of how meaning is created and understood.
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Film Selection for Education Structuralism. A school of literary and media criticism that focuses on the structure of messages, primarily in terms of their internal composition and relationships. It is often considered an approach within the field of semiotics.
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Syntagmatic Axis. A concept in semiotics for a horizontal axis that refers to the selection of episodes within a temporal framework. Within a narrative, an author would make choices about what incidents and episodes should follow and precede which others. Text. A cultural artifact resulting from a communication process in which an author encodes a message within a medium, then decoded by and reacted to by a reader or viewer. Tribe. The group with which an individual most strongly identifies. Often the tribe is identified by religious affiliation but may be based on other associations such as racial, educational, geographical, or ethnic identity. Tribal identify generally begins with ones family of original and may or may not expand and change over time. Weltanschauung. German for a look onto the world or a wide world perception, specifically, philosophical. In English, this is commonly called a worldview. Zeitgeist. German for a sociopolitical climate or worldview that persists for a period of time within a particular culture and group within that culture. Similar to weltanschauung but connotes both a group and longer duration. Assumptions and Limitations Although the initial plan for this research was to examine all media, given the goal of creating a taxonomy that could provide the basis for a tool to help educators make effective decisions related to instructional material, the scope was limited to one mediumfilm. This limitation enables testing of an approach to create such a tool that can apply in the future. Once
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viewer response to film is examined relative to education, a framework will exist, lessons can be learned, and the stage set for explorations of other types of texts used for instructional media. An integrated framework of all media types can then assist educators in making more informed, conscious decisions about instructional material selection from an array of potential choices. Film has been selected because: (a) it is one of the most complex media and involves a plethora of attributes that require multiple senses for processing, (Salomon, 1979; Clark & Salomon, 1986); (b) it is infrequently used within education compared to other media such as written texts (Reiser & Gagn, 1983); (c) it is produced through the interaction of a team rather than one or more authors; (d) recipient reactions to films are readily available for analysis and as a source of examples; and (e) it holds tremendous potential for evoking significant behavioral and attitudinal change. Fictional films will serve as a primary focus rather than non-fiction films, primarily, because more has been written about them and there are more of them available. While it is possible that factors related to film viewing such as environment; projected image size; viewing vehicle (e.g., television, computer, movie screen); or specific filmic medium (videotape, DVD, digital film, regular television broadcast, high-definition television broadcast) make a significant difference to an individuals response, the impact of these differences is not addressed. Nor is the environment in which a film is viewed, although there is general agreement among both professionals and lay people, that the environment in which a film is viewed plays a significant role in an individuals reaction to the film. For purposes of this study, all these variations are treated as film and film viewing. Most of those invited to participate in the study were authors whose work was referenced in the literature review. Fourteen accepted the invitation. However, not all participated in all
Film Selection for Education rounds nor did those participating in a survey round answer all questions. The study panel represented those disciplines examined in the literature review and included educators, psychologists, neuroscientists, literary theorists, and film studies and screenwriting experts, along with a philosopher and a political scientist with a doctoral degree in education. Although reaction to film and its selection by educators is relevant to all ages and developmental levels, the study focus was primarily on adolescents and adults. Therefore, examples of response to films draw primarily from these populations. It is, likewise, expected
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that the resulting taxonomy will be more relevant for secondary, higher, and adult educators and trainers than it will be for early and elementary school educators. The study, as intended, did not produce a taxonomy in usable form by classroom teachers. Instead, it provides a conceptual framework for a taxonomy to be developed from this framework. Once created, the taxonomy will serve as a reflective rather than a prescriptive tool. This research also assumes a Western research and philosophical tradition. This may pose a potential bias in the way that various topics and disciplines are approached. Throughout the thesis editing process, efforts have been made to remain conscious of potential biases and identify and eliminate them, to the extent possible.
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Since no studies appropriate for use within an educational environment were discovered related to an existing taxonomy of film after an exhaustive search through a myriad of disciplines, this chapter has been organized around key subjects relevant to the creation of such a taxonomy, including the disciplines from which those subjects come. From a practical standpoint, the chapters goal is twofold: to identify candidates for an expert panel whose opinions were most likely to help generate such a taxonomy, and to identify information relevant for questions likely to elicit the best data from these panelists. The organization is shown below.
Figure 1. Mind Map of Chapter 2, Review of the Literature
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What Is Film? What is actually meant by the term film and how does it relate to other forms of communication and other media? Without being pinned down, film can mean different things to different people, ranging from a Hollywood feature film to a videotaped news snippet. The more narrowly film is defined, the more its relevant features become clear. Different disciplines add clarity to an understanding of what film is and is not. From the standpoint of semiotics, a sub-field of linguistics devoted to the study of signs, film is a type of text. Semiotician Daniel Chandler (2002, p. 244) defines a text as a system of signs that can be read, adding that, semiotics seeks to analyse texts as structured wholes and investigates latent, connotative meanings (p. 8). He clarifies this definition by stating that: A text is an assemblage of signs (such as words, images, sounds and/or gestures) constructed (and interpreted) with reference to the conventions associated with a genre and in a particular medium of communication (Chandler, 2002, p. 2-3). Social semioticians Hodge and Kress (1988, p. 6) define text as a structure of messages or message traces which have a socially ascribed unity. Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner (2003, p. 45) states, The central concern is not how narrative as text is constructed, but rather how it operates as an instrument of mind in the construction of reality. Film theorist Edward Branigan (1992) describes text as: a certain collection of descriptions of an artifact where the artifact must be one that materializes a symbol system, and the descriptions that are offered of it must be sanctioned by a society. Thus a text is more than the material of an artifact and more than the symbols materialized: a text is always subject to change according to a social consensus about the nature of the symbols that have been materialized (p. 87). Thus, film is a type of text and a text can be defined as a cultural artifactnormally tangible, but not necessarily sothat results from the communication process: an author
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encoding a message into a medium that is decoded and responded to by a recipientor viewer in the case of film. A text is cultural in the sense that it has an author who creates it, a message, and a medium through which it is conveyed, all of which are influenced by the society in which it is created. Likewise, the culture in which the recipient operates influences his or her decoding of and response to a text. Therefore, although not all texts are films, all films are texts. From a physical perspective, film is a medium of communicationan artifact composed of moving images and sound. Feature films are generally 90 minutes to three hours long and tell a story. However, it is the capabilities inherent in this medium and their applicability to education that provide the focus of this study. Attributes of Film as Text While film can be analyzed from multiple perspectives, when examining it for potential use within education, film as a type of text is especially useful. Therefore, that will be the primary perspective adopted in the ensuing discussion. Narratology Because feature films are narrative in nature it is useful to introduce a discipline that came into its own in the 1970s called narratology. Narratology helps define some of films key attributes. As narratologist Dino Felluga (2001, 1) explains: Narratology examines the ways that narrative structures our perception of both cultural artifacts and the world around us. The study of narrative is particularly important since our ordering of time and space in narrative forms constitutes one of the primary ways we construct meaning in general. Hayden White (1987), whom Felluga cites, claims that narrative relates not just to the codes discussed in semiotics but represents a meta-code that speaks to universal human
Film Selection for Education experience and is, therefore, transcultural in conveying a message about shared realities. Put
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another way, human beings share a common experience of time in which one event occurs after another throughout the human lifespanthis temporality being a fundamental aspect of a narrative. Onega and Garcia Landa (1996) provide a simpler definition of narratology as the science of narrative (p. 1). They also offer a discussion of narrative in relation to semiotics and texts: A narrative is the semiotic representation of a series of events meaningfully connected in a temporal and causal way. Films, plays, comic strips, novels, newsreels, diaries, chronicles and treatises of geological history are all narratives in this wider sense. Narratives can therefore be constructed using an example variety of semiotic media: written or spoken language, visual images, gestures and acting, as well as a combination of these. Any semiotic construct, anything made of signs can be said to be a text. Therefore, we can speak of many kinds of narrative texts: linguistic, theatrical, pictorial, filmic (p. 3). So far, film is classified as a type of text, but a specific one, a narrative. The narrative nature of a text connotes its temporality. This understanding helps locate film within academic traditions and conceptualizations as well as articulating one of its prominent attributesthat of linearity. The Process of Filmmaking Another significant characteristic of film is the process by which it is created. Unlike other narrative texts, it is seldom achieved by one author. This creates far more complexity. Rarely does an original screenplay survive as the original authors vision since filmmaking is a highly collaborate process in which many different players provide input to and act on the final story told. It is not uncommon for film producers to purchase a screenplay from its original
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writer and have other writers edit and change itsometimes unrecognizably. In fact, the Writers Guild of America, West (2007) has created a guide that explains a complex system of crediting for screenwriters. Producers, directors, actors, and editors also leave their mark on the story told in the original screenplay. In fact, this is more the rule than the exception (Lucey, 1996; Walter, 1997; McKee, 1997; Seger, 1990, 1994; Hunter, 1993). One exception, however, is the film Titanic which served as the vision of one author, James Cameron, who played all key authoring roles writer, director, and editor. Film Genre Genre, as the name implies, is an attempt to classify different films but suffers from a lack of scientific process because different critics, analysts, and audiences apply different standards and use different film attributes to classify films. To date, there is no standard, acceptable classification. Would Ang Lees (2005) Brokeback Mountain be considered a western because it takes place in the west and the main characters are cowboys, a queer film because its protagonists are engaged in a homosexual relationship, or would it be considered a melodrama because it focuses on a romantic relationship? Few films fit neatly into one category. As Stam (2000) comments: A number of perennial doubts plague genre theory. Are genres really out there in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culture-bound or transcultural? Does the term melodrama have the same meaning in Britain, France, Egypt, and Mexico? Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? Genre taxonomies in film have been notoriously imprecise and heterotopic, having some of the qualities of Foucaults Chinese encyclopedia (p.14).
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Stam (2000) also hits on an issue related to genre theory in terms of which film attributes it addresses: While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performerbased (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), locat[ion] (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema) (p.14). Note that within this speculation, one perspective notably missing is that of the viewer and what he or she expects when sitting down to view a film or how he or she typically classifies them. Stams classification possibilities are based on the attributes of the films themselves or those of their authors. Bordwell (1989, p. 78-84) discusses the history of genre studies and in the process, reinforces the notion that it is based on thematic content within filmsput another way, the author/filmmakers intent. Intellectually, the evolution of genre studies, which came into its own in the 1960s, was rife with debate which took place largely within that school of criticism known as structuralism, even though the debate ranged from diverse philosophical perspectives. According to Chandler (2000), this debate continues, in part due to the many exceptions and permutations that can be found in any given film. He states that Jacques Derrida proposed that a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without a genre. Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genreless text (Derrida 1981, 61) ( 32). Therefore, while agreement has been reached that genre exists, for all intents and purposes, that is the end of the agreement. However, some academics with film as a primary focus do adopt the perspective of the film viewer.
Film Selection for Education Film cognitivists embrace physiology and emotion as integral aspects of cognition and agree that one of films primary characteristics is its ability to evoke emotion on the part of viewers. (See Sweeney, 1994 for an overview of film cognitivism.) Jeff Smith (1999), Torban Grodal (1999), and Nol Carroll (1999), in particular, adopt a viewer-centered approach and relate film genres to emotions evoked, although each has a slightly different perspective. Smith (1999, p. 166) suggests that genre relates to mood and the schemata elicited by those moods and suggests that film music plays a significant role in mood elicitation and
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maintenance. Grodal, (1999, p. 143-144) who stresses character empathy as a key determinant of viewer emotional activation, emphasizes proximity to characters as the basis for genre definition, while Carroll (1999, p. 34-35) focuses on the predominant themes and techniques of a film as a whole in evoking particular types of emotions as the basis for defining genres. While some agreement between these three exists in specifying genres, due to the variation in their viewpoints, their genre lists of are, likewise, different. Grodal (1997, p. 161 & 174-176), for example, includes a genre he calls schizoid horror which the other theorists dont. All three, however, include melodrama and horror in their viewer-oriented genre schemes. Film in the Classroom Cognitive psychologist, Gavriel Salomon (1979), has moved a step forward in examining how a mediums attributes map to cognitive functions and, therefore, apply to education specifically, the symbol systems inherent within media. Nor is he the only psychologist who has addressed the concept of media attributes. He takes exception to McLuhans theory that the medium is not the message, however, when he states:
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Thus, the medium in not the message in McLuhans (1965) sense, but the new symbol systems that evolve through the interaction between the mediums technology and preexisting symbol systems influence the message of that medium. As Carpenter (1960), McLuhans predecessor, has pointed out, the symbol systems that typify a medium are not mere envelopes into which unaltered messages are inserted. The symbol systems affect the content and give it distinctive form. Indeed, as a medium such as television develops, it not only moves farther away from its next of kinfilm and radioit even changes filmic messages when these are transmitted through it (p. 22-23). Salomon (1979) makes a distinction between symbol systems that are potential within a medium and those that are actually used. He believes that much of the potential of various media are not sufficiently exploited, particularly within education. He also contends that, Neuropsychological evidence, although somewhat ambiguous, supports the general contention that different symbolic modes of information are processed in different parts of the brain (p. 67). Since he made this statement in 1979 and far more has become known about neurological functions, his observation regarding future directions in understanding medias impact on people stands as particularly insightful. Unfortunately, most of the decisions made regarding selection of media within education are at a relatively superficial level and focus more on external factors such as cost and convenience than capability to convey the right message in the right way vis vis the goals and objectives of the instruction and characteristics and needs of learners. Reiser and Gagns (1983, p. 4) review of media selection models states they reflect a preoccupation with technical considerations (e.g., convenience, portability) and are relatively short on instructional design consideration. Reiser and Gagn (1983) do, however, address the issue of media selection and have examined various models, and generate their own. These authors echo concern with a general
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inattention to media selection, both by those who do the selecting as well as those who evaluate the selection decisions of others. Why should selection of media be a burning question? When does media selection become a critical issue? The answer is, of course, whenever instruction is being planned to be optimally effective. Much instruction is not planned that way, regardless of where and how it is delivered. But todays emphasis on effectiveness (including costeffectiveness) and on accountability of instructional programs serves to make the role of media increasingly important to the total program (p. 3). Not only is it important to use a systematic process when selecting instructional media, but it is, likewise, important to make these decisions at the right time when designing instruction. The major difference between Reiser and Gagns (1983) approaches to media selection and the approach taken by Salomon (1979), is that the former relates reader/viewer factors specifically to different types and levels of educational goals and objectives when discussing the attributes of various media using traditional methods of instructional design. Therefore, Reiser and Gagns model consists of matching the attributes of the learning objective with the gross-level characteristics of learners, and superficial characteristics of the medium in question. They use a flow chart to aid in media selection. Although Reiser and Gagns (1983) model is far more systematic and requires more consciousness related to media selection than commonly found, it fails to address impact and learner change at deeper levels. It is one thing to learn to read and another to be able to read in such a way to support a qualitative shift in ones worldview and even more important, ones life and the lives of others. While these authors address specific instructional objectives, they do not discuss meta-objectiveshow education can and should make a qualitative difference in learners life. In order for a message encoded within a film to attain that level of learning and
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potential transformation, a more in-depth examination of the viewer and his or her characteristics as they relate to a text is required. Richard Clark and Gavriel Salomon: Media in the Classroom Because the work of Clark and Salomon (1986; Salomon, 1979) is central to a discussion of media attributes in relation to media selection for education, their work will be explored in more detail. These authors review considerable research conducted on the effectiveness of one form of media over another. They found that the studies were marred both through methodological problems but ever more pervasive, the conclusion that the medium through which an instructional message was delivered did not appear to make much difference once novelty wore off. The problem, they contend, is that this research focuses on gross categories of media rather than specific attributes possessed by various media types. The shift from behaviorism to cognitive processes beginning in the 1970s heralded a different approach to mediaone in which media attributes were examined in relation to mental processing (Clark & Salomon, 1986, p. 467). One finding by Anderson and Lorch was that attention was elicited through comprehensibility, not the other way around as previously believed. This finding supports notions of accessibility and user-friendliness as a way to gain and keep attention (op cit, p. 467). Therefore, if a text exceeds the ability of the reader to comprehend it, it will fail to keep their attention long enough for them to learn from it. Revisiting the contention of Roland Bathes that, Ironically, it is readerly texts which tend to be described as readable, whilst writerly texts are often referred to as unreadable because they require more effort (Chandler, 1995, 6), the challenge appears to be finding the right blend between challenge and achievability.
Film Selection for Education An adage comes to mind of one wanting a tennis partner who is sufficiently better to demand a stretch and challenge, but not so much better as to be discouraging. Matching reader
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characteristics and filmspecifically its messagemay be even more important than matching the text to instructional goals and objectives. This refutes the assumptions inherent in Reiser and Gagns media selection model (Reiser & Gagn, 1983) that places those considerations first when making media selection decisions. When discussing the shift from behaviorism to cognition Clark and Salomon (1986) tackle the area of media attributes and the symbol systems inherent in them, stating that: By and large, there were at least two results of the shift in focus in media research. First, there was the need to identify critical attributes of media which not only distinguish between media in meaningful ways but which also affect learning-relevant cognitions.The second result was the long-overdue development of theories (p. 467). One theory they examined is that of Olson who contends that different activities or behaviors not only provide different experiences of the world but also involve different cognitive mechanisms (Clark & Salomon, 1986). This contention is supported by findings in neuroscience. Olson suggested (1974) that perhaps the function of media that present new symbol systems is not so much to convey old knowledge in new forms but rather to cultivate new skills for exploration and internal representation (Clark & Salomon, 1986, p. 468). Salomon proposes the theory that the symbol systems inherent within a given medium correspond to those within the human mind, although not all media take advantage of all their symbol systems to convey information. He contends that only instruction that utilizes symbol systems conducive to a stretch in mental skills is likely to effect new learning (Clark & Saloman, 1986).
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Salomon and Clark further examine cognitive theory in relation to imagery, propositional thought, and memory in terms of how the symbol systems possessed by various media correspond to brain functions involved in cognition. While they appear to be heading in the right direction, they are disadvantaged by the limitations of cognitive discovery in 1986. What Clark and Salomon (1986) do not mention is the impact of affect on cognitive mechanismseither potential carriers with medias symbol systems or those within human cognition. Nor do they discuss the degree of learning within the immediate instructional situation or within a longer and wider context, or the impact that certain schema and scripts and emotions that accompany them that may be used as filtering devices. However, these authors contribute significantly to the literature related to instructional media in terms of human cognition through their own theories as well as their discussion of the theories of others such as Olsen. While Salomon (1979), in particular, has provided a service by coining the concept of media attributes in relation to media and further elucidating it via symbol systems, this terminology doesnt extend to operationalizing either concept. Exactly what are films attributes and symbol systems? Nor is Salomon alone in addressing the particular attributes of media. Kracauer (1960) notes that, Film, in other words, is uniquely equipped to record and reveal physical reality and, hence, gravitates toward it (p. 28). He later quotes a woman of his acquaintance as having noted that, In the theater I am always I but in the cinema I dissolve into all things and beings (p. 159). While on a micro-level, attributes may vary depending on which specific medium is discussed, these variations are at too specific a level to impact the discussion.
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Salomon (1979, p. 51) notes that typically, little analyses of the symbol systems within a given medium such as film, have attained any significant consensus. Although he is speaking in 1979, given the lack of current consensus regarding genre, his contention is likely still more true than not. It also speaks to the desirability of the current research that seeks to generate a taxonomy of film based on viewer cognitive and affective traits. Salomon (1979) also offers one of the most germane definitions of film when he explains that: Film is not a symbol system, nor does it use one symbol system. It is a medium that utilizes many symbol systems simultaneouslyphotography, gesture, speech, dance, music, andother, more film-specific systems as well. Film is therefore a meeting place of multiple codes that serves as a means of communication in which stories are told (Kjrup, 1977). As film is not just a collection of single, discrete utterances but a whole message-unit (whether a feature, documentary, or instructional film), it communicates through orchestration and compounding of messages within symbol systems and multiple-symbol-system episodes (p. 52). The Educational Film While Salomon, Clark, Reiser, and Gagn all discuss use of media and ways it can be considered and chosen, is useful to consider the history of film in the classroom. According to Prelinger (1994) who has assembled public domain films, including many educational films from the 1940s through the 1960s, Between 1945 and 1960, hundreds of films about family dynamics, social guidance, etiquette and manners, behavior, and child and adolescent development were produced for the educational market ( 2) in an attempt to avoid the kind of social disintegration that World War I was said to have createda twenties-type lost generation of hedonistic, sexually expressive, alcoholic nihilists ( 2).
Film Selection for Education A short 1963 film produced for teachers (McGraw-Hill, 1963) explains how to select a film for use in the classroom. This film is still relevant despite its dated look and feel. Some of the major points made are that different techniqueswhich can also be thought of as film
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attributescan be used in films to support different instructional goals. Therefore, film selection should be based on a combination of a films techniques (or attributes), the goals of instruction, and knowledge of students. However, knowledge of students, while noted, was not explored in any detail. Why would certain film techniques better support students in attaining instructional goals? This element has typically been neglected not just in 1963 but remains neglected today. How do film techniques or attributes relate to the way people process film and what makes the difference? That deficiency noted, other points made were so relevant that they are summarized in detail in Appendix A, Notes from Choosing a Classroom Film. Feature Film as Instructional Material A number of articles in the literature describe the use of fictional films for instruction. Most either relate to specific courses, disciplines, specific films, or a combination. Few to none focus on the theoretical foundations for using fiction as entertainment for non-fictional learning or criteria for selecting films, although some do make casual note of it within the context of their respective discussions. None, however, was written from a scientific or even theoretical perspective of how individuals engage the medium of film in terms of its impact, either neurologically or psychologically. The two disciplines with the most literature were the teaching of social studieshistory in particularand English. One of the social studies articles also addressed geography and films ability to evoke a sense of place (Sutton, 2004).
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If it is now generally accepted that space has both a non-physical (subjective) aspect as well as a physical (objective) one, then this is equally true of place. A place can be a landscape record of change; it can as well be a portrait or a record of the people who live or lived there. A place can be both local and global (p. 62). Most of the articles point out films inherent ability to evoke emotions but fail to explain the value of or relationship of emotion to cognition. However, several articles point out the motivational nature of film with an assumption that such motivation assists cognition and, thereby, learning. One of the most frequently made points across articles is that films, movies, and television constitute a large part of learners everyday world and are, therefore real world and more relevant to them, as stated by Kracauer (1960), decades earlier. As (Weinstein, 2001) says: Generally speaking, students like movies. Films have been entertaining and delighting most of us since we sat transfixed at our first animated matinee. We begin, then, with a medium that is comfortable and nonthreatening, one with special appeal to todays visually-oriented cadre of students. To undergraduate students dutifully and often resentfully fulfilling their history requirement, it is an alternative to yet another reading assignment. Given the appeal of film, this assignment can serve to involve students in history and increase their enjoyment of the subject (p. 30). To critics who claim that screenwriters play fast and loose with facts and use them to serve their storiesa definite no no to history teachersauthors of these articles point out that the lack of fidelity to historical events can be used to advantage as a way to test where a filmic depiction and historical consensus diverge. This can support historical thinking skills and can lead to the realization that history is not a matter of fact but interpretation. Therefore, the proficient teacher of history will use this facet of period films to their advantage. Hollywood films may tender opportunities to develop students historical understanding, including, but not limited to, interpretation of evidence, increased historical empathy, exploration of historical perspective, and connecting the past to the present and to ones own life. Films can serve as evidence of the past, what Seixas (1996) calls traces and accounts, and become documents that students analyze and interpret. By
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applying films as a tool of historical inquiry, teachers provide students with engaging primary and secondary sources that connect to their lives and offer unique perspectives and interpretations of historical events and themes. The power of films visual medium coupled with their narrative core open the door for students, with guidance, to cultivate a mature sense of historical empathy. Finally, watching films and examining the circumstances around their creation, public reception, and historical context may promote students historical thinking and awareness of historical perspective (Marcus, 2005, p. 62). Some teachers of English are beginning to define their curricula more as the study of texts with print being only one form (Sommer, 2001). From this perspective, film is as worthy as the written word. Much of the remaining focus of using film within the English curriculum relates to a comparison between an adaptation of a film and the book. According to Ungerleider (1997), By examining a story which has been translated to film, students can better appreciate the strengths and limitations of the two media ( 1). Nor are films used strictly with the soft subjects, as one education/film-related project indicates. The CBS television show, NUMB3RS features two brothersone an FBI agent and the other, a math genius and professor who applies math to help his brother solves crimes. CBS has teamed up with Texas Instruments and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics to create an educational program to accompany each weekly episode of the television show (CBS, Texas Instruments, & NCTM, 2007). The We All Use Numbers Every Day program is webbased and contains instructional materials for teachers and parents. Another web-based organization, Teach with Movies (2006), includes lesson plans for educators geared to specific films. For a modest monthly subscription, members have access to 270 films 3. Lesson guides for these films include: (a) benefits; (b) potential (subject-related)
This is the number claimed as of May, 2007.
Film Selection for Education problems with the film; (c) story synopsis; (d) vocabulary building; (e) Internet links; (f) discussion questions; (g) references to related reading; and (h) possible class projects. The
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organization sorts films by subject, character development, and age, and the disciplinary focus is on history, English, and science. Although these articles and websites indicate that film is being used within education, no mention is made of criteria that should be used for selecting films, much less criteria based on learner characteristics, the next topic explored. The Film Viewer Following discussion of film attributes, it is appropriate to bring the viewer more fully into the picture. Viewer response to texts is largely found under the rubric of reader-response and receptivity theory, or in the case of film, viewer-response. However, other perspectives also explain underlying mechanisms that lead to a reader/viewers response to film. Despite the interest of reader-response theorists in relation to the recipient, (Mora & Welsh, 2006; Wikipedia, 2006b) scant interest has been paid to the impact rendered upon him or her. As Miall (2006, p. 175) states, few literary scholars have thought of asking ordinary readers what occurs when they read. He adds that while much anecdotal evidence exists that the act of reading texts impacts readers, he asks, Why is this apparently common and important experience [the impact of reading texts] so little studied? While Miall addresses reading, the same questions apply to film viewing. This de-emphasis of the importance of the viewer is the result of several factors. First, only recently has much become known about how people respond to stimuli on a neurological level. The advancement of neuroscience, especially the advent of non-invasive techniques such
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as PET, MRI, fMRI and similar imagining technologies (Carter, 1998, p.25-28; Rose, 2006) has facilitated information-gathering about what goes on inside peoples brains when exposed to various stimuli. Traditional psychology has been able to shed light on how people respond to stimuli but not the specific physical mechanisms involved in those responses. Use of the new non-intrusive technologies has yet, however, to be embraced by cognitive and neuroscientific researchers in terms of recipient reaction to media as evidenced by a dearth of research findings in this area. Part of the lack of attention on text recipients, including film viewers, can also be attributed to motivational tendencies which dispose people to focus on their own actions rather than the impact those actions have on others. Education is a case in point. Teachers typically concentrate on what they say and do rather than what students are to learn (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Young, Reiser, and Dick, 1998), much less how they go about learning it. As a case in point, as of the summer of 2006, the graduate library of a large state university counted only four resources on brain-based learning among its collection of thousands of education-related books 4. Another university with a school of education and several programs within it, offer no courses on brain-based learning. 5 This is just one small indicator of a lack of attention among the education community of the relative lack of focus on how people learn, not to mention how they process materials aimed at facilitating that learning.
For verification purposes, on the university's online search page located at http://catalog.umd.edu/F/?func=file&file_name=find-b&local_base=cp, under the "type of search field," choose the "title word/s" option. In the "enter word/s to search" field, enter "brain-based." As of the summer, 2006 only four titles appeared and the relevance of several was questionable. 5 As of the winter of 2007, the catalogue of Capella University offers no courses in brain-based learning.
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Miall (2006, p. 176-177) offers an additional perspective: In our classrooms we may too persistently have called on readers to marginalize their personal experience of literary texts in order to participate in the game of interpretation and goes on to add, Almost no professional attention is being paid to the ordinary reader, who continues to read for the pleasure of understanding the world of the text rather than for the development of a deconstructive or historicist perspective (Miall & Kuiken, 1998). Recipients, be they literary readers or film viewers, are far more interested in the personal impact of a story than an abstraction of its meaning within a social context (op cit, p. 178). While academic programs for education often emphasize a reversal in focusfrom instructor to learnerin daily practice this happens infrequently. The result is less being known about responses to films or the factors that drive them, or if known, being applied in the real world of the classroom. Explanations for this self-focus will become more obvious in a later discussion on development theoryespecially at higher levels. Reader-response and Receptivity Theory Miall is part of a group of academics who adhere to a relatively new theory known as reader-response or receptivity theory. Onega and Garcia Landa (1996) articulate the history of this theory. Phenomenology is a systematic study of experience. It approaches reality in a formal system of relationships, so leading naturally to the problem of additional subsystems such as literary works and fictional objects and converging with semiotics in the study of sign systems and representationsCritics such as Wolfgang Iser have further developed the phenomenological study of reception and reading in closer convergence with the structuralists. There is, in addition, a rather well-defined phenomenological approach to narrative which is associated with existentialist philosophy (p. 24).
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Nor is reception theory limited to literature or other forms of written narrative. Cognitive film theorist Torben Grodal (1997) states that: Hermeneutically and phenomenologically inspired reception analysis, such as that carried out by Jauss (1982) and Iser (1978), for example, and cognitive reception analysis of Bordwell, have convincingly demonstrated the validity and necessity of describing the reception process as one taking place both in time and in an addressee (p. 3-4). Polkinghorne (1988) further elucidates reception theory within the context of literary criticism and further reinforces Grodals assertions within the context of the communication model while situating reception theory within a general constructivist tradition and worldview: Reception theory continues the point-of-view use of the communication model, but it shifts the focus from the sender of the narrative message to the receiverthe reader, who interprets or understands the text. It is this hermeneutic process that is the concern of reception theory. As Wolfgang Iser argues, however, interpretation is not seen to be the process that Dilthey described as an empathic re-experiencing of the authors meaning. Iser opposes what he calls the referential model in which the reader is called on to hunt for a truth tucked away in the fold of the textual fabric. He urges that more attention be paid to the process of interpretation than to the result. Meaning is not to be dug out of the text or pieced together from textual clues, it is reached through an interactive process that takes place between the reader and the text. And interpretation does not entail the discovery of a determinate meaning in the text; it is rather in experiencing the work that meaning is created (p. 96). One last perspective on reader response theory helps situate it within Western philosophical thought through the advancement of technology. This perspective comes from a new field known as narrative intelligence that seeks to combine narrative theory and computationspecifically artificial intelligence (AI). This interdisciplinary field corresponds to emphases currently found in studies of instruction via computer. Proponents seek to locate narrative intelligence (NI) within the tradition of literary studies. As such, comparisons may be made to computer-mediated instruction.
Film Selection for Education Narrative intelligence writers, Mateas and Sengers (2003, p. 13), trace the history of narrative and note some of its major divisions from a theoretical perspective, including the
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foundational work of Vladimir Propp on the structure of myths and folk tales. They begin with a tribute to Aristotles theories articulated in his Poetics (1996), through New Criticism and cognitive researcher by germinal thinkers such as Mark Turner and other reader-response, and post-modern theorists. All these traditions provide fodder for artificial intelligence researchers engaged in the budding narrative intelligence field. Physiological and Psychological Influences Although human beings are not simply physical entities, it is useful to examine cognitive aspectsboth psychological (cognitive psychology) and physiological (neuroscience) in order to better understand the potential influence of these factors. Although such a division is conceptually arbitrary, it is one commonly used to distinguish different aspects of people and is, therefore, used here. Cognitive psychology concerns itself with how people think, and seeks to explain dynamics that account for thinking. Sternberg (2003, p. 2) defines the field as how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. Although LeDoux (2000, p. 129) states that, Through the ages, cognition and emotion have been viewed as separate but equal aspects of the mind, today the two areas are frequently studied together under the mantle of cognitive science, cognitive psychology, or cognitive neuroscience. However, emotions and affect have been neglected until fairly recently (Lane, Nadel, Allen, & Kaszniak, 2000). Neuroscience tends to focus more on the brain itselfits anatomy (structure and organization) and functionality
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(physiology)rather than applications of this knowledge (Pinel, 1998). Both perspectives seek to provide insights about how people think and the mechanisms involved in that thinking. A panel of noted neuroscientists who appeared on the Charlie Rose Show agreed that emotion is a key ingredient of cognition (Rose, 2006). Before delving deeper into an explanation on how thinking and feeling relate to viewers responses to film, it is useful to examine relevant processes and influences on those processes. Brain-Based Learning Within education, application of the burgeoning field of neuroscience has come to be known, in large measure, by the term brain-based learning (Funderstanding, 2006; Sprenger, 2002, Sylwester, 1993, 2004). While many problems exist in the marriage of neuroscience and education, there is also considerable potential. In the last decade, technological advances in brain imaging have allowed cognitive researchers to incorporate neural processes into their analysis of behavior (Beatty, 2001). This increased resolution has helped researchers to refine theories in many areas of cognition and education (Atherton, 2005, p. 2). As noted earlier, literature within the comparatively nascent field of neuroscience in relation to education is scant. Part of this may be due to the fact that as a relatively new, unorganized field, a body of work has not yet built up. However, another part may be due to an aversion on the part of educators to information deemed as too technical. Sousa (1998) quotes an off-hand comment made to him by a neuroscientist that, The problem with teachers is that they try to change the human brain every day while knowing
Film Selection for Education almost nothing about it (p. 53). Whatever the reason for this knowledge gap, it needs to be remedied if teachers are to better understand how, why, when, and where their students learn.
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Even when educational practice is influenced by neuroscientific findings, often it sinks to the level of pop-science and trivialization, to downright inaccuracy. Despite the lack of scientific evidence connectingresearch to educational practice, the theory of hemispheric asymmetry doggedly made its way into mainstream culture. Mathematics and physics became left-brain subjects, while art, music, and literature were right-brained. Educators developed strategies to help right-brained children learn left-brained tasks, and vice versa. Inevitably, categorization resulted in exclusion as well as inclusion, and left-brained people were characterized as somber, critical, and serious, while right-brainers were supposed to be free-spirited, emotive, and creative. The folk theory of hemispheric asymmetry bears little resemblance tooriginal conclusions or to any subsequent research on cortical specialization (Ranpura, 1999, p. 3) Differences between Brains The metaphor of snowflakes, with no two being alike, is often applied to humans. This comparison couldnt be more apt than when applied to the human brain, due in large part, to a phenomenon known as neuroplasticity (Schwartz, 2002; Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998). On a macro-level, most people without brain damage have the same anatomical structures that perform the same basic functions, but the behavior of neurons results in very different patterns and organizational schemes. A neuron can be thought of much like an octopus with a body and tentacles that reach out and come close to touching other tentacles. The tentacles restructure their relationships to form new ones as circumstances dictate. Some of this movement is unconscious and at the urging of what is generally known as instinct, while other movement is conscious and intentionalnot in the sense of intending to move a particular tentaclebut to perform a certain activity, thought, or movement that ultimately connects to neuron networks. This movement of tentacles,
Film Selection for Education consisting of dendrites (for receiving incoming information) and axons (for sending outgoing information), is what constitutes neuroplasticity (Sternberg, 2003; Schwartz, 2002; Gulpinar, 2005; Ratey, 2001; Al-Chalabi et al., 2006; Rose, 2006). Carter (1998) summarizes neuron function as follows:
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Each neuron connects with up to ten thousand neighbours. The bits that join up are the branches, of which there are two kinds: axons, which conduct signals away from the cell nucleus, and dendrites which receive incoming information. If you zoom in even closer, you will see that there is a tiny gap where each axon meets a dendrite. This gap is called the synapse. In order for the current to cross the synapse each axon secretes chemicals, called neurotransmitters that are released into the space when the cell is suitably fired up. These chemicals trigger the neighbouring cell to fire, too, and the resultant chain effect produces simultaneous activity in millions of connected cells (p. 14).
Figure 2. A Nerve Cell Showing Axons and Dendrites

Note: From Neuron: A myelinated neuron, by Scientific Learning Corporation. Retrieved November 11, 2006, from: http://www.BrainConnection.com/topics/?main=gal/neuron. Copyright 1999 by Scientific Learning Corporation. Adapted with permission of Scientific Learning Corporation.
One of the theories to have made a significant impact on educational thought in recent decades is Gardners on multiple intelligences. Gardner has identified eight intelligences: 1) verbal-linguistic; 2) logical-mathematical; 3) spatial; 4) bodily-kinesthetic; 5) interpersonal; 6)
Film Selection for Education auditory-musical; 7) intrapersonal; and his latest addition, 8) naturalistic (having to do with the
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physical or natural world and its classification) (Sternberg, 2003, p. 506-508; Wikipedia, 2006d) He is also considering addition of a ninth intelligence, existential, sometimes called spiritual. However, Gardiner prefers the more religiously neutral term, existential. (Wikipedia, 2006a). According to Atherton (2005), Gardners theory has been embraced within education without much research about how accurately it reflects individual or group thinking. The value of this theory may, however, lie outside of a neuroscientific heritage and instead, relate to the value of diversity and acknowledgment that each individual is different with different needs, learning styles, and preferences. In other words, different learners have different brains that learn differently in different contexts. In education, one size does not fit all. Mirror Neurons A relatively recent neuroscientific discovery is that of mirror neurons. The adage monkey see, monkey do has been around forever. However, a neuroscientific explanation of this folk wisdom has actually been discovered. Mirror neurons are groups of neurons located in certain parts of the brain including areas of the premotor cortex associated with hand and mouth action that fire during movement of those parts of the body. While this is not surprising, what is, is that these same neurons also fire when watching another individual, of the same or even a different species, perform the activity. In this sense these neurons mirror the actions of others (Fogassi & Gallese, 2002, p. 14). While this discovery was initially in monkeys, the same types of neurons have been found in humans and likely other species. The term copy cat is well-understand by anyone with multiple cats who
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observes the way they watch and copy each others behavioranother potential result of mirror neurons. Not only do mirror neurons account for goal-directed motor activities, but are also believed by some neuroscientists to account for psychological factors such as empathy and the ability to read other people and predict their behavior (Vogeley & Newen, 2002; Keen, 2006). Brten (2002) states that, We cannot yet explain the qualitative leap to childrens simulation or theory of mind, correlating with their verbal and conversational ability and entailing second-order understanding of others thoughts and emotions. But it seems reasonable to assume that a mirror system for matching or simulating others acts may afford a precursory and nurturing path to simulation of other minds (cf. Brten 1998a, b; Gallese & Goldman 1998), and that such preverbal capacity for virtual participation in what others are doing are likely to support the kind of inner feedback loops defined by the conversation model (p. 289). English professor and narratologist Suzanne Keen (2006, p. 211) comments on an fMRI study in which observer participants registered the same neural reactions as a loved one who was physically shocked with one major exception: their somasensory brain areas did not become activated although all others did. Therefore, they were able to empathize with their loved ones but did not experience the physical pain they were witnessing. Researchers concluded that, empathy is mediated by the part of the pain network associated with pains affective qualities, but not its sensory qualities (op cit., p. 211). This finding provides significant implications that can account for how viewers are able to feel real emotions during film viewing and empathize with characters. Film cognitivists, however, seem to be fairly slow in catching onto the possibility that mirror neurons may account for viewer empathy related to a film. Berys Gaut (1999) bemoans
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the dismissal of viewer identification with film characters on the part of a number of prominent film cognitivists. Nol Carroll writes that identificationis not the correct model for describing the emotional responses of spectators; Gregory Currie argues that identification does not occur in the point-of-view shot; and even Murray Smith, who has some sympathy with the idea of identification, generally presents his own concept of engagement not as an analysis of identification but as an improved concept with which to replace it (p. 201). Because Gaut wrote in 1999 when the discovery of mirror neurons had likely not yet moved from neuroscience to cognitive film studies, perhaps the implications have since migrated, as evidenced by Keens (2006) work on mirror neurons and character empathy. These types of neurons certainly explain much regarding viewer identification with filmic characters. As more becomes known about mirror neurons, especially within the education establishment, particularly among brain-based educators, the role of these neurons will be better understood as will the ability of to take advantage of the neural abilities afforded, largely through behavior modeling, be it by teachers or film characters. However promising the discovery of mirror neurons may be, it must be kept in mind that volition is also a factorone that includes other influences including those that are socially derived. Schemata and Scripts Sternberg (2003) describes two cognitive functions that are relevant to a discussion about how readers process texts. These are schema and scripts. Schema are mental frameworks for representing knowledge that encompass an array of interrelated concepts in a meaningful organization (op cit., p. 254) and are often employed as a basis for making predictions related to new situations (op cit, p. 264).
Film Selection for Education Scripts are similar to schemata except involve more complex neural connections (Sternberg, 2003, p. 264) and perhaps for this reason, are less flexible. As might be expected,
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scripts are essentially stories or templates with blanks left for completion related to the specific situation. Scripts, like those for movies, radio plays, and theater, contain props; roles; opening condition; scenes; and conclusions. Scripts may be distinguished by their setting. An example is that of a restaurant. Props (which translate in film to mise-en-scne or what is put into a shot or scene), include tables, food, servers, customers, cutlery, and servers. Roles include hosts and hostesses, servers, customers, cooks, and cashiers. The opening condition is a hungry customer; scenes include waiting to be seated; sitting down at a table; ordering, eating, getting a bill, paying the bill, and exiting the restaurant. Results are a non-hungry customer who is either satisfied or dissatisfied with his experience and perhaps a happy or unhappy owner, server, or cashier (Sternberg, 2003, p. 264265). As can be intuited, scripts are generated by the kinds of experiences a person is used to and also include emotional associations. Therefore, a restaurant script may have either positive or negative connotations with gradations in between. Scripts can and often are employed by authors when crafting their messages according to those that have been agreed upon within the community of which they are a part. For example, a scholar within a particular discipline would be aware of and employ the scripts used within his or her discipline and institution. It is no coincidence that the word script is relevant in both cognitive psychology and filmmaking. In fact, a persons cognitive script is very likely a key ingredient that enables
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individuals to follow a storys narrative via the film script. The question becomes one of how the two different kinds interact to generate specific responses on the part of viewers. Emotion and Mood Even lay people generally agree that one of films primary characteristics is its ability to elicit emotions and mood. Affective cognitive and neuroscientific researchers agree (Damasio, 1999, 2000; Heilman, 2000; Eich and Schooler, 2000; Pert, 1997; Smith, 2003; Smith, 1999) that emotion is more transitory while mood is an affective state of longer duration. Since a film experience normally extends beyond a few moments, ones mood when encountering it is a more useful construct than an emotion which is shorter in duration. Without making the tempting leap to assert that affect shapes all experiences, an individuals mood serves as a filter for text experienceseither singly or as part of a schema or script. If a person enters a movie theater and begins viewing in a positive, happy mood, he or she is more likely to focus on aspects of the story that reinforce the mood (Heilman, 2000, p. 328). The same is true of other moods and is known as mood congruency (LeDoux, 2000, p. 202; Smith, 2003; Pert, 1997, p. 144). In like fashion, people are more likely to remember information when in the same mood (as well as environment) as when they initially learned it (Sternberg, 2003, p. 205; LeDoux, 2000, p. 201-202). Pert (1997) purports that moods are not simply mental states, but experienced throughout the entire body. Emotional states or moods are produced by the various neuropeptide ligands, and what we experience as an emotion or a feeling is also a mechanism for activating a particular neuronal circuitsimultaneously throughout the brain and bodywhich generates a behavior involving the whole creature with all the necessary physiological changes that behavior would require (p. 145).
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The implication is that a mood can also be thought of as a state that involves the entire organism. This notion is evident in everyday speech such as, He is in such a state as Ive never seen before. This observation is consistent with Perts (1997) findings about the effects of various neurotransmitters including neuropeptides. While mood may serve to influence the script one chooses when engaging a film, it can also serve to reinforce, change, or otherwise manipulate a readers initial mood. Smiths (1999) mood-cue theory related to film acknowledges that one of films key attributes is the evocation of emotion to which viewers bring and apply a script that includes mood. Smiths approach is consistent with Salomons (1979) concept of attributes within a mediums symbol system. Smith defines these attributes of film as character; dialogue, lighting, music, mise en scne, facial expression, and narrative situation (Smith, 1999, p. 116). He explains that emotional markers are brief emotion-laden bursts in the form of episodes or scenes that are used by filmmakers to reinforce mood congruency rather than to move the narrative forward (op cit., p. 118). Mood-laden scripts may also influence the types of media and stories within a medium that correspond to either a current or predominant mood. Mood congruence may also influence a viewers decision to continue paying attention to a film or even whether to continue watching it, depending on whether it supports or disrupts mood. Many scholars and alternative consciousness practitioners believe a correspondence between the frequency of brain waveswhich can also be considered states or even moods from a strictly physiological sense of that term, coupled with creativitycan induce a closer mindbody connection. The following experience of a chemist named Friedrich Kekul who lived in
Film Selection for Education the 1800s, provides an example of how this process can work to produce significant discoveriesin his case the attributes of a benzene molecule:
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Mr. Kekul reports that after a long day of thinking, he was relaxing in front of a fire, just watching embers fly up in circular patterns. He says these became transfixed and fell into a reverie, and as he half-dozed, he began to see the sparks dance in a snakelike way. Suddenly, the sparks formed a whirling circle as if it were a snake biting its own tail. Kekul says he then awoke in a flash with a new, accurate picture of the structure of a benzene molecule: a ring! (Goleman, Kaufman, & Ray, 1993, p. 23) Neuropharmacologist Candace Pert (1997) relates a story of being treated by a psychologist friend, Evelyn, related to situational stress. The two had attended a conference on psychoneuroimmunology and were trying to effect improvement in Perts state of mind via the release of endorphins. Although comparatively long, this passage effectively demonstrates the role of intuitive visualization to impact ones physical state. Which is the most potent of the endorphins and where is it most highly concentrated? Evelyn asked, once I had relaxed into a pleasant altered state. I told her it was the beta endorphin, which is found most abundantly in the pituitary gland. Good, she encouraged. Now I want you to close your eyes and focus on your pituitary gland. Do you know where it is? It took a few moments, but I, of all people, knew exactly what to look for and had very little trouble bringing the pituitary into sharp visual focus. I nodded. Great, now can you see the beta endorphin molecules in there? she coached me further. The beta endorphin was clear on my inner screen, all thirty-one of its amino acids strung together in a bead chain and stored tightly in tiny, balloonlike pouches at the ends of the cell axons, ready for launch. She continued: I want you to listen as I count backward from ten, and when I get to one, you are going to release the endorphins out of your pituitary into your bloodstream. I did exactly as she directed and felt an instantaneous rush, a feeling that accompanied what I knew was the outpouring of endorphins from my pituitary as they began swimming and binding receptors all over my body and brain to work their magical effects. It was clear that the knowledge I had of physiologyjust where the endorphins were located and how they were secretedhad enabled me to consciously intervene and intentionally change my molecules (p. 287).
Film Selection for Education Perhaps Pert was more amenable to allowing this process to work due to confidence of being readily able to envision the process she was attempting to influence. The role of self-efficacy remains to be explored in terms of peoples ability to assert mind over matter. These examples indicate that while humans are capable of changing their mood, including the physiological state that supports an emotional one, mood serves as a filter an individual brings to a filmic experience. His or her receptivity to changing mood, as invited by
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the film, depends on many variables including the need for mood congruity, cognitive flexibility, and other factors previously discussed. Film and Empathy Most cognitive literary and film theorists agree that empathy plays a major role in the ability of a narrative to evoke emotionsespecially film. Much has been written about how the viewer manifests real emotions in response to a fictive stimulus portrayed in a film (Caroll, 1988, 2006; Smith, 2003; Grodal, 1997; Neill, 2006; Gaut, 2006; Hoffner, 2005). Although cognitive film theorists, in particular, are well-versed in both human cognition and affect, they do not appear to have also incorporated significant knowledge from neuroscience. How, for example, would a viewer be able to shed real tears for a heroines tragedy while clearly aware that he or she is safely ensconced within a movie theater? Questions such as these tend to baffle film theorists and their explanations of this phenomenon seem superficial or convoluted. Two areas within cognitive and neuroscience appear to hold a more tenable explanation for this phenomenon. The first is attention. The neurotransmitter dopamine, in particular, serves as a sentry for incoming data and matches it against expectations (Johnson, 2004) likely in the form of mental templates or
Film Selection for Education scriptsthrough what is called incentive salience (Berridge and Robinson, 1998; Spanagel and Weiss, 1999). Whenever theres a mismatch, the attentional system becomes aroused and mental focus goes to the unanticipated stimulus. But here the stimulus is still coming from a fictive world. How can that explain real reactions such as tears? The answer may lie in the function of mirror neurons (Stamenov & Gallese, 2002) which provide a basis for social interaction and the ability to empathize with others. Even though a character is fictional, a real, live person appears on screen and employs real physical actions, gestures, and facial expressions. Even in the case of animated characters,
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they are inevitably anthropomorphized to the point that mirror neurons may still come into play. So far, this explains empathy but not the experience Coleridge (1983) has described as the willing suspension of disbelief. How does this suspension occur? The cognitive, neuroscientific, and even estoteric literature addresses this problem via the notion of consciousness (Pert, 1997, 2006; Schwartz and Russek, 1999, p. 150-151; Damasio, 1999, 2003; LeDoux, 1996; Miller and Cook-Greuter, 1994; Seigel, 1999; Schwartz, 2002; Myss, 2004). Often when people drive, for example, they describe an experience of going on auto pilot whereby they are perfectly able to perform necessary driving actions while having no conscious awareness of doing so. The question becomes, whos in charge? Goldberg (2001), whose book, The Executive Brain, is devoted to the subject, describes this as this portion of the brain, one located in the frontal cortex, as a manager of other neural processes. Others explain it via consciousness as a process similar to the brains executive function.
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The idea is that the brain has the ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously and seamlessly. However, if one delves deeply enough into the system of awareness, assuming the manager is ultimately in charge, the question then becomes one of whos in charge of the manager? An answer to this question, however interesting, ventures too far into philosophical and theological territory for purposes of this discussion. Even if the preceding explanation of how people are able to empathize intensely with a film to the extent of experiencing powerful responses, emotional and otherwise, it does not address the issue of how those experiences translate into life changes nor the duration of those changes, much less how these changes can be exploited for educational efficacy. While speculation is possible, this remains the primary purpose of the present studyto determine what experts in relevant disciplines have to say on these issues. Developmental Theory Developmental psychology bridges the gap between physiological and social factors and relates to growth: physical, cognitive, emotional, and what might be considered spiritual or moral growth (Harris, 2003) 6. Some developmental psychologists focus on specific ages or the settings within which education occurs. Age-related distinctions include children, adolescents, adults, and elders, while settings include pre-school, elementary, secondary, higher education, adult, and elder education, with the latter two often taking place outside of traditional educational institutions.
A similar field known as human development exists as a discipline within education. It is similar to educational psychology without a psychometric focus.
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Within developmental psychology, various stage theories have emerged. Jean Piaget, an influential Swiss cognitive psychologist, focused primarily on the cognitive development of children (Colby & Kohlberg, 1987; Sternberg, 2003; Wikipedia, 2006d), while Kohlberg examined moral development beginning in early childhood through adulthood. Examination of Kohlbergs model reveals a combination of cognitive and affective factors under the umbrella of morals (Gibbs, 1978; Colby & Kohlberg, 1987; Wikipedia, 2006d). A sub-field within developmental psychology is known as transpersonal psychology and examines those human elements and capacity to transcend both cognition and emotion at a level of what can be called, spirituality, using traditional scientific research methods. What separates transpersonal psychology from developmental theory described in the esoteric literature is its insistence on applying established scientific methodologies, consistent with traditional psychological inquiry. (Miller & Cook-Greuter, 1994). The commonality between the different types of stage theory is not the aspect of people examined as much as the concept that people proceed through stages of development, usually in a prescribed order (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999; Sternberg, 2003); however, much debate exists related to what these stages are and when they generally occur throughout the lifespan (Torbert, 2000). People think and behave differently based on their development and that development is usually associated with age and experienceat least up through early adulthoodafter which time, development related to age, is more difficult to differentiate. One person may marry and begin a family in the late teens where others may wait until the late 30s or early 40s (Tennant,
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1997; Tennant & Pogson, 1995). Due to technology advancements, some women still give birth into their early 60s (All, 2006). While marriage and parenthood may represent a developmental period where attention and interests are focused in specific ways, the time when these stages occur within adulthood vary enormously. Cognitive, affective, and even the spiritual development examined by transpersonal psychologists and others, is likewise, harder to tie to age during adulthood. Adult development is also more difficult in the sense that it leaves the more comfortable physiological processes and ventures into more existential terrain. What is the purpose of an adult life? Most adults choose mates, have children, work to support the family, retire, help raise grandchildren, and eventually, pass away. This is a typical adult pattern, despite the specific ages when these key events occur. All these events, however, are related to biology and survival of the species. Another focus of purpose concerns the cognitive, affective, and spiritual development of adultsin other words, the quality of life rather than the physical demands of it. Kohlbergs moral development theory, transpersonal psychologists, many neuroscientists, philosophers, theologians, and esoterics examine non-physical, age-related dimensions of development. For example, medical intuitive and theologian, Carolyn Myss (1996, 1998), talks about development from the perspective of seven chakras, a concept from Hinduism with correlates in both Christianity and Judaism. This system embraces the notion of non-physical energy that moves from bottom to top with spiritual development. The developmental concepts she presents can be found in much of the esoteric as well as traditional literature although from differing perspectives. (See Hicks, 2004; Schwartz, 2002; Arntz, 2000; Pribram, 1999; Pert 2006; Langer, 1997; and Spencer & Shanor, 1999.)
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Figure 3. The Seven Chakras

Note. From Image:Sabdha chakras.jpg, by Wikipedia. Retrieved on November 12, 2006 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sabdha_chakras.jpg. Reproduced with permission from the author.
A number of developmentalists focus on issues such as the relationship between individual psychological development and the demands and expectations of society (Tennant & Pogson, 1995, p. 85). However, whatever viewpoint or model is adopted, a persons level of development in any given areaphysical, psychological, or spiritualaffects their interpretation of and reaction to the world, including a given film. One Jungian psychologist noted for her work in womens archetypes stated in an interview: I come from the Curanderisma healing tradition from Mexico and Central America. In this tradition a story is holy, and it is used as medicine. The story is not told to lift you up, to make you feel better, or to entertain you, although all those things, of course, can be true. The story is meant to take the spirit into a descent to find something that is lost or missing and to bring it back to consciousness again. For some people that may sound mystical . . . and it is! (Wylde, 1994, 23) This sentiment points to the relationship between storytelling and development. While storiesthose told through film as well as other mediacan serve to enhance development, the
Film Selection for Education opposite is also true. An individuals development level can serve as a filter through which the story is given meaning and judged. Social Factors
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Another set of factors that are not based on physiology or development include those with a basis in a viewers social environment. These factors interact with physiological and developmental ones to set the stage for response to any event or artifact, including the viewing of a feature film. A Social Focus Expectations that are generated from a multiplicity of causes, including schema and scripts, also contribute to experience of a film and constitute another type of filter. Expectations are largely derived from both past personal experience as well as social norms. One type of expectation is anticipated difficulty and the stress that can accompany it. It is important to keep in mind that everyoneAD/HD or notis affected by stress in a fairly predictable and significant manner (Beatty, 2001, p. 307-308). Mild levels of stress generally improve learning and memory, e.g., students often find that they cant concentrate on course reading until they start feeling a little anxious about an upcoming exam. Higher levels of stress, however, adversely affect cognitive functions and thus interfere with learning and memory. (Rodin & Lithman, 2002, p. 210-211). Expectations can serve as a powerful filter when a learner encounters a film and may result in positive or negative affect, depending on how well the text matched expectations. Another common filter is that of worldview. People who define themselves as conservatives are likely to demonstrate a very different response to a film than those who, for example, define their worldview as liberal. Reactions to a documentary on global warming in
Film Selection for Education which former Democratic presidential candidate, Al Gore, serves as the narrator, provides a ready example.
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They [liberals] really dont believe that the American people have ANY brain power. They keep losing elections based on their twisted views, but wont change their policies because they cant admit even the possibility they are wrong. They think that everyone else is just too stupid so theyll just keep pounding it and pounding it into peoples heads until they get it. The problem is that THEY dont get it that their Marxist policies and old Democratic playbook from the sixties just isnt going to work anymore. But since Democrats=Hollywood theyll just keep pumping out political propaganda trash for the big screen (masterthelotus, 2006). This post is titled Liberals cant win elections so they make propaganda films and does not relate to the film itselfthe subject of the discussionbut to the narrators political affiliation. This poster attempts to discredit the message conveyed in the movie by discrediting the films narrator based on the narrators politics, via an ad hominem attack. Former Republican John Dean of Watergate fame, in his book, Conservatives without Conscience (Dean, 2006) describes research related to a psychological personality construct known as an authoritarian personality. Dean not only describes the research leading to this personality type but mentions studies indicating a connection between personality, temperament, and worldview. These filters can represent developmental level and worldview can also be applied to film response. Other filters used by readers include social pressure by the tribes with which they are affiliated, individual experience, personality, knowledge related to the films subject, and the role assumed during the viewing experience. For example, someone would likely have a different experience of a film if viewing it as a prospect for a film class he or she was teaching or as an activity enjoyed with a friend or spouse. In other words, different scripts with different expectations would be chosen when approaching the film. Also, someone who is a mystery buff
Film Selection for Education would likely apply expectations related to accepted canon for mysteries to a viewing of that genre more than a viewer with less knowledge about the conventions appropriate for other genres. In relation to empathy based on this type of filtering, Keen (2006) states that:
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No specific set of narrative techniques has yet been verified to over-ride the resistance to empathizing often displayed by members of an in-group regarding the emotional states of others marked out as different by their age, race, gender, weight, disabilities, and so forth. Human beings, like other primates, tend to experience empathy most readily and accurately for those who seem like us, as David Hume and Adam Smith predicted (p. 214). This tribal identification can effectively serve as a filter to preclude empathy with particular characters or situations within a given film. According to Myss (1996, 2004), development to higher levels of identification would be necessary to obviate the impacts of tribally-derived filters. Withholding of empathy, however, may vary from person to person within a tribe based on additional factors such as temperament. Societal Influences One of the most significant themes that permeated through the literature of a number of different disciplines related to the viewer is the impact of society. Miller (1994, p. 158) claims that, The use of narrative as a socializing tool is most apparent when myths or traditional tales, embodying the collective wisdom of a people, are told in a deliberate attempt to edify or enlighten. To this category of texts (myths and traditional tales), she adds personal stories described as a pervasive, orderly, and culturally organized feature of social life in every culture and a major, if not the major mechanism of socialization (p. 159).
Film Selection for Education Miller is hardly a lone voice in asserting that social forces impose a tremendous impact on the individuals exposed to them. While commenting on Edmund Husserls conceptions of phenomenology, Carr (1986) says that:
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Husserl saw that even if it is the nature of consciousness to engage in the pursuit of truth, the individual always inherits this pursuit as an ongoing activity of the society in which he or she takes it up. The incipient scientist also builds on the results already obtained by others. Thus a cognitive endeavor such as science, while it is pursued by individuals owes its understanding in each case, as well as its capacity to progress, to the social context in which it exists. This is no less true of philosophy than of the other disciplines (p. 105). While this comment relates to academic endeavors, the point is made that an individuals thought is largely influenced by the society of which he or she is a part. Within education, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky emphasizes social interaction in development of cognitive capacity with a childs role more as that of an active apprentice than a mini-scientist (Durkin, 1996 p. 65, Noddings, 1998, p. 17). While Vygotsky believes that cognitive development is an inside-out process, he emphasizes the role of the social environment in shaping internalization of knowledge (Sternberg, 2003, p. 459). In a discussion on brain-based learning as related to social influences, Sprenger (2002) comments that: The ability to cope and be resilient in life is very much influenced by our ability to get along with others. Our society is set up for interaction. In earlier societies, interaction related to physical survival. Today it is intertwined with emotional survival. Learning is a social event; for any of us to become lifelong learners, we must engage in the process with others (p. 8). Critical thinking advocate and adult educator Stephen Brookfield, emphasizes the importance of socialization in a discussion on the effects of television on political thinking: In childhood, we are socialized into our respective political cultures in our families, schools, and neighborhoods. We develop party allegiances and learn appropriate political values and ideologies. Put simply, we learn (and are taught) to accept a cluster of
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explanations and interpretations of the political world through which we filter news of current political events. These explanations and interpretations constitute a mediatory framework that is applied whenever we need to make sense of new issues or happenings. By the time of adulthood, we have evolved our own fairly entrenched attitudes and beliefs concerning political matters. The mediatory framework by which we explain and interpret new happenings is firmly in place (Brookfield, 1987, p. 186-187). Cognitive psychologist, Elkhonon Goldberg (2001), notes the survival aspect of social influence on individual behavior. Unlike other species, specifically monkeys, human beings, when presented with novel and familiar stimuli, prefer the familiar whereas monkeys prefer the novel. He explains that this is, because no other species has the mechanism of storing and transmitting the collective knowledge of the species accumulated over many generations in external cultural devicesbooks, films, and the like. Therefore, our bias toward the familiar serves an adaptive function (p. 99-100). This biological imperative may provide a philosophical explanation for mirror neurons as a physiological means of internalizing learned behavior from others, including ones tribes of influence. In a 20-year longitudinal study, husband and wife team Jack and Jeanne Block (Block & Block, 2005) found startling conclusions with profound implications for education. These unusual data cleanly reveal in these samples of young women and young men an undeniable linkage between early childhood character structure and much later adult orientation toward political issues and political choices. It would appear that early identifiable personality characteristics, stemming from constitutional origins always interweaving with the cultural surround, seem to influence an approach to the world and a reaction to the world that tends, over the years, to evolve into a worldview, a weltanschauung, on a wide variety of issues, many of them political (p. 13). The surprise of this study is that the authors found no significant differences in the population studied over a 20-year period, despite intervening life experiences and education. Also, since the study linked temperament and worldview, they speculated that there may be a genetic basis for the lack of changeat least regarding temperament with the potential of a
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causal link. A meta-study conducted by Jost et al. (2003) also found similar connections between temperament and political orientation, specifically, conservatism. However, what the Blocks (Block and Block, 2005) do not address is the potential impact of socialization between birth and nursery school at ages three to four. They speculate on the possibility that since their sample came from the same geographic area, their results might not be generalizable to other populations, although other research, specifically that of Jost et al. (2003), does not support that conclusion. Note that both the Jost and Block studies were prominently mentioned in Deans (2006) Conservatives without Conscience. Fox et al. (2005) suggest that parental reaction to the child plays a significant role in whether or not fearful temperament, which they describe as behavior inhibition, such behavior is enhanced or reducedprimarily in early childhood. Baumrind (1966) identifies three basic parenting styles: The permissive parent attempts to behave in a nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative manner towards the childs impulses, desires, and actions. She [the parent] consults with him [the child] about policy decisions and gives explanations for family rules. She makes few demands for household responsibility and orderly behavior. She presents herself to the child as a resource for him to use as he wishes, not as an ideal for him to emulate, nor as an active agent responsible for shaping or altering his ongoing or future behavior. She allows the child to regulate his own activities as much as possible, avoids the exercise of control, and does not encourage him to obey externally defined standards. She attempts to use reason and manipulation, but not overt power to accomplish her ends. The authoritarian parent attempts to shape, control, and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child in accordance with a set standard of conduct, usually an absolute standard, theologically motivated and formulated by a higher authority. She [the parent] values obedience as a virtue and favors punitive, forceful measures to curb self-will at points where the childs actions or beliefs conflict with what she thinks is right conduct. She believes in keeping the child in his place, in restricting his autonomy, and in assigning household responsibilities in order to inculcate respect for work. She regards the preservation of order and traditional structure as a highly valued end in itself. She does not encourage verbal give and take, believing that the child should accept her word for what is right.
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The authoritative parent attempts to direct the childs activities but in a rational, issue-oriented manner. She [the parent] encourages verbal give and take, shares with the child the reasoning behind her policy, and solicits his objections when he refuses to conform. Both autonomous self-will and disciplined conformity are valued. Therefore she exerts firm control at points of parent-child divergence, but does not hem the child in with restrictions. She enforces her own perspective as an adult, but recognizes the childs individual interests and special ways. The authoritative parent affirms the childs present qualities, but also sets standards for future conduct. She uses reason, power, and shaping by regime and reinforcement to achieve her objectives, and does not base her decisions on group consensus or the individual childs desires (p. 889-891). Considering Fox et al.s (2005) research, it appears that the authoritative parenting style is the most conducive to extinguishing the type of behavior and temperament that leads to later adoption of conservative worldviews while an authoritarian parenting style likely supports it. No conclusions can be determined as to the worldviews that develop from a permissive parenting style since no research on this correlation was found. Whether genetic or socialization factors are involved, the Blocks study is still problematic for educators in terms of the ability of any type of education to impact peoples way of thinking and response to the worldat least beyond inculcation of basic social and cognitive skills and factual knowledgeassuming that knowledge is amenable to the individuals worldview after nursery school age. Because the authors claim that theirs is the only existing longitudinal study that examines the link between personality characteristics and worldview, at least as of the time they concluded it, the implication is that more are needed within a more geographically-dispersed population. Because the reality of the mind/body or individual/social split is more of an arbitrary construction of language than an actual divide, it is virtually impossible to contain a discussion exclusively to one domain or another. Emotion, a physiological process, strongly underlies worldview with conservatives motivated largely by fear as a personality dimension and an
Film Selection for Education aversion for novelty, with a concomitant lack of fearfulness and affinity for novel experience
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being exhibited by those of a more liberal orientation (Block & Block, 2005). Lane, Nadel, and Kaszniak (2000) call for more research related to the need for effective strategies for emotional learning and growth. A particularly important area for future research is that of emotional learning. People learn scripts or blueprints for relationships during childhood that affect their emotional reactions, capacity for intimacy and love, and ability to maintain their emotional equilibrium in the face of stress or adversity. Patterns that get established early in life may be difficult to change in adulthoodAn enormous amount remains to be learned about how such patterns get established, why they are so resistant to change or extinction, and how therapeutic change can be brought about as efficiently as possible (p. 409). The implication is the criticality of understanding how patterns that lead to worldview become established early in childhood, as discussed above. A need exists to examine the types of educational strategies, including texts in general and films in particular, can be used to facilitate change at the level or neural rewiring critical to preparing learners to better cope with life and consciously choose a worldview that will serve their best interests as well as those of the greater society. What seems clear is that a reciprocal relationship exists between the social sphere and the individuals who exist within it. Therefore, society impacts screenwriters, the types of messages they craft, and the specific attributes and processes chosen for crafting of the messages. In terms of the viewer, society serves as another type of meta-filter when responding to a film. Summary and Implications of Viewer Influences When particular film attributes interact with a viewerhis or her temperament; developmental level; neurological configuration; expectations; filters; and moodthe result is the viewers response to a film. To the extent that a match exists between the attributes of a given film and those individual viewer characteristics, the film resonates, sometimes to a strong,
Film Selection for Education even a life-changing, degree. Therefore, film holds tremendous potential for educational applications when a match exists.
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Since individuals are strongly influenced by the social milieu in which they function, if a film is viewed in a group setting, social influences may also impact how an individual responds to a film. A group consciousness or consensus that surrounds an individual viewer can either enhance or dampen his or her personal responsein part based on how susceptible the individual is to external social pressure. It is possible that a viewer can have one internal response but express a different one, especially if the internal response counters the collective one. These are factors need to be kept in mind when selecting a film as an instructional medium as well as the way in which it is usedfor either independent or group viewing. Due to the potential impact of film, these decisions need to be made in a conscious manner. Hopefully, the result of this research will assist in that effort. Film Attributes Crossed by Viewer Traits Two studies, one, the only existing of its kind, shed light specifically on what goes on in the brain during film viewing. The first was conducted by a group of researchers in Israel (Hasson et al., 2004; Pessoa, 2004) who conducted an fMRI study of adults while they were shown one-half hour of a feature filmThe Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, starring Clint Eastwood. These neuroscientists chose one participant as a benchmark to see how other participants scans differed or were the same. This study is different from others which use contrived stimuli to identify areas of the brain involved during stimulus exposure and also through selection of one participant to serve as a predictor against which to compare other participant responses.
Film Selection for Education What the researchers discovered was a significant similarity in brain activity stemming
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from common structures during key film events. The same regions between participants became active when faces were shown. Other areas were also common between participants when both locations, interior and exterior, were shown and still others became activated when hands were a focal point. These findings indicate that considerable synchronicity between brains occur when perceiving certain types of stimuli. However, no commonalities were found in relation to other aspects of the film. Perhaps just as important as Hasson et al.s findings about interbrain correlations is their observation that large regions of activated cortex could not be predicted from another individuals brain activity. These regions include portions of the parietal cortex and, notably, the majority of the prefrontal cortex. Thus, there might be, after all, ample cortex for you and I to experience The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly in a unique way. It also means that there is enough work to keep neuroscientists busy for quite some time (Pessoa, 2004, p. 1618). A second fMRI study was conducted on adults who described themselves as being in love (Fisher, 2004). What is remarkable about this study is that the language used by participants in a pre-scanning interview is strikingly similar to that described by fans of specific films as being obsessed by it. Fisher (2004) describes a number of characteristics common among a diverse sample of those who identify themselves as in love. These include attributing special significance and meaning to the beloved; obsessive thinking about the beloved (which she calls focused attention); aggrandizing the beloved; intrusive thoughts about the beloved; heightened emotionality and energy; yearning for union with the beloved and things related to him or her; emotional dependence; changing priorities; and increased empathy with the beloved. All of these characteristics can be found in previous descriptions by fans in their response to specific films.
Film Selection for Education Does this mean that these fans have fallen in love with the movie? While the current research cannot answer that question, perhaps future research can. Infatuation is, perhaps suggested as a film category for a taxonomy based on viewer responseat least among younger viewers who made up the participants in Fishers study and who, simultaneously, constitute the largest segment of the film-viewing audience. Since education focuses primarily on younger-aged
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people, this finding is more useful than not. However, it may be less useful in explaining a strong impact of a film on older adults for whom romantic love may be notably different. Film and Learning When comparing learning issues across media that is based on his research, Richard Mayer (2004) states that: According to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, understanding occurs when students can select relevant portions of the presented words and pictures, organize them into coherent verbal and pictorial mental models, and integrate the models with one another and prior knowledge. Multimedia presentations that foster these processes are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that inhibit these processes (p. 4647). Mayers work, therefore, corresponds with Baddeley and Hitchs model of short term memory (Baddeley, 2000) with different buffers for different types of data, as well as the semiotic perspective of understanding sign systems. This correlation may infer that messages delivered via two channelsverbal and visuospatialhave more potential for learner impact than those that rely on single channels. On the surface, this appears to provide multiple media such as film, TV, video, and computer-based multimedia with attributes available, per Clark and Salomons theories (Clark & Saloman, 1986), to promote deeper learning than other types of media that involve only one information channel. However, it also seems possible that a verbal
Film Selection for Education narrative may effect imagery to populate the visuospatial component of working memory, thereby resulting in a similar result.
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Commenting on the impact of Jane Austins (JA) Pride and Prejudice (P&P), one reader notes her response to the book, the 1995 televised miniseries (Langton, Birtwistle, & Davies, 1995), and the 2005 movie (Wright et al., 2005). From her response it is impossible to tell how she reacted to each of the media through which she encountered the same story. However, it is clear that the storys impact on her was significantperhaps, at least in part, because she encountered the same context in multiple texts requiring multiple cognitive capabilities. However, only affect accounts for the change this story in three different texts had on this particular viewer. Therefore, it is the most likely candidate to explain the impact of a text on a recipient. I never heard of Jane Austen until I saw the miniseries. I loved it. Loved Colin Firth and all things British. Then I saw this movie, and I was driven to read the book, join The Writers Center and take screenwriting courses. So, thats the impact that this movie had on me. I work in a highly technical field and, although I love movies, I prided myself on not wasting my time reading fiction. I read to learn. But Ive changed my attitude now that Ive read P&P. I plan to read all her books (bought them) as well as many other authors. So, I guess you might say this movie turned me on to JA and to other literary writers, as well as the film industry, in general, and how movies are made. Ive also been reading scholarly interpretations of P&P and the characters. Its been a fascinating journey so far...and Im only at the beginning of a long road (dianekistler, 2006). The question remains how media can be used to generate this type of impact on learners one capable of utilizing short-term memory effectively, eliciting emotion, and potentially, changing behavior. Additional insight may be found in a deeper exploration of the schema and scripts that people bring to bear on a text, particularly affective components, along with the
Film Selection for Education circumstances that impact schema and script generation, as explored in discussions on temperament and social influence.
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Since education is essentially a process to facilitate communication and learning, while it is essential to examine instructional materials used along with traits of learners relevant to their response to those materials, it remains important to ask what kind of educational goals and objectives instructional materials are intended to facilitate and at what level. This is primarily a philosophical and policy-related issue (Gutek, 2004) but is also germane to how and when film can and should be used for educational purposes. Educational goals can be at a local level and include facts, relationship, and specific skills or they can be at a more global level and include attitudes and points of view. An instructor of cultural geography at a secondary level could have a global goal of wanting learners to develop tolerance and appreciation for diversity within the worlds populations, and a specific, local goal of knowing the climate of a specific region and the relationship between it and its celebratory traditions. Educational psychologist Richard Mayer (2004) discusses teaching a science lesson on lightening from a brain-based perspective. The goal of the lesson was for students to be able to apply what they had learned about lightening to transfer problems related to weather. However, even if students succeeded using one type of instruction and media better than another, the question remained what larger goals that local objective relates to. From a philosophical and policy level the question isnt whether a specific instructional goal was achieved or not but for how long as well as how important achievement of that goal is to the life of the learner. In other words, what are educators preparing learners for?
Film Selection for Education While Reiser and Gagn (1983) have provided a useful tool related to selection of instructional materials in relation to instructional goals, those goals assume a traditional instructional design process in which the educator begins with the instructional objectives and
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categorization of instructional goals by whether it involves skill development, (either mental or motor), an attitude, or verbal information (back matter, Media Selection Flowchart). They begin with objectives and match media to them based on gross characteristics of media rather than specific attributes per Clark and Salomon (1986). A very different way to approach design is to examine a specific film that relates to an instructors subject domain and to gauge its impact potential; the specific types of impacts; what film attributes elicit those impacts; and then determine how the film might relate to the topic at hand. If learning is deepened by intensity and impact, then a film that elicits desired ones for a given audience, may actually suggest specific goals related to the topic that the course designer had not previously considered. This is a significantly different way of looking at instructional designa more organic one that emanates from shared experience between learners and between learners and instructor during film viewing. One possibility might consist of a teacher generating a list of general and specific objectives ahead of time and then documenting learning that had occurred relative to those goals after the fact rather than planning instructional activities beforehand. This approach defies conventional wisdom but may hold potential for future research. A number of educators, particularly instructional designers who have flocked to online learning for its economy and accessibility, have begun to re-examine the traditional paradigm of learning, teaching, and the design of instruction. One approach is called serendipitous learning
Film Selection for Education (Nichani, 2001) and follows on the heels of a constructivist approach articulated in detail by
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Jerome Bruner (1963; Bencze, 2000) called the discovery method. This approach assumes that a learner is provided with a rich array of information and material related to the subject domain and allowed to explore it under the facilitation and guidance of the teacher. Within this context, knowledge is discovered, not force fed. Instructional goals and objectives must remain flexible and organic for the approach to work. Learner agency is also promoted through reinforcing the self-concept as an active discoverer rather than a passive receptacle as in the empty vessel metaphor. Keeping in mind research indicating that an authoritative and not a permissive or authoritarian style promoted self-confidence in reticent children, it may be expected that the role of the teacher in this scenario is one of active involvement and guidance within parameters. Bencze (2000), a science educator, soundly criticizes methods that seek to impose a Western scientific tradition on learners and like Paolo Freire (2004), discusses the social and economic underpinnings of such an approach. As egalitarianism and learner-centered concepts about learning grow, more criticism is leveled against imposition of a teacher knows best authoritarianism on learners. Use of fictional films provides a rich environment through its myriad attributes and multiple levels that optimizes this viewpoint. While a feature narrative film could readily be used to achieve specific learning objectives such as social mores in early 18th century England via a showing of Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice (Wright et al., 2005), limiting viewing of the film to a narrow set of instructional objectives could well waste the opportunity for larger and potentially more significant learning.
Film Selection for Education Further exploration of assumptions regarding the assumed superiority of these newer pedagogical constructivist approaches can include new findings on neuroimaging related to different learning paradigms to determine brain regions typically activated by various instructional methods. This investigation might also note implications on the value or lack thereof on development of a sense of self-efficacy on later life success as well as social implications of self-efficacious individuals. In other words, how does a more learner-centered pedagogy based on a constructivist worldview that incorporates a sense of discovery or
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serendipitous learning impact self-efficacy in both the short and long term? Although intriguing, these types of explorations exceed the scope of the current investigation, but hold potential for additional research, including that related to film used as educational material. Study Methodology and Reason for its Selection: The Delphi Method For a study that seeks to harness and format widely-dispersed and current knowledge, a survey of experts within relevant disciplines seems desirable. Since the goal is to produce a tool that captures that knowledge and can be used by educators to make informed instructional material decisions related to film, a method of expert survey resulting in a consensus suggested itself. The Delphi method is such a methodology and therefore, has been selected. Historically, the Delphi methodology has been used to predict the likelihood of a certain state of affairs coming to pass (Mullen, 2003). In most Delphi studies, a group of people who are considered experts is assembled and questioned, normally through a paper and pencil survey, about the problem under study. Consensus is reached through iterative questioning (Mullen, 2003).
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Two of the earliest creators and users of the technique, Linestone and Turoff (1975, p. 3), state that the Delphi technique is, a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem. Given that no existing discipline or tools exist relative to a theory about how the impact of film can be tapped to improve education, this qualifies as a complex problem. Research Related to the Literature Because of the diversity and breadth of the knowledge domains involved, the types of studies and collection of relevant knowledge is equally as diverse. Some have been empirical, quantitative studies; some from the collection and consolidation of statistical data; some from personal reactions to texts; and still other from the ponderings of noted thinkers. History and Typical Delphi Methods The Delphi methodology came into being in the late 1950s at the Rand Corporation. The goal was to eliminate problems often encountered when surveying experts (Andrews & Allen, 2002). The methodology has been defined as a tool for discovering agreement, and identifying differences rather than forcing consensus, an interactive and personality-free team approach to decision making, and a technique that attempts to make constructive and systematic use of informed intuitive judgment (Andrews & Allen, 2002, p. 4). Another definition has been offered by Hasson, Keeney, and McKenna (2000, p. 1008): The Delphi survey is a group facilitation technique, which is an iterative multistage process, designed to transform opinion into group consensus.
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Although considerable variation exists between different Delphi studies, a typical process consists of the following steps: 1) assembling a panel of experts who remain anonymous to each other; 2) surveying or interviewing the experts in iterative rounds, normally three, for their opinion on a topic of interest using either paper and pencil or Internet-based questionnaires; 3) analyzing questionnaire responses and providing panelists with the results of previous responses; 4) conducting the next survey round; and 5) generating and distributing a final report of consensus reached, to participants. Of these steps, the two most frequently found are multiple survey rounds dedicated to reaching a consensus and participant anonymity (Andrews & Allen, 2002, p. 5). Delphi creators Dalkey and Helmer (1993) explain that preservation of anonymity: appears to be more conducive to independent thought on the part of the experts and to aid them in the gradual formation of a considered opinion. Direct confrontation, on the other hand, all too often induces the hasty formulation of preconceived notions, an inclination to close ones mind to novel ideas; a tendency to defend a stand once taken or, alternatively and sometimes alternatively, a predisposition to be swayed by persuasively stated opinions of others (p. 458). An Asymmetric Delphi Study Generally, a Delphi study is based on a set of questions related to an area for which either a forecast or consensus from an expert panel is sought. However, according to Mullen (2003), there is significant variation within the studies that fall under the Delphi umbrella. Many studies define best practices within a given area of practice (Robinson & Topper, 2006; Mullen) and involve a relatively homogeneous panel. In these cases, each round tends to hone in on a level of specificity about which participants agree, with outliers generally excluded. However, the situation is different when a heterogeneous panel has one area in common, but deals with it from very different disciplinary perspectives. A case in point is film.
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Film is a subject studied by multiple disciplineseither directly or indirectlyincluding: English, communications, film studies, screenwriting, filmmaking, acting, social science, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, linguistics, semiotics, education, and interdisciplinary combinations of these fields. Therefore, a potential panelist related to film could be within the discipline of English while focusing on cognition in relation to film, or a cognitive psychologist with an interest in film as a form of language and communication. Although coming from different academic traditions and practices, two people such as these could both have a common interest in film and hold similar knowledge. Experts from any of the other disciplines could be in a similar situation, with some knowledge in common but other knowledge and perspectives quite different. An asymmetric Delphi study employs this type of heterogeneous panel. Another characteristic of an asymmetric Delphi study is the purpose and nature of each study round. Rather than using rounds to drill down to a consensus, an asymmetrical study focuses on separate parts of the research problem for initial rounds and seeks to combine the data from these separate rounds into one or more final rounds. Part of the reason for this strategy involves the heterogeneous nature of the panel. Different disciplines tend to use different terminology and different definitions for the same terms. Therefore, in order to reach a consensus, it is necessary for panelists to acquire a common vocabulary and apply similar meanings to terms and concepts that may differ from their usual context. Providing terms related to different aspects of the problem under study in a round and then bringing these terms and concepts together in final rounds, helps bridge a cross-discipline communication gap.
Film Selection for Education By the end of the literature review it became evident that generation of a taxonomy of film to be used to guide teachers in film selection would require input from a heterogeneous panel. It also became clear that the goal of the study was to seek a consensus from the panel regarding both viewer characteristics and needs as well as attributes within the film medium,
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itself. Therefore, Round 1 focused on viewer impacts that could result from film viewing, Round 2 focused on the salient attributes of film and their relationship to impacts, while Round 3 concentrated on putting this information together to determine the most important impact/attribute combinations that should be considered in educational contexts. Because this approach differs from the way most Delphi Studies have been conducted, it was named an asymmetric Delphi Study. Summary of the Literature A number of conclusions stand out when looking at the examined literature. These conclusions relate to the problems under investigationnamely how films can be categorized based largely on viewer characteristics to promote their selection as educational materials that effectively impact learning. While Reiser and Gagn (1983) discuss media selection as a conscious process, they focus largely on instructional objectives and logistical considerations rather than learner response to media. By examining its attributes and symbol systems, Clark and Salomon (1986) and Salomon (1979) provide a comprehensive picture of media and the cognitive processes that map to these attributes and symbol systems. Further, a synergistic relationship appears to exist between literary and media analysis and cognitive functionparticularly working memory. However, existing theory, including Clark and Salomons (1986), fails to take into account the
Film Selection for Education impact of emotional factors that come into play when an individual encounters a text. For that perspective its necessary to turn to developmental; transpersonal; cognitive psychologists, especially those who include affect within discussions of cognition; and film cognitivists, for a better understanding.
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Suffice it to say that affect strongly affects cognition, often to the point of dominating it. From a biological perspective, this makes sense since the primary function of emotions is to ensure survival. These affective components of cognition, once configured, serve as filters through which an individual relates to and experiences films. Because the goal of this study is to generate a model of film in terms of its impact on viewers, the primary focus has been on the characteristics of viewers as they interact with a film. Affect is clearly a significant factor related to both film attributes and viewer response. Another conclusion is that there is no single discipline that sheds comprehensive light on the subject of film and reaction to it. Reader/viewer-response and reaction theories explore this but fall short of examining the human mechanisms, specifically, cognitive and neural, that contribute to the viewers reactions. Although film is being integrated into classrooms in a number of interesting ways, its selection is not made systematically or according to viewer characteristics. As a result, the exploration of the impact of texts on viewers requires a broad interdisciplinary approachespecially when the ultimate goal is to provide educators with a better integrated and more thoughtful means of selecting films to use for instruction. New fields of educational neuropsychology and educational neuronarratology examine the cognitive, affective, and neurological processes that impact education. These fields, when
Film Selection for Education directed toward the understanding of the impact of films, incorporate a multiplicity of disciplines. It is difficult to understand the coalescing of knowledge related to new fields without
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understanding the evolution of thought within relevant disciplines. Whether philosophy, literary or film studies, cognitive, developmental, transpersonal psychology, education, or neuroscience is examined, evolutionary trends in thinking reveal a movement away from an absolute materialism to a more constructivist position in which knowledge results from an interaction either functions within an individual, between individuals, or within society. From this perspective, response to film becomes a process rather than another thing to be studied. A third observation relates to human development. Because development rests, in large part, with the networks within the brain that are established at various periods of time, individuals bring their current developmental level to bear upon their encounter with a film. Young teenagers, for example, in whom hormones are beginning to blossom may well be disposed to focus on characters and actors whom they consider physically attractive. Other children are unable to grasp material at a higher developmental or skill level than the one they are on. Both adolescents and adults may avoid, interrupt watching, or denigrate a film that does not support their worldview or current interestseither based on conscious or unconscious choice. In his book Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, author Antonio Damasio (2003, p. 10) comments in relation to an excerpt he had copied and kept years earlier, that, Spinoza was the same, but I was not. In this respect, an individuals current level of development can serve as another type of filter imposed on a film, regardless of whether the
Film Selection for Education development is physical, cognitive, affective, spiritual, moral, or a combination. It can even be
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postured that a person is incapable of experiencing a film targeted at a more advanced level than the one currently available to him or her. The implication is that one of the goals of education may be to facilitate learners in achieving higher developmental levelsat least those that are not primarily due to physical maturationby challenging their filters and the biases that result from them. Although mentioned previously, the concept of filters is a useful one when relating to individuals experience of films and provides a fourth perspective. Just as developmental level exerts an important influence, so do other factors including moods, worldview, and social and self-identification. A learner in a happy mood is likely to be more receptive to a positive film presented by a teacher than one who is in a negative mood through the desire to seek mood congruence. A learner raised in a strict religious tradition, is likely to recoil from a film that threatens the beliefs he or she has been taught and accepted, depending on the level of his or her identification with the tribe of origin. An example of this is texts that contain information related to Darwinism and evolution that contradict the Biblical explanation of creation. Learners with poor self-images may not make the effort to engage a film considered hard. Those who identify strongly with an ethnic group may embrace a film authored by a member of their own group. These types of filters affect both a viewers willingness to initially engage a given film as well as their willingness to remain engaged until they have reached its conclusion. Their filters may also impact the degree of concentration and attention they apply.
Film Selection for Education Last, a number of the quotes from readers indicate that a film can have a profound
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impact. This impact can relate to more immediate learning or to longer-term learning. It can also relate to small or large issues, such as the desire to use better table manners, a career choice, or even a philosophy of life. The fact that the impact upon a given viewer is difficult to predicteven for the reader him or herselfbrings into question the relationship between film and instructional goals and objectives. Perhaps if goals are small and specific, the only relevant selection criteria should be the ability of a film to meet recipient expectations and provide accessibility. However, without an affective component, which appears to play such a key role in the degree of attention paid to a film, memory of its content may be insufficient. Perhaps affect plays a more prominent role when the concept of quality is added to a taxonomy of film. In any case, given reports of viewers about the significance that various films have had upon them, it may be wise to consider broader instructional goals than usual. Perhaps the process and even more important, the purpose of education, should take a more central stage when making instructional decisions, and should be added as a preface regarding use of a taxonomy of film. The Delphi study methodology, particularly one of an asymmetric nature as described, provides a means to capture some of the brightest and most current thought from disciplines that bear on the process of viewer responses to films in a form that can aid educators in making these decisions.
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY As previously noted, many of the authors referenced in the literature review for were invited to participate on the Delphi panel. Approximately 70 experts were identified and their contact information collected. The goal was a minimum of 10 panelists with at least three disciplines represented from among education; literary studies neuroscience; cognitive psychology; screenwriting; film studies; filmmaking and acting; and semiotics. Fourteen experts from among nine disciplines participated. The criterion for panel selection was expertise as demonstrated by a terminal degree or equivalent experience within a relevant discipline, along with published or produced work, or equivalent expertise. Since communication related to the study was facilitated through the Internet, it was important that participants have Internet access, although some communication took place via telephone. In order to help maintain panelist motivation throughout the study, a web-based forum discussion was created to facilitate the exchange of ideas. The discussion was closed during a survey round and then opened once the round has been completed and after survey data was analyzed. A summary analysis of input from the prior round was generally provided to panelists and the discussion forum was opened. Researcher Role The researcher conducted all major functions related to the research which included: (a) setting up the websites to be used during the study; (b) creating the survey instruments; (c) being available at least three hours a day, five days a week to respond to panelist inquiries; (d) rectifying technical problems; (e) seeking required permissions; (f) communicating with
Film Selection for Education panelists, including sending initial invitations; (g) adding clarification for previous
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communication, either requested or non-requested; (h) analyzing data from surveys; (i) providing panels with the results of survey responses from a previous round and; (j) preparing a report of study results, once completed. Researcher Biases and Expected Results The researcher made the following assumptions prior to the study: (a) the panelists would reach a consensus that results in a taxonomy of film; (b) at least 10 panelists would participate in the study and at least five will complete all rounds; (c) the taxonomy would resemble either a two or three-dimensional organization chart; and (d) the taxonomy should provide a conceptual framework for a reflective tool educators can use to make material selection decisions. All expectations were met. There were a number of instances where the researcher either contacted panelists to clarify their responses or panelists contacted the researcher to ask questions or report problems. The researcher remained vigilant not to interact to interject her own biases into panelist thought processes, opinions, or responses. In addition, the researcher assumed that the most important focus for the taxonomy is that of the recipient and how a given type of film can be expected to impact him or her under normal circumstances. The taxonomy was not expected to be a new configuration based on existing genre theory or taxonomies, but a tool to be used by educators for selecting appropriate instructional material based on expected viewer response.
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Study Setting and Schedule Because the participants are geographically dispersed which implies time differences, and because their schedules vary, communication was effected primarily through the Intent. Since the study consisted of multiple survey rounds, the Internet survey tool Zoomerang, was used. Between survey rounds, an Internet-based discussion in a forum format was employed in an effort to provide value for participants in being able to interact easily with other experts, as well as to facilitate the deepening of their thinking on the topic at hand. A Microsoft Network (MSN) community was used for inter-round discussions. The study took place over approximately a two-month period. Following the issuing of email invitations and acceptance, the study began on Monday, February 5, 2002 and ran through Friday, April 13, 2007. Each of the three survey rounds lasted for two weeks, followed by an interim two-week discussion period. The discussion forum was made available to panelists between rounds but was little used. Data Analysis Most of the survey questions were open-ended. Therefore, analysis was largely textual with a reflective analysis tradition, defined as a process in which the researcher relies primarily on intuition and judgment in order to portray or evaluate the phenomena being studied (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003, p. 459). Efforts were made to ensure that the study conclusions particularly the taxonomy itselfwould be useful for scholars planning additional related research, and educational practitioners alike.
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Although most questions were open-ended, some used a Likert scale to limit the range of responses. These types of questions were used exclusively in Rounds 2 and 3. An analysis was conducted for each question for each survey round. Patterns and themes were soughtboth between responses to an individual question as well as between questions to determine trends; outliers were documented. A round analysis was provided to panelists following Round 1 to assist in verification of the impact categories. None of the panelists commented on the categorization scheme. Responses to Round 2 were incorporated into Round 2 so that no separate summary was provided to panelists. Participants were provided with a copy of the final round for validation purposes. Trends discovered served as a basis for one or more questions posed in the next round, with a goal of moving toward a consensus in the final round. Because of the predominant textual nature of the analysis, the only tools used were Microsoft Office for text and and Adobe Photoshop for graphics. Ethical Considerations and Reporting of Study Results The study posed a low risk of potential harm to participants. All are adult professionals and the study was transparent and based on responses to specific questions. Panelists were provided an opportunity to edit or clarify their responses to questions prior to a next round. Several safeguards were provided for panelists. In order to maintain anonymity panelists were assigned usernames throughout the study. Within the discussion forum, the researcher addressed each by their username and requested that others do the same. Panelists were also instructed to use their assigned username as their screen name for the discussion. Both the survey and discussion website were set up so that only panelists had access.
Film Selection for Education Response data was downloaded from the survey website on a weekly basis and was stored on a removable hard disc. These backup discs will be kept by the researcher for at least
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one year following completion of the final report. No one besides the researcher will have access to either the website data or the stored backups. Further, all procedures related to approval by an Institutional Review Board will be followed in order to protect the interests of panelists.
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Introduction As noted above, this study was conducted using the Delphi methodologymodified as an asymmetrical Delphi methodology. This means that each of the initial two rounds tackled one and only one part of a problem with the third and final round tying the information from the previous, together. Each round and the sub-problem it sought to address is discussed below.
Figure 4. Mind Map of Chapter 4, Data Collection and Analysis.
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As a survey of experts during a three-round process, this study involved a high degree of reflective analysis on the part of the researcher to digest and synthesize participant responses. Those for each round had to be assimilated, analyzed, and compared to other data, including previous rounds as well as information discovered during the literature review. This process enabled patternsnot all of which were obvious at first perusalto emerge. This type of analysis was further suggested by the range of the panelist disciplines combined with a dearth of studies of a similar nature. Two major characteristics of the present study are the inclusion of a reader/viewer perspective (in conjunction with reader-response and receptivity theory) as related to a significant impact of film, and a wide range of perspectives found amongst a heterogeneous, interdisciplinary panel. Studies done related to film typically lack a focus on the viewer and expert opinion normally remains within a relatively homogeneous knowledge domain. Data is discussed chronologically by round. While rounds consisted of multiple questions, including demographics, some questions proved problematic in terms of clarity or a lack of insight regarding responses sought from the research questions guiding the round. Only responses that contributed to the guiding research questions are discussed. Round 1 was intended to identify the types of significant impacts that film could have on viewers. Round 2 was intended to articulate key attributes that film possessboth those contributed by the screenwriter and the story he or she is attempting to tell, and the filmmakers who produce a film from the screenplay. Round 3 was intended to put information from the first two rounds together to provide a conceptual basis that could serve as the foundation for a reflective rather than prescriptive tool to assist educators in a more meaningful selection of films.
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Study Participants Sixty-nine experts were identified as potential panelists. Most were academics referenced in the literature review. Some were also initially contacted during the writing of the literature review for a further explanation of relevant information. All identified experts were invited through e-mail. Fourteen of those invited (20%) agreed to participate and included all major disciplines explored in the literature review. Of those 14, the researcher had previously communicated with nine (64%) during the writing of the literature review. Table 1 shows the disciplines of those who accepted and the rounds in which each participated. The letter of the ID represents the discipline and the number within it. Check marks indicate round participation. The identifications were used throughout the study to maintain anonymity. The ID included the designation chosen for the discipline and a number representing the order in which the panelist initially responded. Therefore, L2 was the second person in the English/literature discipline who responded to Round 1. Table 2 contains a list of the disciplines and participants within each.
Film Selection for Education Table 1 Study Invitees, Acceptance, Discipline, and Participation by Study Round
Invitee by ID L1 L2 L3 S1 S2 P1 C1 M1 N1 N2 F1 H1 E1 E2 English/literature English/literature English/literature screenwriting screenwriting political science cognitive psychology filmmaking/acting neuroscience neuropsychology film studies philosophy training education Field Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
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Panelists responded to round questions in one of three ways. Most responded online using the Internet-based survey tool, Zoomerang, through which round questions were posed. (See Appendixes B, C, and D for the specific format of and questions for each round). One participant included responses in an attached e-mail, and several provided their responses via a phone interview. In the latter case, interviews were recorded with participant knowledge; a transcription was made and e-mailed back for validation of accuracy. No changes were requested.
Film Selection for Education Table 2 Disciplines and Participants within Each
DISCIPLINE English/literature Film studies Screenwriting Political Science Philosophy Cognitive psychology Neuroscience/neuropsychology Education/training Filmmaking/acting # 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 USERNAME L1, L2, L3 F1 S1, S2 P1 H1 C1 N1, N2 E1, E2 M1
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When Internet responses were collated, if any appeared unclear, the researcher contacted the panelist to request clarification. In all instances, clarification was provided. Thirteen of the 14 panelists (93%) completed Round 1. Eleven of the 14 (79%) completed Round 2, and eight (57%) completed Round 3. Six (43%) completed all three rounds. All panelists have been practicing their current profession for between 17 to 52 years when they participated in the survey and 11 of the 14 hold terminal degrees. The remaining two panelists have masters degrees, one of those has completed all doctoral work except the dissertation, and the other is currently in a doctoral program. All but one currently teach or have taught adults, most within higher education. The one panelist without background in education is a former attorney turned professional actor. Six of the 14 panelists are female (43%), although they were only 18 of the 69 invited to participate (26%). Two panelists teach at universities in Canada while the other 12 work in the United States.
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Study Rounds Each survey round was designed to focus on one of the three major research questions. Each question and the round to which it corresponded as well as the data that resulted from it is discussed below. Round 1: Viewer Impacts The first round of the survey was designed to answer the question: What are the types of viewer impacts evoked by film? Panelists were asked to identify three or four films that had made a significant impact on either them or someone they knew and to describe these impacts as a mini case study. A significant impact was defined for panelists as: A significant impact related to film viewing is an effect the film has on the viewer after he or she has left the movie theater or ejected the DVD. Significant impacts change the viewers life - their life goals, dreams, behavior, attitudes, professional direction, personal interests, hobbies, knowledge, etc. In order to be considered significant, the impact must last for at least a month and probably, a year or more. The degree of an impact along with its duration constitute its strength. A movie fan who thinks constantly about a film or aspects of it and has changed one or more behaviors over a period of years (as the result of a film) would demonstrate a much more significant impact than someone with a week-long interest related to the film. Those who experience a significant impact as the result of a film often view it multiple timesincluding over the course of years. They frequently describe themselves as obsessed by or addicted to the film. The key attribute of a significant impact of a film, however, lies in change to the viewers life for a month or longer. With one exception, panelists mentioned films they had personally seen. Table 3 lists the 36 named films by release date.
Film Selection for Education Table 3 Films Selected as Impactful by Release Date
1930 - 1959
Trouble in Paradise (1932)
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1960s
Last Year at Marienbad (1961) Zorba the Greek (1964)
1970s
Catch-22 (1970)
1980s
Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back (1980) E.T. - The Extra-Terrestrial (1982)
1990s
Winters Tale (1992)
2000 present
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) Celebrate Whats Right with the World (2001 documentary) City of God (2002) The Hours (2002)
Babes in Toyland (1934)
MASH (1970)
Schindlers List (1993)
Sullivans Travels (1941) Casablanca (1942)
Midnight Cowboy (1969) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969)
Love Story (1970) Harold and Maude (1971)
Star Wars: Return of the Jedi (1983) The Sacrifice (Offret, 1986)
Bridges of Madison County (1995) What Dreams May Come (1998)
Seventh Seal (1957)
Solyaris (1972) Cries and Whispers (1972) Star Wars (1977) Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)
Blair Witch Project (1999)
Girl with a Pearl Earring (2003) Saraband (2003) Crash (2004) The Passion of the Christ (2004) Hap3py Feet (2006) The Lives of Others (2006)
The films named span the years 1932 through 2007 and represent as broad spectrum of genres, from animation to fantasies, and dramasthe mostly frequently listed typewith one documentary. Some are considered independent films; some blockbusters; some were commercially successful (blockbusters); several are Academy Award winners; some would
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likely be considered art or experimental films; and several are foreign language films. They were seen when panelists were children as well as within a few days before the question was answered. They were viewed in theatres, at industry screenings, in specialized locations such as a small theater in a museum or a classroom, and at home on videotape or digital videodisc (DVD). Every panelist named a different filmthere was not one in common among the case studies provided. An analysis of the descriptions that accompanied each of the case studies for named films resulted in the following categorization scheme, with named films listed within each category it exemplifies. Emotional impacts were described most often, followed by cognitive ones. Each category and examples provided within panelist case studies are noted to explain how impact categories were derived. Emotional Impacts Impacts categorized as emotional were identified through emotion-laden words such as frightened, excited, surprised, cried, depressed, delighted, comforted, and shocked. For example, when speaking of the film Crash, one panelist stated, I found the movies portrayal of race relations in the USA shocking. In a description of seeing Passion of the Christ, another said, Parts of it were too disturbing and I took a little break out in the hall and rest room. Of The Fellowship of the Ring, the panelist commented, This was an extremely exciting movie to watch. This panelist further commented that viewing the film led to a state of heightened physical arousal.
Film Selection for Education Table 4 Films by Impact Category

EMOTIONAL Mood Harold & Maude Casablanca The Hours Memory City of God Worldview City of God COGNITIVE Knowledge City of God Structure Casablanca Evaluation Sullivans Travels Star Wars Last Year at Marienbad AESTHETIC Beauty Girl with a Pearl Earring Cries and Whispers What Dreams May Come Celebrate Whats Right with the World Competence Casablanca
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INTEGRATIVE
Harold & Maude Happy Feet Star Wars
Happy Feet The Hours
Casablanca Happy Feet
Schindlers List
Harold & Maude Solyaris
Girl with a Pearl Earring Happy Feet
Fellowship of the Ring
Babes in Toyland
Solyaris
Winters Tale Crash
Fellowship of the Ring
Winters Tale
Babes in Toyland Crash The Lives of Others The Blair Witch Project Cries and Whispers
Cries and Whispers Schindlers List
Winters Tale The Sacrifice Midnight Cowboy Kramer vs. Kramer ET
Sullivans Travels
Saraband
Trouble in Paradise Sullivans Travels Crash
Kramer vs. Kramer Cries and Whispers Schindlers List
The Sacrifice The Passion of the Christ Midnight Cowboy Kramer vs. Kramer Last Year at Marienbad The Blair Witch Project Cries and Whispers Celebrate Whats Right with the World The Bridges of Madison County
The Blair Witch Project Cries and Whispers
What Dreams May Come
Celebrate Whats Right with the World Love Story The Bridges of Madison County The Passion of the Christ
Seventh Seal
Saraband
The Passion of the Christ Schindlers List What Dreams May Come Celebrate Whats Right with the World Catch-22 MASH
The Blair Witch Project What Dreams May Come Zorba the Greek Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
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A deeper look at panelist descriptions revealed that the emotionally-related impacts could be further subdivided into types that included a change in mood from the state in which the person began viewing of the film to the time the film ended; an evocation of past memories; and an impact on the way the viewer saw the worldvalues, attitudes, or worldview. Mood Related to a mood-changing impact, one panelist stated about viewing the film Harold and Maude, It helped me with my depression. In relation to Crash, another panelist shared, I wept in a number of places in the film. One panelist spoke of a deep sense of sadness that overcame him as he watched a film. I sat by myself in the theater with tears streaming down my face. Another noted, every time I show it, [in a class] I weep; I truly weep because Im so profoundly affected by these actions and emotions on the screen. Yet another commented about Winters Tale that, It raises themes of love, loss, endurance, in a light, sometimes witty, way that seemed moving and continues to affect me when I see it. The profoundness of a mood impact is also represented by this statement: When viewing the movie Schindlers List at a theater I was unable to talk for almost an hour afterwards. This impact is later echoed in a description of the film What Dreams May Come: Besides being visually stimulating, the film has a message that deeply touched me. Based on the statements made by panelists mood impact was subsequently defined as 7:
Questions that referred to terms specific to the study were placed in a website. Links were provided within questions to appropriate pages of the website. The URL for this website is http://mysite.verizon.net/vze7pchu/ and the page describing viewer impacts that resulted from Round 1 of the study is http://mysite.verizon.net/vze7pchu/id1.html.
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The film elicited a change in mood, either immediately or later. Mood can also include a desire for a sense of security, stasis, or constancy. Reactions similar to those that occur in romantic love also qualify as mood-changing and are sometimes marked by feelings of obsession with things related to the film, theoretically to provide mood congruence and continuation. Mood change can also relate to a state of heightened arousalemotional and/or physical. When a desire for mood congruence exceeds a month, it is considered an integrative impact. Memory While not mentioned as frequently as mood, several panelists noted that elements of a film induced emotional memories. About The Hours, one panelist commented, I sat by myself in the theater with tears streaming down my face, remembering my lost friends and their suffering. Another noted in relation to Babes in Toyland, For some unknown reason, this [film] scared the bejeezus out of me at the age of, maybe 5-6, led to nightmares, etc. Regarding Cries and Whispers another panelist commented, I saw it about men, relationships, the man I was involved with, etc. I saw it later again and it also had a strong and similar impact. Now I am afraid to watch it again. Related to viewing City of God, one panelist commented, Im especially concerned about the plight of children given my own childhood and experiences with my family. Based on panelist comments, a memory-related emotional impact was defined as, the film induced memories that, in turn, evoked associated emotions. Worldview The third sub-category of emotional impact discovered amidst panelist responses was that of worldview. This impact type was defined to panelists as, the film reinforced, refined, legitimized, or transformed a currently-held worldview, belief, value, or attitudee.g., diversity is good.
Film Selection for Education More impacts fell into the worldview category than any of the othersemotional, cognitive, aesthetic, or integrative. A worldview impact is implied by statements such as: It [City of God] impacted me professionally and personallyit increased my social awareness of the trouble children have. This film [Shindlers List] impacted me in a way that made me feel that every person makes a difference if not on this generation then on those that follow. The film pushed me to study education so I could teach and make an impact on future generations.
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This film [What Dreams May Come] changed my attitude about death and dying. The film [Chased by the Light] changes the attitude of the learners viewing the story in every case (I have seen this three times). Ive never quite looked upon love the same way after seeing Midnight Cowboy. In Catch-22 and MASH, the protagonists encounter absurd situations in wartime. Their experiences confirmed my views of the then growing absurdity of the Vietnam war. It [The Passion of the Christ] had an impact on my own view of the Christian religion but more so, on my view about how a film can depict something so controversial and affect people. Cognitive Impacts Aside from worldview impacts, the other most common types mentioned fell into one of three cognitive impact types: knowledge, structure, and evaluation. Each of these types was defined for panelists. Knowledge A knowledge impact was defined as: Acquisition or broadening of knowledge, including the context for existing or related knowledge. This response type could be characterized by statements like, before seeing this film, I didnt know that or this film opened my eyes to The knowledge acquired is predominantly new knowledge rather than a refinement of existing
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knowledge. It can be entirely new facts or insights or can be an entirely new context for existing knowledge beyond a refinement. Knowledge impacts were the least frequently listed of any other cognitive type. Several comments classified under this category included: Its a narrative picture [City of God] based in fact but a fictional story. I often tell my classes that the truth is best served through fiction. The potential of people to be terrible as well as the other side of the rainbow. The film [Shindlers List] is on my mind often - any time WW2 is mentioned - but also whenever some small aspect relates to the film i.e. Schindler was able to have an entire train load of Jewish children by claiming he needed their small hands to polish the insides of shell casings. Structure The second cognitive sub-category, structure, was the second most commonly named and was defined as: The film enabled the viewer to reframe existing knowledge and/or thought patterns, schema, and/or scripts (mental representation of a general sequence of events that occurs in a given scenario). Expectations are either satisfied or reframed in a satisfying, but not necessarily pleasant, way. The viewer may be aware of a situation depicted in a film so it isnt new knowledge, but they now view this knowledge a bit differently so perspective is expanded and/or deepened. Cognitive arousal and intellectual curiosity would also be included here. Satisfaction is a more typical reaction than blown away by. Comments that typified a cognitive structural impact include: [The impact of Solaris] has grown gradually over the years, first leading me to view other Tarkovsky filmsand to think often about the issues of conscience that the film raises. About The Sacrifice, the panelist commented, It combines spirituality and philosophical insight so as to make a powerful statement about mans destructiveness and the possibility of redemption. Related to Last Year at Marienbad, the panelist stated that it, increased my tendency to see works of art as problems to
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be solved. In each of these instances, the impacts involved the reframing of existing information or knowledge but did not imply a strong affective component involved in that restructuring. Evaluation The last sub-category of a cognitive impact was evaluation, defined as: The film enabled the viewer to refine evaluative strategies and perhaps, acquire new evaluative perspectives and techniques, by grappling with the meaning and/or techniques used in the film. Reaction includes judgment and is evaluative rather than personal. It may have involved writing a critique of the film. The viewer adopts a third person rather than a first person perspective regarding the films impact. Several panelists mentioned having been motivated sufficiently by a film to analyze and write a review of it. Ingmar Bergmans Saraband, which I also asked PsycCRITIQUES if I could review. Of Last Year at Marienbad, a different panelist stated, I analyzed this film for a magazine I was writing reviews for at the time, and I was damned proud of my analysis. The one panelist who included a film that had impacted her students reported about The Blair Witch Project, I found it disappointing and amateurish and not particularly scary. I was just plain puzzled about why my students found it so impressive. Regarding the first three Star Wars films, a panelist explained, I also decided to do research on the films for my doctoral studies, so I gathered information, and read academic studies (as well as reviews) on the trilogy. While the initial impact of these films may have fallen into another category, interest in the film led to an evaluative response. Aesthetic Impacts Aesthetic impacts were divided into two sub-types, beauty and competence. Beauty was defined as, the viewer experienced some sense of the sublime during the film. Competence
Film Selection for Education was defined as, the film provided a technical and non-technical balance of elements and achievement, resulting in a sense of artistic satisfaction and harmonic resonance. Beauty
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Appreciation for a films beauty was the second least mentioned impact type, following knowledge. Examples of panelist responses that indicated it included comments such as these: I just love the period; the music; the color and texture of the film [Girl with a Pearl Earring] perfectly shot to mimic the Vermeer paintings; the acting, which was beyond perfect. It [Cries and Whispers] also simply has to do with the beauty of the film and wonderful acting, and with the strong topic of death. Besides being visually stimulating, the film [What Dreams May Come] has a message that deeply touched me. Competence Several panelists also mentioned films that impacted them because of their perception of its overall quality and technical competence. I saw it in a screening room and was shattered by what a wonderful, layered, dimensional movie it [Casablanca] was. Its impact [Trouble in Paradise] was primarily aesthetic: I had never seen a film that was so stylistically perfect. The directoruses his total control over the medium to produce a brilliant but subtle critique of the vast inequities in society at the time of the Depression. But the film isnt so much about these inequities as it is about its own example of how to make a perfect, and I do mean perfect, film. Integrative Impacts A number of comments reflected such a strong and long-term impact that they suggested that a number of other types had been integrated. This impact type, therefore, was defined by its length and strength and was defined as:
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The film evoked a strong reaction involving multiple processes that constituted some form of turning point in one or more aspects of viewers life. These impacts usually last for decades or more. Emotions may be mentioned but not necessarily. Most significant are the degree of affinity, strength of impact, extensiveness, comprehensiveness, and duration of change/sespecially for films not recently viewed. Multiple viewings point to an integrative reaction for more recently-released films. Similar to mood changing, this impact type is generally stronger, longer, and leads to longer-term behavioral change often in multiple areas. Several panelists noted that the mood evoked by the film lasted well beyond the immediate viewing and some indicated that the viewing of the film began to act as a type of elixir used to recreate the initial mood. I began seeing it multiple times, stated one panelist who then added By the end of the decade, Id seen the film over 100 times. Another stated, the message and feelings it evokes stay with me. Yet another said, I watch this film at home and have watched it about once a year since it came out. In the second round of the study, one panelist succinctly commented, A film that doesnt induce a mood change is a failed film to me. For some, this mood change occurred with successive viewings and led to new pursuits such as the panelist whose interest in the Star Wars films led to a research project about these films. Table 5 includes the definitions for each impact category and may serve as a reference. Table 5 Definitions for Each Impact Type
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EMOTIONAL Mood
The film elicited a change in mood, either immediately or later. Mood can also include a desire for a sense of security, stasis, or constancy. Reactions similar to those that occur in romantic love also qualify as mood-changing and are sometimes marked by feelings of obsession with things related to the film, theoretically to provide mood congruence and continuation. Mood change can also relate to a state of heightened arousal emotional and/or physical. When a desire for mood congruence exceeds a month, it is considered an integrative impact.
COGNITIVE Memory
The film induced memories that, in turn, evoked associated emotions.
AESTHETIC Structure
The film enabled the viewer to reframe existing knowledge and/or thought patterns, schema, and/or scripts (mental representation of a general sequence of events that occurs in a given scenario). Expectations are either satisfied or reframed in a satisfying, but not necessarily pleasant, way. The viewer may be aware of a situation depicted in a film so it isnt new knowledge, but they now view this knowledge a bit differently so perspective is expanded and/or deepened. Cognitive arousal and intellectual curiosity would also be included here. Satisfaction is a more typical reaction than blown away by.
INTEGRATIVE Competence
The film provided a technical and non-technical balance of elements and achievement resulting in a sense of artistic satisfaction and harmonic resonance. The film evoked a strong reaction involving multiple processes that constituted some form of turning point in one or more aspects of viewers life. These impacts usually last for decades or more. Emotions may be mentioned but not necessarily. Most significant are the degree of affinity, strength of impact, extensiveness, comprehensivenes s, and duration of change/s especially for films not recently viewed. Multiple viewings point to an integrative reaction for more recently-released films. Similar to mood changing, this impact type is generally stronger, longer, and leads to longer-term behavioral changeoften in multiple areas.
Worldview
The film reinforced, refined, legitimized, or transformed a currently-held worldview, belief, value, or attitudee.g., diversity is good.
Knowledge
Acquisition or broadening of knowledge, including the context for existing or related knowledge. This response type could be characterized by statements like, before seeing this film, I didnt know that or this film opened my eyes to The knowledge acquired is predominantly new knowledge rather than a refinement of existing knowledge. It can be entirely new facts or insights or can be an entirely new context for existing knowledge beyond a refinement.
Evaluation
The film enabled the viewer to refine evaluative strategies and perhaps, acquire new evaluative perspectives and techniques, by grappling with the meaning and/or techniques used in the film. Reaction includes judgme nt and is evaluative rather than personal. It may have involved writing a critique of the film. The viewer adopts a third person rather than a first person perspective regarding the films impact
Beauty
The viewer experienced some sense of the sublime during the film.
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Round 2: Film Attributes The second round of the survey was designed to answer the question: What are the specific film attributes that elicit identified viewer impacts? See Figure 4 for a reminder of how the rounds and how the chapter is organized. Another question that occurred to the researcher following Round 1 was what impact an individuals level of development had on their response to a film so that was added to this round. Eleven of the 14 initial panelists responded to this round, although not all answered all questions. Development Development was defined for panelists as four types: physical; cognitive; emotional; and spiritual as follows: Table 6 Definitions for Types of Development Presented to Panelists
Physical Development Cognitive Development Correlates with age and physical maturation and includes cognitive structures not thought to be fully developed until the 20s. Relates to knowledge rather than the physiological aspects of cognition. How much does an individual know and how well have they integrated that knowledge, both with internal and intuitive knowing and/or other information? The focus here is rational, logical thought. The ability to regulate emotions. An example would be a person prone to anger who has learned to channel it through distraction, physical activity, or other means to avoid ensuing problems. This individual would have a higher degree of emotional development than someone with little to no control over emotional states and moods. Deals with integrated states approaching Maslows (and other transpersonal psychologists) concept of self-actualization. It is not piety or knowledge of a given religious or belief system, but internal integration that includes and may exceed the bounds of other types of development.
Emotional Development
Spiritual Development
Film Selection for Education Responses indicated that of the 11 panelists, most viewed cognitive and emotional
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development as the most important (rated as either significant or extremely significant) in terms of impact on the way films were perceived by viewers. Table 7 indicates the importance panelists attributed to each of the four development types in terms of viewer response to a film. Table 7 Importance of Developmental Level on Viewer Response to Film
Insignificant Physical Development Cognitive Development Emotional Development Spiritual Development TOTAL 2 1 1 Somewhat Significant 4 1 2 2 9 1 5 7 Unsure 1 Significant 2 4 2 2 10 Extremely Significant 3 6 5 2 15
Physical Development Opinions were split when it came to the impact of physical development with half considering it either insignificant or only somewhat significant and the other half deeming it significant or extremely significant. One was not sure about its significance. Most panelists considered cognitive and emotional development the two most relevant developmental areas related to film viewing and impact.
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Cognitive Development Some of the comments that accompanied these responses to cognitive development were: Vital. Ability to process visual information with automatic attribution of causal relationships between events is a precursor to comprehension. Like any other art form, what the reader/viewer brings is importantwhat Gombrich called the beholders share, and this is dependent on the reader/viewers knowledge of the medium, the genre, and the culture ...which in turn are dependent on the developmental level. One panelist commented on a relevant theory that relates to the impact of cognitive level and film viewing and interpretation. This [cognitive development] would work with age, although some people are more cognitively mature at younger ages than others (some never seem to gain cognitive complexity). Using Perrys schema, people with dualistic thinking will not be able to respond the same way to films raising complex issues (whether social, political, etc.). They may respond emotionally, but may not be able to reason out their response or see alternative points of view. Those who see all views as equally valid (the next level) will have other problems in determining the worth or quality of a film (at the rational level). However, since I tend to think that many of our favorite films become favorites when we are young, prior to more mature cognitive development, it may be that cognitive development is only important in how people respond who either are older or who have had some higher levels of education (especially media literacy). In terms of films teaching new knowledge that might help with cognitive development, then that may be more likely also when people are younger, and perhaps more open to new ways of seeing things. Emotional Development Comments related to emotional development included: Hollywood makes so many movies that evoke responses of excitementa relatively immature person can respond perfectly appropriately to a shattering-glass epic. The kind of films that are written with as little dialogue as possible in favor of action that can translate rapidly and effectively for the global market requires little emotional maturity. Because of the level and kinds of media productions in this day and age, many who are more emotionally developed stay away from rather than embrace it because so much of it
Film Selection for Education is not aimed at promoting emotional development but rather appeals to more prurient, pedestrian, and/or visceral tastes and dispositions.
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This [emotional development] is likely the most significant developmental aspect, given how much of the meaning of an important film is conveyed through the feelings and emotions of the viewer (from pleasure in natural scenery to empathy with a protagonist). We have done research to show that people in certain kinds of emotional states tend to respond to short stories in ways that are limited. Our findings are similar to Hollands; that people tend to recreate their defenses around works of narrative art. It seems that the most memorable or important films to people are those that affect us strongly on an emotional level. while I wouldnt say the feelings were like falling in love, but I would say that our favorites are films that we love, and can see over and over again. There is a gut reaction that then often makes it difficult to hear any criticism about the film (much as if it were a favored friend). There is an opposite reaction tooif we dislike a film, we may decide we hate it, for whatever reason. Again, I think these extreme reactions to film are more likely when we are young; certainly adults can be moved by an emotionally powerful film, but the reactions may not be so visceral. Cognitive elements may also play a part in moderating emotional responses. Spiritual Development Although more people rated spiritual development as unsure, (five out of 11) than any other development category, some of the comments made are worth noting: Most enlightened people stay away from popular media so its impact on them is less. To understand and gain the bigger message or metaphor being presented in film stories an individual needs to possess a more mature level of spiritual development. If you count understanding distant others as neighbors, then film that asks us to extend the empathetic circle certainly may resonate more with spiritual or religious people. But there are other routesI note that you dont ask about moral development.
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Film Attributes The more critical questions for Round 2 of the survey, however, related to the interaction between the impacts defined in Round 1 and the characteristics or attributes of film. Six attributes were initially defined: content/subject matter; emotional evocativity; story verisimilitude /believability; story point/moral; character identification potential; and technical competence. Each was defined as follows: Table 8 Definition of Film Attributes for Round 2
Content/ subject matter Emotional evocativity This attribute addresses the setting and theme of the film. It is characterized by traditional notions of genre and short descriptions of the film such as its tagline. James Cameron described Titanic as Romeo and Juliet on a ship. Brokeback Mountain might be described as two gay cowboys in 1960s Montana. This attribute addresses the amount of emotion the film tries to evoke. Both Brokeback Mountain and Titanic, for example, are high in emotionality while The Da Vinci Code is comparatively low. Emotionality does not address the kind of emotion, only the strength of the emotions it intends to elicit in viewers. Samuel Coleridge coined the term willing suspension of disbelief regarding stories. Viewers need to remain attentive to the story which promotes believability in and verisimilitude of the story events. While a story world may be fictional as in futuristic tales such as Star Wars, the events within that world must remain consistent in order to maintain the viewers attention. Being a story, a film must make some point at its end as a payoff for the viewers time and attention. If the point or moral is insignificant, viewers often feel let down or even resentful. The point usually relates to the theme of the movie and can be thought of as what the viewer took away from the movie. Many film theorists believe that a movies impact relates to how strongly viewers are able to identify with characters. It is why many talk about flat or 1-dimensional characters vs. believable, 3-dimensional characters. Flat characters are more difficult to identify with since they are less believable The clarity of the visual image and sound can impact both the verisimilitude of a film as well as the viewers ability to suspend their disbelief. If it is poor, it may impact the viewers response to the film. If it is pristine, it may enhance the viewers experience of the film and enable them to relate more keenly to other attributes of the film.
Story verisimilitude/ believability
Story point/moral
Character identification potential Technical competence
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Panelists were requested to rate the importance of each attribute in relation to each impact category. This resulted in the responses below. Refer to Table 5 for definitions of the impact categories. Table 9 Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Emotional Impacts
EMOTIONAL IMPACTS Not Important Content/ subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude/ believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence TOTAL 0 0 2 Somewhat Important 0 2 2 Important 5 0 3 Very Important 6 9 4
1 1
6 0
3 4
1 6
1 4
4 14
4 15
2 22
The content, ability to evoke emotions, and the potential to identify with characters are seen as the most important attributes a film can possess to elicit an emotional impact. The point or moral of the film is considered somewhat important, but not as much as other attributes in evoking an emotional impact. The same question was repeated for the other major impact categories and produced the following results. Table 5 contains definitions of the impacts.
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Table 10 Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Cognitive Impacts

COGNITIVE IMPACTS Not Important Content/ subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude/ believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence TOTAL 0 1 2 Somewhat Important 4 3 2 Important 4 2 4 Very Important 3 5 3
2 1
6 2
1 4
1 4
2 8
4 21
3 18
2 18
Responses varied more in terms of which attributes contributed the most to cognitive film impacts, however it is worth noting that the most frequently chosen attribute was the films potential to evoke emotions, which was considered very important. Table 5 defines the aesthetic impacts, as a reference.
Film Selection for Education Table 11 Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Aesthetic Impacts
AESTHETIC IMPACTS Not Important Content/ subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude/ believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence TOTAL 2 0 5 Somewhat Important 3 1 0 Important 2 4 3 Very Important 3 5 2
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2 2
3 1
4 2
1 5
1 12
1 9
2 17
6 22
Technical competence was mentioned most often as being very important in generating an aesthetic response to a filmover thrice as important as for emotional or cognitive impacts. The films emotional evocativity is a close second, as is the films potential for identification with characters. Table 12 indicates the importance attributed to integrative impacts which are defined in Table 5.
Film Selection for Education Table 12 Film Attribute Importance in Eliciting Integrative Impacts
INTEGRATIVE IMPACTS Not Important Content/ subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude/ believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence TOTAL 2 0 5 2 2 Somewhat Important 3 1 0 3 1 Important 2 4 3 4 2 Very Important 3 5 2 1 5
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1 12
1 9
2 17
6 22
The same three attributes were named as more important for generating an integrative response on the part of viewers as for achieving an aesthetic response: a films evocativity, character identification potential, and technical competence. Unlike aesthetic impact, however, the content or subject matter of the film was considered either important or very important by almost twice as many panelists (nine of 11 compared to five of 11). Film Quality Panelists were also asked in Round 2 to include a few comments related to the concept of quality as it applied to film. Remarks included, A poor quality production may still elicit strong effectse.g., a tear-jerker. It takes a higher quality production to make one think and to achieve real emotional catharsis. Good quality: limited use of clunky exposition; smooth
Film Selection for Education editing (no boring exposition); artistic use of the frame; consciousness of color palette (and quality reproduction); professional soundtracknarrative coherence; eschewal of clichs. Every sight and sound in a film needs to move the story forward and expand the audience
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appreciation for character. If it does, then you get a quality film. To be a popular movie a film has to excel at one of the impact areas at a minimum and have some pay off for the viewer. The essential contributor to quality is the ability to fill out the frame, metaphorically speaking. Films not to not just meet expectations but exceed them. The audience needs to be able to identify with the characters and situation. The goal is to make the films idea simple without making it simpler. Quality is a serious issue. It relates to a film being made for an artistic reason, about some aspect of our humanity, that is to say for a reason other than merely to pass the time of the audience, or merely to provoke stock responses. Round 3: A Taxonomy of Film The third round of the survey was designed to answer the question: How might films be placed into a taxonomy to assist educators in selecting appropriate films to achieve significant, effective learning? Refer to Figure 4 to see how the study rounds and sections of this chapter are organized. Only eight of the 14 panelists (57%) participated in this round. Three stated that it was too difficult given their available time while two said they would try to get to it but did not. Several panelists asked a number of questions before completing the round. A 3-Dimensional Matrix As a result of the input from Rounds 1 and 2, a 3-dimensional matrix was created. Columns included the impact types defined in Round 2, along with revised developmental levels as the depth dimension. Rows included revised film attributes.
Film Selection for Education Revised Film Attributes Based on Round 2, the researcher revised the attributes based on panelist comments. Table 13 Revised Film Attributes for Round 3
Theme, content, subject, or genre
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What the film is about: the setting, theme, subject, type of characters and problems they face. This attribute is often characterized by traditional notions of genre. A tragic love story, for example, can be set in 1960s Montana, an early 20th century ocean liner, or 19th century Sweden, with the specifics of the situation being different in each case. This attribute focuses on what, where, and when. Here, genre relates to the subject and style: period, art, experimental. Many film theorists believe that a movies impact relates to how strongly viewers are able to identify and/or empathize with characters and their situation. This is why many talk about flat or 1dimensional characters vs. believable, 3-dimensional characters. Flat characters are more difficult to identify and empathize with. Accessibility relates to the ability to understand a character and his or her behavior and motives related to the story. Filmmakers, including the author or screenwriter, can focus on the story and its telling or on the result they hope to achieve. In the movie, Titanic, for example, the filmmakers focused on telling the story of the doomed ship and her passengers. The film, Pearl Harbor, on the other had, seemed aimed at reproducing the success Titanic had enjoyed rather than focusing on the tragedy and story. Thus, the artistic integrity of the film was compromised. This attribute, therefore, relates to the author/filmmakers focus. Some stories relate to more universal archetypal themes while others are intimate, idiosyncratic, and/or local. This attribute relates to the appeal of a film story to a diverse audience due to more universal human themes, problems, and issues. Some films fall into clich with their messages or points having been conveyed in much the same manner as previously encountered within other narratives; this provides little interest for viewers. Twists, turns, and novel, unexpected ways to present content tend to maintain audience interest. A been there, seen/heard that reaction tends to do the opposite. Even fantasies need to maintain internal coherence and a sense of logic within their particular context to avoid disrupting viewer attention and maintaining a sense of plausibility. While a story world may be fictional as in futuristic tales such as Star Wars, the events within that world must remain consistent and congruent in order to maintain the viewers attention and suspension of disbelief in whats occurring on the screen. Many cognitive psychologists, especially narratologists, believe that narrative structure follows the way humans think. For example, stories need to have a beginning, middle, and end, even if not presented in that order. And, the story end must provide some payoff in return for the viewers time and attention. A film that does not flow from scene to scene can create cognitive and possibly emotional confusion, dissonance, and dissatisfaction. The clarity of the visual image and sound can impact both the verisimilitude of a film as well as the viewers ability to suspend their disbelief. If it is poor, it may impact the viewers response to the film. If it is pristine, it may enhance the viewers experience of the film and enable them to relate more keenly to other attributes of the film.
Character dimensionality and accessibility
Artistic integrity via story focus
Universality of theme/s
Uniqueness of presentation
Internal logic within story world
Coherent narrative structure
Technical competence
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The following table compares the attributes for Rounds 2 and 3, the correspondence of attributes and the reasons they were changed based on panelist comments. Table 14 Comparison of Film Attributes Between Round 2 and Round 3 with Explanation
Film Attributes for Round 2 Content/subject matter Film Attributes for Round 3 Theme, content, subject, or genre Character dimensionality & accessibility Reason for Change F1 mentioned genre; S1 and S2 mentioned theme. Character dimensionality was noted in the definition of this attribute so it was substituted here to place it more clearly into the film attribute than viewer impact category. Most panelists stressed the importance of the ability to relate to characters as a key ingredient to all categories of impacts. This attribute was added for clarity on the difference between the author/filmmakers and the viewer as a foundational separation between impacts (reader/viewer-response) and author. The author/filmmakers focus communicates through artistic choices which impact viewers. F1 mentioned that more universal content and themes had the capacity to impact more people. It may be extrapolated that more universal themes may also have the ability to impact on a deeper as well as a wider level. S2 and S1 mentioned the importance of avoiding clich. L1 pointed out that coherence within the story world was critical to verisimilitude and believability. S2 specifically pointed out the omission of structure in the list of attributes.
Character identification potential
Artistic integrity via story focus
Universality of theme/s
Uniqueness in presentation Story verisimilitude /believability Story verisimilitude /believability Technical competence Internal logic within story world
Coherent narrative structure Technical competence
Story point/moral
Most panelists felt this was more on the viewer than the author side of the equation. This appeared to be more a function of viewer response than filmmaker intent or technique and was discussed more often from this perspective by panelists.
Emotional evocativity
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No comments were made indicating that any adjustments were needed for impact types which explains why they did not change. Revised Developmental Levels In addition to the revised set of film attributes, panelists were provided with a set of three levels of development. Since few pointed to physical development as a significant factor affecting film viewing, it was eliminated, as was the concept of age-related developmental factors. The focus remained on cognitive, emotional, and spiritual development, which were reframed as follows: Table 15 Definition of Development Levels
Development Levels Low Level Average Level High Level Definition Provided Intellectually rigid, close-minded; frightened or timid, readily influenced by others Between the two Intellectually flexible, open-minded; curious, self-directed
Although all panelists who responded to Round 3 included a developmental level in their selection of matrix cells, many indicated that they were unclear about it. As a result of the degree of expressed confusion coupled with the fact that almost every developmental level was included, this dimension of the matrix is not considered further. Panelists were asked to select between five to 10 cells within the matrix that they considered the most important in two instructional situations: when a film was used preceding instruction to motivate and prepare students for instruction, or as part of an instructional
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program. Refer to Table 5 for definitions of the impact categories and Table 13 for definitions of the final attributes. Panelist selections are summarized in Table 16 below. Table 16 The Most Important Factors to Consider for Film Selection Preceding and During Instruction Using Film

EMOTIONAL ATTRIBUTES When Mood A 2 Memory B Worldview C 4 COGNITIVE Knowledge D 1 7 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 11 2 13 3 1 4 9 9 18 1 6 14 20 6 13 19 5 8 13 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 5 3 8 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Structure E 2 3 AESTHETIC Evaluation Beauty F G Competence H I 1 10 12 1 1 1 1 1 9 4 4 4 6 16 10 5 5 4 3 6 2 3 49 54 103 103 5 9 9 15 22 8 13 22 INTEGRATIVE Totals
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TOTALS
1. Theme, content, subject, or genre
Preceding During
2 1 1
2. Character dimensionality and accessibility
Preceding During
3. Artistic integrity via story focus
Preceding During
4. Universality of themes
Preceding During
5. Uniqueness of presentation
Preceding During
6. Internal logic within story world
Preceding During
7. Coherent narrative structure Preceding During 8. Technical competence Preceding During Totals Preceding During TOTALS
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Appendixes E, F, and G present a graphical representation of this data with relevant cells highlighted. These appendixes make it much easier to glean which cells were considered the most important preceding instruction, during instruction, and for any and all instruction, regardless of its place within an instructional sequence, and are recommended as an aid. Most Important Cells Preceding Instruction Appendix E, Most Important Cells Preceding Instruction shows only the matrix cells considered most important when making a selection of films to precede instruction. Criteria for identification of cells deemed most important preceding instruction was that the cell had to be in either a row or column with 10 or more responses and at least two panelists must have selected it. Seven of the eight panelists who participated in Round 3 selected matrix cells to precede instruction. The cell with the most responses for importance in film selection for use preceding instruction was 1C: Theme, content, subject, or genre attribute crossed with worldview as the impact type, with four of the seven (57%) panelists naming it. The second most populated cell was 5D: uniqueness of presentation attribute crossed with a knowledge impact, with three of the seven panelists specifying it (43%). All other cells had two or fewer responses associated with selection preceding instruction. Most of the cells that met the criteria for cell importance preceding instruction fell within the emotional impact category with a total of 21 panelist responses out of 49 (43%), total. Seventeen of 49 (35%) responses fell within the cognitive area, five of 49 (10%) were included in the integrative impact category, while 4 of 49 (8%) fell into the aesthetic area.
Film Selection for Education Seven out of 12 cells (58%) that met the criteria established for cell importance fell
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within the emotional impact area. Of the remaining cells meeting the criteria for most important, four of 12 (33%) fell into the cognitive impact area, one (8%) was included in the integrative impact area, and none was selected for aesthetic impact. Most Important Cells During Instruction Appendix F, Most Important Cells During Instruction shows only the most important cells in the matrix when making a selection of films during instruction. Criteria for identification of matrix cells deemed most important during instruction was the same as that for films shown preceding instruction: that the cell had to be in either a row or column with 10 or more responses and at least two panelists must have selected it. All eight panelists participating in Round 3 selected matrix cells considered important during instruction. The cell with the most responses for importance in film selection for use during instruction was 1D: Theme, content, subject, or genre attribute crossed with knowledge as the impact type, with seven of the eight panelists (87.5%) naming it. The second most populated cells (four of them) contained three during responses each. These cells included 1E: Theme, content, subject, or genre attribute and knowledge crossed with a structure impact. Also, all three cognitive impact sub-categories: (D) knowledge, (E) structure, and (F) evaluation were included crossed by the universality of theme/s attribute. All remaining cells mentioned as important during instruction had two or fewer responses associated with them. Most of the cells that met the criteria for cell importance during instruction fell within the cognitive impact category with a total of 34 panelist responses out of 54 (63%). Eleven of 54
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(20%) responses fell within the emotional area; 4 of 54 (7%) fell into the aesthetic area; while three of 54 (5.5%) were included in the integrative impact category. Nine out of 13 cells (69%) that met the criteria established for cell importance fell within the cognitive impact area. Of the remaining cells meeting the criteria for most importance, three of 13 (23%) fell into the emotional area, one (8%) was included in the integrative impact area, and none was selected for aesthetic impact. Total Most Important Cells for Any Instruction Appendix G, Most Important Cells for Instruction Total, shows a graphic with cells highlighted as most important for any type of instruction, regardless of when a film is included in an instructional sequence. The criteria for selection of cells in this case were slightly different: the total responses had to be greater than two, it had to have at least one response for both preceding and during instruction, and it had to be either in a row or column that exceeded 10 total responses. Twelve cells met these criteria. The cell with the most total responses was 1D: theme, content, subject, or genre attribute crossed with knowledge as the impact type, with seven of the eight panelists (87.5%) including it among their selections. Two other cells tied for second place, with five responses (62.5%), both in the structure impact column: 1E: Theme, content, subject, or genre and 4F: universality of themes attributes. Eight out of 12 cells (67%) that met the criteria established for total cell importance fell within the cognitive impact area. Of the remaining cells meeting the criteria for most importance for the total criteria, three of 12 (25%) fell into the emotional area, one (8%) was included in the integrative impact area, and none was selected for aesthetic impact.
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Film as Art, Entertainment and Information During Round 3, panelists were also asked to comment on the difference between film as art, entertainment, and information. A sample of these responses include: There need not be a difference. A film can be all three. The differences are a matter of audience perception. Filmmakers can add as many elements as possible to try to appeal to as diverse an audience as possible, but it comes down to what the audience expects from a film and what they perceive. Most people have multiple expectations, to learn something, to be emotionally moved, and to be entertained. Film as art enables the viewer to think in relation to emotions, whereas film as entertainment is more like taking a ride on a roller-coaster: it produces a certain amount of cardiac consternation but nothing much else. Film as information is useful in the documentary, but in fiction it is likely to be propaganda. An Art film is likely to be less easily categorized in terms of theme; while it tends to be integrative in its impact, it will also raise significant tensions or conflicts that cannot readily be resolved; thus it will be open-ended and continue to resonate in the viewer long after, and/or lead to repeated viewings, as though the viewer is tasked with figuring out what the problem is (not necessarily that it has a solution) Entertainment films seem to focus primarily on a story line, a coherent and engaging plot, perhaps at the expense of consistency or depth in characterization; but when it comes to a choice, priority is put on interesting action and conflict between characters rather than development of characters in depth, and characters are more likely to be stereotyped. Information can be presented in a gripping way (e.g., Al Gores An Inconvenient Truth) but requires a retrospective act of construction on the part of the viewer to carry it away; and if in a fictional film, requires sidelining the aesthetic qualities of the film which dont convey information. Rosenblatt distinguished efferent responses (information-driven) in this way from afferent (aesthetic). Film as art is manifest as an extension of the artist and the artists need to express, for posterity perhaps. Film as entertainment is focused on the audience, what people want to see depicted, that they want to experience vicariously. Film as information is focused on the content, the story facts.
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These comments are consistent with cell selections with most panelists noting differences in a films attributes as well as its impacts based the primary goal of the author (screenwriter) and filmmakersto be art, entertainment, or informative. Summary While it may appear useful to compare Round 2 responses to Round 3 responsesat least for those attributes which remained relatively constant between rounds such as content, character, and technical competence, in Round 2 panelists were only asked to indicate the relationship between film attributes and viewer impacts. In Round 3, however, they were asked to select five to 10 cells in a matrix in which attributes were crossed by impacts that were most significant in a film for educational purposes. Introduction of application made a correlation of panelist choices between rounds less meaningful. That said, more attributes considered important or very important in evoking emotional impacts bore a relationship to those cells selected as most important for a film used preceding instruction. Likewise, those attributes considered important or very important for a cognitive impact, tended to be more often selected in Round 3 during instruction. Each survey round resulted in the data sought and included sufficient responses to make it meaningful. The survey was not intended to produce an instrument to be used by educators in the selection of films within an instructional program, but as a conceptual framework for a tool that might help educators make more informed, conscious decisions related to media selection, specifically films. The next chapter discusses the implications of study findings.
Film Selection for Education CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Introduction This chapter explores the results and implications of the study. First, the research
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methodology is reviewed and summarized along with lessons learned that may prove useful for other researchers contemplating use of a similar research paradigm. Next, the studys findings are addressedspecifically, whether or not the three guiding research questions were answered. After that discussion, recommendations for follow-up studies are made followed by the applicability of study findings to education and other disciplines. Insights into education practice are next examined, concluding with final thoughts about the relevance of the study to the current state of education. Figure 5 serves as a representation of the chapters organization.
Figure 5. Mind Map of Chapter 5, Results, Conclusions, and Recommendations.
Film Selection for Education The purpose of this study was to create a taxonomy of film that could be used by educators to make more informed decisions regarding the selection of film as a type of instructional material. Focus was on the marriage of film attributes and viewer response as
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impacts. The taxonomy was intended to provide direction for teachers in the selection of films. This direction would be obtained through reflection on the relationship between a films attributes and its potential impact on learnersboth in relation to instructional goalsas indicated by the panel. Research Methodology and Lessons Learned Review of the Research Methodology A Delphi Study, specifically an asymmetrical Delphi, (described in Chapter 2), was chosen as the study methodology. It provided the opportunity to elicit panelist feedback, by virtual, electronic means, in a series of questioning rounds. Since knowledge about film and film viewers weaves through multiple disciplines, an interdisciplinary group was selected. Each of three survey rounds was designed to address one part of the research issue: viewer impacts, film attributes, and a synthesis of the two for educational purposes. Round 1 focused on identifying and classifying impacts that film could have on viewers. It was intended to answer the question, What are the types of viewer impacts evoked by film? Round 2 sought to answer the question, What are specific film attributes that elicit these impacts? This round also attempted to begin the process of matching attributes with impacts. Round 3 was aimed at answering the question, How might films be placed into a taxonomy according to their impact and corresponding attributes, to assist educators in selecting
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appropriate films to achieve significant, effective learning? In this round, panelists selected the most important impact/attribute combinations for different types of instructional situationsas a precursor to instruction, during instruction, and irrespective of instructional sequence. Lessons Learned The study brought to light study-related awareness falling in three major areas: need for adjustment in the study methodology; the nature of experts; and what the study could and could not realistically hope to achieve. Each area will be examined in turn. Study Methodology and the Need for Adjustment It became clear during the planning for the study following draft of the literature review that none of the versions of a Delphi study described in the literature would suffice for this inquiry. First, an interdisciplinary panel called for panelist education in the terminology to be employed. Panelists needed to be able to sing from the same sheet of music since their disciplinary traditions and terminology ranged far and wide, as did their individual interests and backgrounds. Second, unlike other Delphi surveys the goal of this one was not to begin with one set of precepts and winnow it down to a consensus through panelist feedback but to focus on each of two separate dimensionsviewer impact on the one hand and film attributes on the otherand then weave the two together in a meaningful way. That, too, was a departure from traditional use of the Delphi study methodology. Last, because of the interdisciplinary nature of the panel and their status as experts, more interaction with them would likely be required than typical in a Delphi study in order to clarify
Film Selection for Education concepts and terminology within the confines of the study to make sure there was a common
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understanding of terms and concepts. As a result, coupled with the need to ensure their continued interest and participation, the researcher stayed in touch with them including forwarding of references relevant to the interests of panelists, as a means of keeping the study relevant, of interest, and worth panelists limited time. Part of this need for heightened interaction with panelists may also have been due to insecurity on the part of a new researcher. In any event, most participants did complete all rounds of the study and interactions between the researcher and panelists remained cordial throughout the study and following completion. Although panelists did know who else was on the panel, they did not know who had said what. Anonymity was maintained in this way. As described above, because of its difference from other Delphi studies the methodology used is called an asymmetrical Delphi study. The Nature of Experts Experts would not merit that description were they not busy people. However, at the onset of the study, the researcher did not have a full appreciation for just how busy. It became quickly clear, however, that everything possible needed to be done to lessen the time and effort required of panelists to ensure their participation and involvement. Anyone planning a study involving expert participants needs to keep these caveats firmly in mind during all phases and plan for adjustment and flexibility to not only fit panelist schedules but preferred modes of sharing information. For example, although most panelists completed the online survey for each round, one felt more comfortable writing her response and sending it as an e-mail attachment while others preferred phone interviews. It was incumbent upon the researcher to accommodate
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panelist needs to the extent possible. While this is likely true of all study participants, it is even truer when participants are acknowledged experts in their respective fields. Realistic Expectations As noted previously, at the outset of the study, it was anticipated that a prescriptive taxonomy of film could be defined. However, a quantitative study sent by one panelist quickly dispelled that notion. In this fMRI study of participants who watched one-half hour of a commercial feature film, only certain aspects of the film were predictablethe viewing of faces, places, and hands (Hasson, et al., 2004; Malach, 2006)not very telling as a basis for film selection for educational purposes. This discovery was crucial to a change in expectation regarding the tool that could emerge from the study, changing it from prescriptive to reflective. This key reference was provided by a panelist following the beginning of the study and was subsequently incorporated into the literature review. While it is possible that future fMRI studies may reveal more similarity between brains and different situations occurring on the screen, these patterns have not yet been discoveredonly that a neurological mechanism is at play to explain Coleridges notion of the willing suspension of disbelief (Malach, 2006). Therefore, the only realistic guidance available is advice from experts regarding those aspects of film viewing most relevant for selecting feature films for educational use. Another implication is that expert panelists with whom the researcher establishes a positive, interactive relationship, can also serve as resources to support a studys goals remaining as realistic as possible.
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Study Findings and Conclusions This section will examine each study round which was designed to answer one of the three research questions. It will also examine the conclusions implied from these results. Question 1, Round 1: What are the Types of Viewer Impacts Evoked by Film? Panelists were asked to identify two or three films that had had a significant impact on viewers. With one exception, all participating panelists (12 of 14) named films that had had a significant impact on them, personally. Thirty-six films were named; not one by more than one panelist. Based on the descriptions provided via panelist case studies, four general impact areas were identified: emotional, cognitive, aesthetic, and integrative. The emotional impact area was subdivided into three areas: mood, memory and worldview; the cognitive area was sub-divided into knowledge, structure, and evaluation; the aesthetic area was split into beauty and competence; and no subdivisions were identified in the integrative impact area. Table 5 in Chapter 4 defines each of these impact types. After extensive searching, no other studies were located that attempted to classify films according to their impacts on viewers. Scrutiny of panelist responses suggested impact categories for each film listed (see Table 3 in Chapter 4), with the implication that films tend to elicit multiple responses from viewers. While one type of impact may be predominant, in order for it to quality as significant, it normally impacted the viewer in multiple ways. Panelists were not just asked to identify impacts, but significant ones. A significant impact was defined as: Significant impacts change the viewers lifetheir life goals, dreams, behavior, attitudes, professional direction, personal interests, hobbies, knowledge, etc. In order to be considered significant, the impact must last for at least a month and probably, a year or more.
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The degree of an impact along with its duration constitute its strength. A movie fan who thinks constantly about a film or aspects of it and has changed one or more behaviors over a period of years (as the result of a film) would demonstrate a much more significant impact than someone with a week-long interest related to the film. Those who experience a significant impact as the result of a film often view it multiple times - including over the course of years. They frequently describe themselves as obsessed by or addicted to the film. The key attribute of a significant impact of a film, however, lies in change to the viewers life for a month or longer. Table 17 shows how many of each impact type were noted for the films named by panelists. The average number of impacts was 2.25 per film. The highest number of different impacts for any one film was 6 and the lowest was one.
Film Selection for Education Table 17 Impact Types by Films Named

EMOTIONAL COGNITIVE AESTHETIC INTEGRATIVE
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TOTALS
Mood 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Babes in Toyland Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid Casablanca Catch-22 Celebrate Whats Right with the World City of God Crash Cries and Whispers ET Fellowship of the Ring Girl with a Pearl Earring Happy Feet Harold & Maude Kramer vs. Kramer Last Year at Marienbad Love Story MASH Midnight Cowboy Schindlers List Seventh Seal
Memory
Worldview
Knowledge
Structure
Evaluation
Beauty
Competence 2 1 4 1 3 3 3 6 1 2 2 4 3 3 2 1 1 2 4 1
Film Selection for Education Table 17 Impact Types by Films Named, continued
EMOTIONAL COGNITIVE AESTHETIC INTEGRATIVE
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TOTALS
Mood 21. 22. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Saraband Solyaris Sullivans Travels The Blair Witch Project The Bridges of Madison County The Hours The Lives of Others The Passion of the Christ The Sacrifice Trouble in Paradise What Dreams May Come Winters Tale Zorba the Greek TOTALS 13
Memory
Worldview
Knowledge
Structure
Evaluation
Beauty
Competence 2 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 3 2 1 4 3 1
23-25 Star Wars Trilogy
15
14
10
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Film Selection for Education As Table 17 and Table 3 in Chapter 4 indicate, the films range broadlyfrom release
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date, to genre, to purpose and style. This breadth constituted a rich database of films, as did the case studies in which panelists described their impacts. The only aspect of the films list that seemed out of the ordinary was the number of older, experimental, and foreign films included in the list. However, their inclusion is likely due to a panel familiar with a wide variety of films and conversant with film on many levels. Nor did all films named include positive impacts; several were considered significant but significantly negative in their impact. Following the round, panelists were provided with both the impact categories as well as the definitions of each. None had any feedback either when initially presented with the categories distilled from their case studies or when the same categories were used in future rounds. The assumption is that panelists either agreed with the categorization scheme or did not peruse the feedback. However, since they did raise concerns or objections to other aspects of other rounds, and also made comments that clearly referenced the definitions provided, it is assumed that most were satisfied with this impact categorization scheme, overall. Therefore, the categories obtained serve as a sufficient response to the round question and, according to this study, there are four categories of viewer impacts and nine subdivisions within those four. Question 2, Round 2: What are specific film attributes that elicit these impacts? Given an increasing awareness of the need to employ as much efficiency as possible to minimize panelist time, six attributesgleaned from prior experience as well as from the literature reviewwere pre-defined and presented to panelists. During the round they were asked to rank these attributes (content/subject matter; emotional evocativity; story
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verisimilitude/believability; story point/moral; character identification potential; and technical competence) against the four impact categories (emotional, cognitive, aesthetic, and integrative). For an emotional impact, the attribute rated most important was emotional evocativity, as might be expected. When a film intentionally seeks to evoke emotions, it has a likelihood of impacting viewers in an emotional way. Unfortunately, this is a rather specious distinction between film attributes and viewer response, as was noted by panelists. Authors/filmmakers do not generally take direct aim at viewer heartstrings, but rely on other techniques to effect an emotional impact. Two other attributes tied for second place: content/subject matter and character identification potential. These choices are more telling in terms of how films elicit emotional responses. A film whose content is about a love affair or dealing with violence, addiction, or other emotionally-laden situations, has a far greater potential of eliciting an emotional impact, than one exploring less emotional subjects. Two films that elicit thoughts more than feelings spring to mindThe Da Vinci Code and Eyes Wide Shut. Both these films are more reminiscent of puzzles to be solved. Identification with characters is significant when considering the function of empathy and the mirror neurons that enable it on a physiological basis (Gallese, 2001; Decety and Chaminade, 2003). The implication is that the ability to identify and empathize with those we recognize as like us in some significant wayeven if merely actors playing the part of a characteris an important aspect of a film having an emotional impact. As long as the viewers attention is focused on characters with whom he or she can relate, the actions of those characters within their filmic situations can give rise to emotional responses on the part of the viewer.
Film Selection for Education However, in the case of cognitive impacts, there were less pronounced winners.
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Emotional evocativity and character identification potential still led the pack but were followed closely by a tie between content/subject matter and verisimilitude and believability. If the content of a film is not considered believable, at least to the point where one is able to suspend disbelief, there is little to be thought about, even if the subject of the film lends itself to thought. The fact that emotional evocativity was still a key winner in cognition, tends to support the theories of film cognitivists (Bordwell, 1989; Carroll, 1988, 1999; Gaut, 2006; Grodal, 1999; Smith, 2003), cognitive psychologists (Bruner, 1986, 1990, 2003; Heilman, 2000; Lane et al., 2000; Oatley, 1994; Seigel, 1999), and neuroscientists (Chopra, 1999; Damasio, 1999, 2000, 2003; LeDoux, 1996, 2000; Pert, 1997; Pribram, 1999; Rose, 2006; Schwartz, 2002) who examine emotion along with cognition, that underlies it. From an evolutionary biological perspective, the more cognitively simple animals still have a well-developed emotion system as did humans before the prefrontal cortex emerged. Therefore, there is logic in assuming that emotions underlie cognition and may be a requirement for it. Certainly, emotions help add an element of meaningfulness to cognition which may aid in transference from short to long-term memory. Aesthetic and integrative impacts shared the same three top contenders with technical competence and emotional evocativity sharing the lead followed by character identification potential. While it is understandable why technical competence would rate highly for an aesthetic response, it is puzzling that it would rate equally as highly for an integrative impact which was defined as similar to emotional impacts but stronger and longer-lasting. Since several panelists expressed some confusion over an integrative impact, despite having been provided with a
Film Selection for Education definition, they may not have absorbed or even actually read itagain, a victim of the time restraint echoed consistently by study participants. Comments from one participant may shed light on why the technical competence attribute was believed to be important for an integrative impact.
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If this is a synthesis of other impacts, where all factors are intertwined, then the impact here would be similar to #1 [emotional] and #2 [cognitive]...if you experience film integratively, I think that technical competence might become more important to you than if you are just responding at the other levels. In other words, you can appreciate different types and genres of film, even without knowing much about filmmaking. Unfortunately, this comment still indicates inconsistency with the definition provided for an integrative impact and assumes it is merely a combination of other impacts. Missing is the notion that it is also more intense and long-lasting. Therefore, it is assumed that the higher rating of technical competence in the integrative impact category resulted from a lack of clear understanding about that impact category. Because panelists were provided with an opportunity to comment on the attributes during Round 2, their comments led to changes in the attributes included in Round 3. (See Appendix H for a table comparing comments for each of the attributes for each of the four impact categories. Each comment is followed by the researchers interpretation of the major point made in the comment, indicated via use of a different font.) The most important change in attributes between rounds was deletion of emotional evocativity since that was believed to be a function of other attributes and was also felt to be on the viewer rather than the author side of the equation. The round was successful in providing an answer to the question of what attributes were responsible for eliciting the impacts previously identified. The changes made to the initial attributes were carried forward into the next round.
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Round 3: How Might Films be Placed Into a Taxonomy to Assist Educators in Selecting Appropriate Films to Achieve Significant, Effective Learning? Given the time constraints vociferously noted by panelists 8, a decision was made to construct a taxonomy based on previous responses, rather than ask panelists to suggest one, a matrix was generated by the researcher. Panelists were then asked to indicate which parts of it they considered the most important for instructional purposes. Since panelists had accepted the impact categories and provided feedback on the six initial attribute categories, those categories were modified as explained in Chapter 4. The new list included eight attributes. A comparison of the Round 2 and Round 3 attributes is noted below. Table 18 Film Attributes for Round 2 and Round 3
FILM ATTRIBUTES FOR ROUND 2 Content/subject matter Character identification potential FILM ATTRIBUTES FOR ROUND 3 Theme, content, subject, or genre Character dimensionality & accessibility Artistic integrity via story focus Universality of theme/s Uniqueness of presentation Story verisimilitude /believability Story verisimilitude /believability Technical competence Story point/moral Emotional evocativity Internal logic within story world Coherent narrative structure Technical competence
In response to a question about the role of film quality in Round 2, once panelist initially responded: Huh? Am I supposed to take 3 weeks to answer these questions? I don't really have time to write a two-hour-long essay on this, which is what it would require. Sorry. However, after being reassured that only brief comments were required, the panelist explained that she had been ill and had felt cranky, apologized, and later provided a response.
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Although the researcher believes that storiesfilmic or otherwisehave a point or moral as a significant component, panelists consistently ranked it low in importance as well as feeling it belonged on the viewer rather than the author side. Therefore, it was dropped Round 3 along with emotional evocativity. In comments about film quality, one of the screenwriting panelists noted that although people often distinguished between commercial and non-commercial films, he believed that the distinction was fallacious. The real test should be how good a film washow well is was written and producedand that commercial success had nothing to do with it. However, this comment coupled with the researchers analysis of the impact of one particular film and the conclusion that its author (who played all significant authoring roles in this case) had managed to transfer a passion that he had clearly articulated directly in a commentary regarding his film, and indirectly through the film itself, a theme emerged: that being author integrity and authenticity. Therefore, this attribute was added to the list. Another panelist, in several extended comments, noted the importance of archetypes and universality in evoking a response to a film. Several other panelists also mentioned this quality, although not as explicitly. Therefore, it, too, was added to the attribute list for Round 3. Many panelists also commented, in various ways, about the importance of avoiding clichs in films. Therefore, the attribute of novelty and uniqueness was also added. Some of the remaining attributes were modified slightly to be more in line with panelist comments. One attribute, technical competence, was left as was. While panelists felt that viewer level of development played a role in their response to a film, there was a lack of clarity and consensus in their opinions of the role of each type of
Film Selection for Education development. Therefore, development types were re-conceptualized and collapsed into three
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levels: low (intellectually rigid, close-minded; frightened or timid; readily influenced by others); high (intellectually flexible; open-minded; curious; self-directed); and average, which lay between the other two. The taxonomy that was generated by the researcher in response to Rounds 1 and 2 was a three-dimensional matrix with impacts forming the columns; attributes the rows; and the three new development levels, the depth. Panelists were asked to select between five to 10 matrix cells that they considered the most important for two different educational settings: prior to the beginning of an instructional segment as an advance organizer and motivator, and during instruction as an integral part of it. Appendix I shows a representation of the matrix provided to panelists. They were requested to identify the cells by including the identifiers (capital letters for columns, numbers for rows, and lower-case letters for depth divisions). A named cell, therefore, might be referenced as 1Eb or 6Cc. A number of panelists (six of the 14) failed to respond to this round. Several declined saying that it was too complex for them to comprehend properly within their available time and others simply failed to respond at all. It can be assumed that they too, found it too complex for the time they were willing to spend. However, eight of the 14 panelists did respond. Tables 19 and 20 indicate the cells they selected for each of two situations: a film shown prior to instruction and a film shown during instruction. The most outstanding differences between these two tables is that more cells falling within the emotional categories were named as important preceding instruction whereas more fell within the cognitive categories during instruction. One cell in the integrative impact areathe same onewas considered important both preceding and
Film Selection for Education during instruction while no cells within the aesthetic area were considered important either preceding or during instruction.
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Table 19 Important Cells to Consider Prior to Instruction

EMOTIONAL ATTRIBUTES When Mood A 1. Theme, content, subject, or genre 2. Character dimensionality and accessibility 3. Artistic integrity via story focus 4. Universality of themes 5. Uniqueness of presentation 6. Internal logic within story world Preceding Memory B Worldview C COGNITIVE Knowledge D Structure E AESTHETIC Evaluation Beauty F G Competence H I INTEGRATIVE
Preceding
Preceding Preceding Preceding Preceding
7. Coherent narrative structure Preceding
8. Technical competence
Preceding
Film Selection for Education Table 20 Important Cells to Consider During Instruction
EMOTIONAL ATTRIBUTES When Mood A 1. Theme, content, subject, or genre 2. Character dimensionality and accessibility 3. Artistic integrity via story focus 4. Universality of themes 5. Uniqueness of presentation 6. Internal logic within story world During During Memory B Worldview C COGNITIVE Knowledge D Structure E AESTHETIC Evaluation Beauty F G Competence H I INTEGRATIVE
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During During During During
7. Coherent narrative structure During
8. Technical competence
During
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Conclusions and Implications Since panelists were experts, all having at least a masters degree and most, a terminal degree, with an average tenure in their profession of expertise of 30 years, it was concluded that if the 3-D matrix was too complicated for them to readily comprehend, it would certainly not prove useful for teachers. The realization that presented itself was that the tool provided to educators to assist with film selection could not be prescriptive, as originally envisioned, but instead, reflective. In other words, it needed to direct teachers attention to particular areas they should consider more extensively when selecting a film. Rather than simply chose films based on unconscious assumptions, the tool would provide a more systematic way to think about films being considered. Therefore, the answer to this question was not completely satisfiedat least as originally envisioned. Rather than serving as the taxonomy itself, the panelist selections would, instead, provide a conceptual framework for a tool yet to be developed. It is no secret that the educational system in the United States, especially, is in trouble (Wallis and Steptoe, 2007; Sims, 2006; Torff, 2004; Giroux, 1992; Noguera, 2000, 1; National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1999, Indicators of the Risk). It is, therefore, incumbent upon educators to employ practices and methods that produce more effective results. Current methods are too often the same ones used throughout at least the 20th century, and possibly before; this is certainly part of the problem. The education establishment within the United States must become much more effective and relevant in its methods to have a fighting chance of remaining an exemplary democracy and a world leader (Giroux, 1992).
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American teenagers, as of 1998, for example, made up only 16 percent of the population but accounted for 26 percent of movie admissions (Strasburger, 2002, p. 430). People, especially youth, like movies. How might this affinity, in particular, be tapped to make education more effective and enjoyable? Before attempting to answer this question, it was necessary to thoroughly examine relevant factors. In the process, it became clear that any medium that constitutes a text is a function of a communications process whereby an author encodes a message within a medium (which becomes an artifact) for consumption of a reader/viewer. Condensing that perspective further, on the one side of the communications equation is the medium and the message it containsthe authors vision or more simply stated, the authorwith the other side being the viewer and what he or she brings to the message decoding process. The author was examined under the auspices of film attributes while a number of viewer aspects were also investigated, including affective, cognitive, neurological, and social processes, and ending with the impacts a film had on those processes. Typically, the viewers perspective has been either under-examined or ignored entirely with focus remaining on the author side of the equation. This study attempted to ameliorate that deficiency by marrying the two sides and then joining them within an educational context, with assistance from a panel with expertise in both film and education. Because the panel consisted of experienced professionals, the researcher had concern that the assumptions that underlie a strategy of focusing on viewer impacts synthesized with film attributes as the basis for a taxonomy of film that could be useful for educators in making decisions about materials selectionmight be flawed. In order to circumvent this problem, the
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literature review ranged far and wide and included a multiplicity of disciplines since no one in particular was identified that might provide an existing taxonomy. This meant that the goal of the study was treading new ground. Not only was the researchers professional reputation at stake, but being the first of its kind, the study had to be designed to capture the most essential components of film that would be useful for selecting an individual film for instruction. The researcher depended on not one but two results to determine if the overall research goals had been met. The first was the actual results obtained from each round as described above. Assumptions made as to what was appropriate for each round are considered valid, as described. The other result relates to panelist attitude and participation. Only one panelist who completed Round 1 subsequently dropped out of the study after apparently determining that it was not as directly relevant to his interests as he may have first thought. 9 One panelist had a personal emergency and was unable to complete Round 2, while illness prevented a third from participating in all but the last round. As noted previously, most of the panelists who did not participate in the final round explained that they found it too confusing for the time they had available to devote to it. This, perhaps, points to the researchers lack of sensitivity to just how busy the panelists were, or perhaps the supplementary definitions were not provided in such a way as to assure ease of access and understanding. The latter is probable since definitions were made available via pop-up links. Even though communication was conducted electronically, several of the oldest participants opted for phone interviews, indicating a possible lack of comfort with the Internet and possibly, computer technology, in general. However, all
This panelist, when asked, via a phone interview, what films had significantly impacted him, responded, Why are you asking me this. Im a neuroscientist. He did, however respond to later questions in the round but
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communication with panelists remained very cordial, even when an initially tense or potentiallynegative response was encountered. In these instances, extra care was taken to respond to panelists concerns and needs. While adjustments needed to be made as the study progressed, the multi-round survey technique used readily supported such adjustments. Taken as a whole, the theoretical assumptions made during the planning for the study are considered valid. The main problems are deemed to have occurred from lack of anticipation of panelist schedules combined with the degree of comfort with the Internet as a means of communication. Several panelists commented that they believed the study was important, professional, and they had enjoyed their participation, and the researcher remains in contact with most of the panelists indicating an ongoing mutual interest in the subject addressed within the study and productive relationships established. Future Research A number of future research paths are suggested by this study. Each is discussed below. Similar Research for Other Instructional Media This research focused on film used in an instructional context in order to limit its scope. However, feature film is only one type of text and one particular type of filmnarrative. Similar studies could be conducted for other types of films with different purposes including educational film as described in Appendix A, or documentaries. Other filmic mediums could also be examined including videotape and television, as well as the environment in which a film, video,
failed to participate in later rounds, explaining graciously that although he valued the potential of the study, his schedule would not allow him to continue on.
Film Selection for Education or TV program was viewed or its length or format. The latter is especially relevant with the increase in bandwidth and the ascendancy of filmic media appearing on the Internet. Texts also encompass other media including books of many types and other artifacts.
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Some of these include physical artifacts such as sculpture or architecture, and other arts such as painting, graphics, photography, and music. These other text types could either be examined on a differential basis, novels as a type of book, or in groups such as the arts. For example, a similar study could be conducted for multimedia, web-delivered instructional content. Assuming that research is undertaken related to other text types, there remains a need to integrate it with taxonomies and tools that emerge out of the current research. It is strongly hoped that other researchers will use similar methodologies to examine other media and create other taxonomiesincluding meta taxonomies and tools that can help educators make more informed and conscious media selection decisions from an array of different materials. There is no lack of content available in various forms. What appears missing is an understanding of how to use it well to effect desirable learning outcomes. Identifying Specific Variables Involved in Viewer Response While this study has shed light on the types of significant impacts viewers have related to film viewing, still little is known about how those impacts correlate with other physical, social, developmental, psychological, and attitudinal factors. A study is suggested whereby a correlation of viewer characteristics in one or more of these dimensions is assessed and correlated with a neuroimaging technology, such as fMRI, while the viewer watches segments of different types of films, selected based on specific criteria. The taxonomy developed as a result of the current study should provideeither singly or in combination with other film classification schemesa means
Film Selection for Education of selecting these representative films. This would be a quantitative rather than a qualitative study.
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Might scores from various psychometric instruments such as California Child or Adult Qset (CCQ) (Block & Block, 2005), the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Butcher, 2005), or the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Briggs Myers, 1995) for personality dimension predict brain scans for a given film or set of films? Might an indicator of a persons political orientation or worldview such as Wilson and Pattersons (1968) Conservatism Scale (CScale) (Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, & Sulloway, 2003), McCloskys Dimensions of Political Tolerance approach, or the Kerlinger Liberalism and Conservative Scales (Block & Block, 2005) correlate with film response and if so, how? Information from the literature review points to the likelihood that correlations would be found but what are they and more importantly, how might findings be used within education? Practice within Education The last type of study that would provide useful follow-up to this study involves the use of an instrument developed based on these findings within one or more real world educational contexts. The possibilities for this avenue of exploration are enormous. A researcher could chart teachers reactions to the tool; compare its use by different teachers within the same school within or between disciplines; or across schools and disciplines. Training professionals could also be studied to determine how the tool was used within the work world for different types of training content and different organizations.
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Application of Findings Since the context in which the study was conducted is education, applicability of the conclusions, implications, and insights relate primarily to that domain. However, since the panel consisted of experts from nine different disciplines, only one of which was education, it became clear that the usefulness of findings were not exclusive to that field alone. Therefore, applicability is also discussed in relation to other domains. Application within Education As noted previously, the initial assumption for this study was that it would result in a tool, which, with some minor modifications and inclusion of directions for its use, could be handed off to educators for classroom (virtual or brick and mortar) use. However, that assumption proved erroneous. What resulted, instead, was a model or conceptual framework that could be translated into a tool for use in the field by educators. Nor will one tool be equally useful for all educators. Distinctions will likely be required for different levels and kinds of instruction. For example, differences may be necessary for different physical and cognitive educational levels. While developmental level was omitted from analysis as a dimension, all those who responded to the final round named one. This data can be re-examined to help determine recommended versions of the tool at least for elementary, secondary, and higher education, as well as work-related training. Distinctions may also need to be made within disciplinesfor example, the tool for trainers of hard subjects such as how to use particular software and soft subjects like motivating employees for managers. The same type of distinction may be suggested for K-higher
Film Selection for Education education between the arts and the sciences, or possibly even a more refined level of subject matter. The main point is that film is a medium that, probably more than any other, elicits emotions. Once evoked, those emotions can underlie and support various types of cognition. Films are generally overlooked in favor of other media, particularly books, so this advantage inherent in the medium of film is not only being overlooked, but lost. Given the state of both
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public and even higher education, not to mention competence of the workforce, education needs to re-examine the usefulness of film as a type of educational media. However, thought and effort is required to translate the findings of this study into tools appropriate to and useful for different educators in different educational situations. Application within Other Fields Education is not the only possible beneficiary of the conceptual taxonomy produced by the study. Screenwriters, for example, are typically admonished to do certain things and avoid others, without a basis for understanding why. The more they understand how their audiences may react to the stories they write, the better able they should be to write ones that resonate with a larger audience and are, as a result, more successful. As one of the panelists from the screenwriting discipline noted, the truth is sometimes better served through fiction than reality. The more reality a screenwriter has as a result of reflecting on the impacts various story elements may have on viewers, the better able he or she may be in selecting ones that evoke what he or she intended to evoke. In any event, perusal of a tool could serve as a checklist for screenwriters to help them verify that they have kept the audience point of view in mind and are not simply satisfying their own needs, wants, desires, or fantasies.
Film Selection for Education The taxonomy could also be useful for any of the other fields represented among the
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panel in terms of a better appreciation between the interplay of a reader/viewer and the author of a text. However, the precise nature of a productized tool for these fields is difficult to project. Therefore, it would be incumbent upon these disciplines to make the proper translation of study results for their particular use. Insights A major insight that resulted from the study was a new perspective adopted from film and literary concepts and terminologythat of point of viewhereafter referred to as POV. In film, as well as other forms of narrative, the author/s assume one or more points of view for the story as a whole and for each scene. In turn, this provides the viewer with a certain perspective during viewing which he or she can adopt as is, or compare to a similar, albeit different, occasion in his or her own life, or to an altogether different one. The concept of POV provides a useful and powerful one by which to think about education and learning. Because this concept is large in scope, it will only be briefly examined here, with a fuller exploration to follow at a later time. Learners, for example, often complain that history is dull and boring. And so it is when confined to memorization of names, places, and dates. However, when historical events are shown on film, the characters develop flesh and blood, goals and emotionsnot unlike those of viewers who are separated in time, place, and culture. What the filmic portrayal does is help the learner change his or her POV related to the events unfolding on the screen and put him or herself vicariously into the story. This process aids narrative empathy and elicits an emotional response to what had previously been dull, dead, and irrelevant to the learner/viewer.
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Adopting this metaphor, other subjects can be approached in a similar way to make them more visceral and real-world for students. Rather than discussing the anatomy of a frog, for example, learners could be asked to imagine themselves in the position of a biologist facing a problem. The film in this instance, would exist in the learners mind, but would function in the same way as would watching an actual film. Only they would be the actor charged with acting out a solution to the problem presented. Another way to explain this concept is by way of analogy. Almost everyone has met someone in person whom they had previously spoken with on the telephone and said something to the effect of, You look nothing like I thought you would. Our minds create movies when we dont even realize that they are. We may have had no realization at the time we were speaking with the person on the phone that we were also forming a visual picture of them until we encountered them in person and discovered that we had done just that. This POV approach to education builds off of an apparently natural tendency of the mind, as discussed especially by Bruner (1986, 1990, 2003) and Polkinghorne (1988), to represent experience in the form of narrative and to use that as a means of making education more relevant, effective, and interesting for learners. Final Thoughts As the first known study of its kindboth in using an asymmetrical Delphi study methodology along with a study goal of seeking an answer to the question of how film can be used more effectively within educationand although the study essentially satisfied the questions for each round, further research is sorely needed to clarify, refute, or expand the findings. It is expected that a different expert panel working with the same variables, would
Film Selection for Education likely select different attribute/impact combinations. However, it also seems likely that there
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would be overlap, as well. Similar research is strongly encouraged, especially since film viewing is so popular among young people, as well as adults. More research is also needed in the area of brain function related to media exposure in order to discover what goes on in human brains when they engage different types of media with different attributes. While expert intuition, which is what this study relied on and produced, is a start, it will be considerably more effective when combined with empirically-derived physical data to broaden the picture and the understanding accompanying it. Since selection of instructional materials, as Reiser & Gagn (1983) pointed out over 20 years ago, tends to be haphazard, any informed guidance to help educators make better materials selection decisions is welcome. Films, given their popularity in modern culture combined with their ability to evoke emotions which are believed by many psychologists, psychiatrists, and neuroscientists to be integrally connected with if not to underlie cognitionhold great potential for use in education. However, more needs to be understood about their specific impacts in order to make good decisions for a given group of viewers within the context of educational goals. Hopefully, this study has taken a step in that direction.
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165 Walter, R. (1997). The whole picture: Strategies for screenwriting success in the new Hollywood. New York: Penguin Books. Weil, A. (1995). Health and healing. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Weinstein, P. B. (2001). Movies as the Gateway to History: The History and Film Project. History Teacher, 35(1), 27. White, H. (1987). The content of the form: Narrative discourse and historical representation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Wikipedia, (2006, August 22a). Theory of multiple intelligences. Retrieved August 30, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_intelligence Wikipedia. (01, August 2006b). Reader-response criticism. Retrieved August 27, 2006, from Wikipedia.org Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reader-response_criticism Wikipedia. (2006, August 18d). Kohlbergs stages of moral development. Retrieved August 20, 2006, from Wikipedia Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development wiredlaura. (2006, July 10). Re: For the addicts: Has this movie changed anything in your life? Retrieved July 10, 2006, from Internet Movie Database (IMDB) Website: http://pro.imdb.com/title/tt0414387/board/thread/47849103?d=47849892#47849892 Wright, J. (Director), Moggach, D. (Writer), Bevan, T. (Producer), Fellner, E. (Producer), & Webster, P. (Producer), Osin, R. (Producer). (2005). Pride and prejudice [Motion picture]. United States: Focus Features. Writers Guild of America, West (2007). Credits Survival Guide. Retrieved April 22, 2007, from Writers Guild of America, West Website: http://www.wga.org/subpage_writersresources.aspx?id=153 Wylde, I. (1994). Women who run with the wolves: An interview with author and analyst Clarissa Pinkola Ests. Retrieved April 18, 2007, from Radiance, the Magazine for Large Women Online Website: http://www.radiancemagazine.com/issues/1994/wolves.html Young, A. C., Reiser, R. A., & Dick, W. (1998). Do Superior teachers employ systematic instructional planning procedures? A descriptive study. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 46(2), 65-78.
APPENDIX A. NOTES FROM CHOOSING A CLASSROOM FILM This short film focuses on educational films and mentions several inherent capabilities for educational advantage including the abilities to: 1) increase the size of a subject of study so that learners can see more detail; 2) can speed up time to better show a process; 3) recreate the past and bring it to life, 4) simplify a complex process through attributes such as animation; 5) eliminate distance and enable learners to experience places they wouldnt otherwise have access to; 6) witness situations while considering problems and their solutions; and 7) provide modeling behavior for development of specific skills. The commentator notes that educational films have the ability to help stimulate, motivate, and educate (e.g., inform) learners and stresses the importance of selectivity and how the film chosen can and should support instructional goals. Educational films have several purposes. It helps to understand the instructional purpose and the techniques used to achieve that purpose. One purpose is to communicate information that uses the technique of the documentation of real-time experience. Another way to communicate information is through simulation such as that for historical events when real-time events are not available and have to be recreated. The difference between this type and fictional film is a focus on accuracy rather than enhancement of a story. These are the two techniques most often used to communicate information. However, almost all educational films provide information. Other techniques used primarily to achieve other purposes, can also be used to provide information.
Appendix A Changing attitudes is the next purposeto help learners better understand themselves
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and the factors that shape their lives. Some films of this type allow learners to put themselves in the place of the protagonist. The technique used is to dramatize the ideal reaction. Some of these films suggest or imply a suitable course of action. Another technique is to dramatize a situation that displays different attitudes. The aims of both is the same: to create an atmospherean emotionalized experience to which learners can relate. A third purpose of films is to develop skills. The point of view in these films focuses on task to be done, providing a front row seat, much like the actual operators viewpoint as a stepby-step process without extraneous details. Films of this sort rely largely on step-by-step closeups of the task to be learned. A fourth purpose of films is to develop interest. They may also impart information or change attitudes but their primary purpose is to arouse interest. In order to do this, they make use of interesting and unusual techniques such as a combination of fantasy, live action, and animation. While other types of films may also use special effects, music, and interesting narration, these techniques are more often used in films designed to develop interest in a subject. A fifth purpose of classroom films is to raise problems to initiate and/or stimulate a class discussion in which students can explore and analyze, if not resolve. These kinds of films may use dramatization but use a special open-ended technique that provides an unanswered question. There is a close relationship between the purpose of these various films and the techniques used to support those purposes. There is also overlap in techniques. For example, films designed to change attitudes and stimulate discussion both use dramatization. However, these specific techniques may be primary or secondary, depending on the films purpose. 182
Appendix A
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There is a close correlation between teacher behavioral goals and film purposes. Goals arent necessarily one or the other but usually have prioritiesprimary, secondary, tertiary goals and so forth. There is a great deal of flexibility in the way films can be used. Most of the flexibility comes from teacher adaptation to meet specific teaching needs and goals. For example, a more specific goal may be pulled out such as safety practices in a how to film. Consider the students combined with teaching goals as a clue regarding how to use any film. Teachers should direct students what to focus on as they view the film as well as follow-up activities. Teachers are advised to develop skill in choosing and using a classroom film. With it, results should be comparatively predictable.
Note: This 18-minute film may be viewed at: http://www.archive.org/details/Choosing1963.
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APPENDIX B. ROUND 1 QUESTIONS
ROUND 1 - Delphi Survey on Film and Viewer Response

Questions marked with an asterisk (*) are mandatory.
DIRECTIONS: The purpose of this research is to reach a consensus regarding a classification scheme for films. This scheme, in the form of a taxonomy, will not be based on existing genre conventions but viewer response. Viewer response is, in turn, influenced by individual physiology (including the brainnature) and external influences (nurture). The taxonomy will serve as a tool that can be used by teachers, instructors, and trainers when selecting film (assume full-length, fictional, features) to meet instructional goals. The taxonomy can also be used by researchers as a means of selecting films based on anticipated viewer response. (It might also serve as a checklist for screenwriters and filmmakers. Have I included elements likely to elicit the type of response I am after?) The assumption is that within an educational context, films that evoke appropriate viewer responsesattitudinal and/or physiologicalhave a better chance of effecting significant learning. You have been asked to participate on this Delphi panel because of your expertise related to narrative, film, cognition, neuroscience, and/or education. Even if a question lies outside your area, as an expert, your intuition is relevant and valuable. Feel free to qualify or caveat any answer. Also, feel free to skip any questions you dont wish to answer. Some terms contain links. Clicking them will open an additional screen containing a study-specific definition. You may try this now to see how it works. Round 1 of the survey will be open from this next Monday, February 5 (or a few days before) and close on Friday, February 16. Beginning Monday, February 19 the discussion forum will be open to members of this panel only. (If you dont already have an MSN passport, you will need to register in order to participate in the forum but your information will remain confidential.) You are encouraged to interact with other panelists regarding the questions posed in this round or other common interests. However, you are requested to use your assigned usernames to protect everyones anonymity. Requests for contact information for other panelists should be directed to me at sachetm@verizon.net. I will seek permission from the panelist and will provide their contact information to you with their consent. By Friday, February 23 I will provide a synthesis for responses from this round to you. You may discuss it in the forum, as you wish. The next round, Round 2, will open on Monday, March 5 and remain open until Friday, March 16. If you have any questions regarding the study, please feel free to contact me. Thank you for your participation in the study.
Appendix B
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1
*ROUND 1: Only the researcher (Fontaine Moore) will have access to contact information. It will remain confidential and secure during and after the study.
*Name: Organization: *Address 1: Address 2: *City/Town: *State/Province: *Zip/Postal Code: *Country: *Email Address:
2
Telephone number/s (only for emergency and/or time-sensitive contact by the researcher). Day: Evening: Mobile/Cell: Comment:
3
What is your job title or how do you describe yourself professionally?
Appendix B 4
Please describe your professional interests and/or key areas of investigation and research.
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5
The following question requires description of several short case studies. Based on your experience, please describe 2-3 different types of significant impact scenarios of a full-length, fictional, feature films effect on viewers, including yourself. Please focus on cases that surprised or particularly interested you. Please include the following in each case study, when known: viewing context (school class, theater, home, etc.)
impact area (e.g., hobbies, professional or life direction, attitude, social, political awareness/action, etc.) intensity of impact impact duration
relevant viewer characteristics (e.g., age, sex, religion, political orientation, education level, etc.).
6
In her book, Why We Love: The Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love, Helen Fisher compares brain scans of people who describe themselves as being in love and those who do not. The scans were notably different. Verbal descriptions of those in love are strikingly similar to enthralled film viewers who describe themselves as obsessed by or addicted to a film. (Some examples.) Further, mirror neurons have been discovered in the brain that not only fire when we perform an action, but also when we watch others performing it, including emoting.
Appendix B
Do you think it possible that at least some significant impacts people report from watching a (full-length, fictional, feature) film stem from or may be caused by mirror neurons and falling in love with the film? In other words, mirror neurons enable an identification with the film as a real experience, and the result is falling in love with the film, aspects of it, and especially, characters. If so, please explain any impacts youve described above that may be explained by this process.
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7
For each impact youve described above, (excluding those youve explained via love and mirror neurons), please account for it. What cognitive, emotional, and/or social factors do you believe may underlie the impacts youve described? (Educated guesses are perfectly acceptable when answering this question.)
APPENDIX C. ROUND 2 QUESTIONS
Round 2 - Delphi Study

DIRECTIONS: The goal of this research is to reach consensus regarding a taxonomy of film based (primarily) on viewer response. The goal is to generate a tool that can be used by teachers, instructors, and trainers when selecting film to meet instructional goalsprimarily broad ones such as appreciation for diversity. The assumption is that films which evoke appropriate viewer responsesattitudinal and/or physiologicalhave a better chance of effecting significant learning impacts. You have been asked to participate on this Delphi panel because of your expertise related to narrative, film, cognition, neuroscience, and/or education. Even if a question lies outside your area, as an expert, your intuition is relevant and valuable. Feel free to qualify or caveat any answer. Also, feel free to skip any questions you dont wish to answer. The current round, Round 2 (out of three) will be open from Monday, March 5, 2007 through Friday, March 16, 2007. Beginning Monday, March 19, 2007 the discussion forum will be open to members of this panel only. (You will need to register in order to participate in the forum but only once and your information will remain confidential.) You are encouraged to interact with other panelists regarding the questions posed in this round or other common interests. However, you are requested to use your assigned usernames to protect everyones anonymity. Requests for contact information for other panelists should be directed to me at sachetm@verizon.net. I will seek permission from the panelist and will provide their contact information to you with their consent. By Friday, March 23, 2007 I will provide a synthesis for responses from this round to you. You may discuss it in the forum, as you wish. If you have any questions regarding the study, please feel free to contact me. Thank you for your participation in the study.
1 *Your Name
Appendix C
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2 What is your level of education and what degree/s do you hold?
3 How long have you been practicing in your current field?
4 How significant do you believe an individuals developmental level is on his or her response to film, generally? (Click the number of the button that best corresponds to your opinion. Use the comments box for any qualification of your choice. Note that the comments boxes have a 3,500-character or approximately 600-word limit).
1 IInsignificant 2 Somewhat significant 3 4 Unsure Significant 5 Extremely significant
Physical development
Comment
Cognitive development
Comment
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Emotional development
Comment
Spiritual development
Comment
A synthesis of Round 1 responses has resulted in the following categories of impacts: 1. Emotional 2. Cognitive 3. Aesthetic 4. Integrative Assume the following attributes of film: Content/subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude/believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence
For the following set of questions, each containing one of the impacts from Round 1, consider an attribute a variable that can take on different values.
Appendix C
Assume (for now) that different variables account for viewer impacts. For each impact and each attribute, indicate how important you think the attribute is in eliciting the impact. Click the button to indicate whether it is Not important (rating=1), Somewhat important (rating=2), Important (rating=3), or Very important (rating=4). Use the comment box to add any attributes you feel are missing or to qualify your rating. (You may want to refer to your Round 1 response and use the impact categories link above or the specific impact links below while answering these questions.)
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5 IMPACT #1: Emotional (Mood changing; Memory-inducing; Worldview validation or transformation). 1 Not Important 2 Somewhat Important 3 4 Important Very Important
ATTRIBUTE: Content/subject matter
Additional Comment
ATTRIBUTE: Emotional evocativity
Additional Comment
ATTRIBUTE: Story verisimilitude/believability
Additional Comment
Appendix C
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ATTRIBUTE: Story point/moral
Additional Comment
ATTRIBUTE: Character identification potential
Additional Comment
ATTRIBUTE: Technical competence
Additional Comment
6 IMPACT #2: Cognitive. (Knowledge acquisition; Structural acquisition and/or re-orientation; Evaluative) 1 Not Important 2 Somewhat Important 3 4 Important Very Important
Appendix C
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Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Appendix C
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Additional Comment
7 IMPACT #3: Aesthetic. (Beauty; Artistic competence) 1 2 3 Not Important Somewhat Important Important ATTRIBUTE: Content/subject matter 4 Very Important
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Appendix C
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Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
8 IMPACT #4: Integrative. 1 2 3 4 Not Important Somewhat Important Important Very Important
Appendix C
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Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Additional Comment
Appendix C
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Additional Comment
9 An attribute is a variable and, therefore, can take on different values. The attribute can relate to either the story or the specific medium. For example, the emotional evocativity attribute for the film Titanic might have a value of high with broad range. The value of the attribute content/subject matter for The Da Vinci Code could be narration under captivating graphics. Values refer to specific filmic techniques used for the attribute to elicit the impact. Please select a few of the attributes you considered very important (rating of 4) and describe the values for them that may contribute to significant viewer impact.
10 This is a general question designed to generate a few ideas on the subject. How do you think the concept of quality influences viewer response to a film? How does quality affect film attributes? What distinguishes poor from excellent quality and what accounts for or contributes to film quality? (A list of a few thoughts will suffice as an answer.)
Appendix C
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APPENDIX D. ROUND 3 QUESTIONS
Round 3 - Delphi Study

DIRECTIONS: This is the final round (Round 3) of the study. It will be open from Monday, April 2, 2007 through Friday, April 13, 2007. By Friday, April 20, 2007 I will provide a conclusion of the study for your approval. It is important to the validity of the study that you respond to the conclusion by Friday, April 27. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at sachetm@verizon.net. Following the end of the round, beginning Saturday, April 14, 2007 the discussion forum will be open to members of this panel (only), indefinitely. It will provide an opportunity to communicate with an accomplished, multipledisciplinary group of experts in film and narrative about the study or areas of common interest. (You will need to register in order to participate in the forum but only once and your information will remain confidential.) Thank you for your participation in the study. The time you have devoted is greatly appreciated.
1 *Your Name
In Round 1 we looked at the kinds of significant impacts film can have on a viewer. In Round 2 we focused largely on the attributes of the film mediumboth technical and narrativeand associated them with impacts. A synthesis of data from these rounds has resulted in a 3-dimensional matrix. PLEASE use these links for clarification of the viewer impacts or film attributes. Since artistic integrity via story focus is new and may be confusing, referring to the attribute definitions should be especially helpful.
Appendix D
Development, which was touched upon in Round 2, constitutes the 3rd dimension. As used here, development eliminates physical qualities since ageappropriateness is assumed. This definition includes a three-point continuum: a = low level (intellectually rigid; close-minded; frightened or timid; readily influenced by others b = average level (between the two) c = high level (intellectually flexible; open-minded; curious; self-directed) Unlike a state or mood, a viewers level of development is comparatively stable and typically correlates with the types of filters he or she applies to the viewing experience. To access the matrix you will need to either: 1) refer to the copy I e-mailed you or, 2) click the link above, and then maximize the window so you can see the whole chart. Printing is recommended.
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2 You will need to have the 3-dimensional matrix in front of you in order to answer the following question. For this and the next question, please assume that youre an instructor, professor, or teacher contemplating the use of a film for an instructional segment (not related to the film or filmmaking). Perhaps you are teaching social science to undergraduates; leadership skills to managers; literature to graduate students; history to 11th graders; or science to 4th graders. Given the kinds of impacts film can have on learners, please select between 5 - 10 matrix cells you believe most important in establishing motivation for and interest in the topic preceding instruction. Please be sure to include all three (3) dimensions when referencing cells. (No ranking is assumed.) 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:
Appendix D
10:
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3 You will need to have the 3-dimensional matrix in front of you in order to answer this question. Once again, please assume that youre an instructor, professor, or teacher contemplating the use of a film for an instructional segment (not related to the film or filmmaking). Given the impacts film can have on learners, please select between 5 10 matrix cells you believe most important in conveying concepts and information, within the instructional segment. Please be sure to include all three (3) dimensions when referencing cells. (No ranking is assumed.) 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: 10:
4 Please jot down a few ideas about the differences between film as art, entertainment, or information.
5 Since this is the final round of the study, please feel free to offer any comments you think would be helpfuleither related to the definitions, the matrix, or the study.
Appendix D
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Thank you again for your interest and participation.
APPENDIX E. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS PRECEDING INSTRUCTION
Appendix E
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APPENDIX F. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS DURING INSTRUCTION
Appendix F
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APPENDIX G. MOST IMPORTANT CELLS FOR INSTRUCTIONTOTAL
Appendix G
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APPENDIX H. COMMENTS ON ATTRIBUTE INFLUENCE ON IMPACTS

Content/subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude /believability Story point/moral Character identification potential Technical competence
Emotion: 1) Mood changing; 2) Memory-inducing; 3) Worldview validation

A film that doesnt induce a mood change is a failed film to me.
Content should serve a goalemotional evocation and mood change.
I suppose it depends on the emotions being evoked. This can be a source of great discomfort. If the aim is to evoke disgust, shame, or even prolonged suspenseful discomfort.
The value of the emotional attributes of a film depend on the types of emotions it tries to elicit.
As long as we understand this as including fantastic worlds that obey their own rules, then yes, this is vital to success.
Internal coherence of the filmic worlds rules is critical to maintaining believability and verisimilitude.
The perils of didacticism: it depends upon whether one agrees with the point, moral, or message, or finds it at least plausible. Certainly when a film offers a message that matches a personal conviction, that can evoke admiration, but not if the argument has been presented in a hamhanded way.
Viewer filters can interfere with getting the authors intent, depending on how subtle or obvious it is.
Yes, as long as character identification is understood as potentially crossing barriers of personal identity
Characters can impact emotional response as long as there is resonance with the viewers sense of identity.
Frame-breaking accidents such as the shadow of a microphone do detract from immersion!

Technical incompetence detracts from immersion (and therefore, from impact).
Emotions are critical to film narratives.

Evoking emotions is a fundamental characteristic of film narratives and essential to it.
although this may be hard to categorize, when I think of the films that have impressed me the most -e.g., Tarkovskys Mirror, where it would be hard to say exactly what its
Yes! Given how effectively film can register on less conscious levels, the emotional impact can be very suggestive while not drawing attention to anything specific.
Local verisimilitude, at the level of episode; but may be less important at a larger level (e.g., the general situation in Solaris is unbelievable on a literal level, but that really doesnt
Important for a film to allow the viewer to draw his or her own conclusions, but not to enforce something on viewers; no didacticism.
The authors intent may be offered but should
Usually important, but some films can work without clear identification potential.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter content is, and given Ts resistance to interpretation, probably he wouldnt care to say either.
Content isnt obvious. So what is? Its impact? He talks about being impressed.
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Film has an inherent capability of evoking emotions in an indirect way.
Story verisimilitude /believability matter). Important for a film to allow the viewer to draw his or her own conclusions, but not to enforce something on viewers; no didacticism.
Coherence is important to film immersion on an episodic level but not as a whole gestalt related to reality. This allows viewers to draw their own inferences.
Story point/moral
not be heavy-handed through the point or moral.
Sine qua non

It goes without saying that technical competence is required for an emotional impact to occur.
This is among the most important attributes of impact of narrative art.

Content is intrinsically tied to the impact of a film.
This overlaps with the previous question, memory-inducing.

Emotions relate to (stem from?) memory (which includes content such as situations) and (intrinsically) associated emotions.
If a story is not believable at some level, it is ignored, and the film has failed.
Verisimilitude and believability are critical to film viability and impact.
Its not clear what you mean here. Point and moral seem to me different things. Most stories have a point, and this is important. Aesops fables have morals, and in general are seen as rather slight.
A point is different from a moral (or value) which makes this attribute unclear.
Character is very important in literature since, say, Dante.
Incompetence in a moviemaker or writer would destroy the impact
I think that subjects that are important to everyday people, or that may touch on universal problems, themes, etc., have more impact across the board.
For an emotional impact, the film would need to have some type of emotional resonance, or it wouldnt affect people after seeing it (causing them to perhaps
At least believability to the receiver, even if a fantasy film (perhaps plausible is a more apt word?) At a minimum the story must make sense to the viewer
Again, Im not entirely sure what is meant hereis this the movies theme? Or meanings? Is it an explicit meaning (as suggested by the term moral) or more of
I think identification with characters is hands down the most important attribute in determining emotional impacts (see below). If you dont identify at some level
This would be important in the sense that the film has to be competent enough to at least garner audience identification, which, as noted above, is an
Appendix H
Content/subject matter For some people, that would be an experience of seeing a love story, for others, a more thoughtful drama. I think content relates to genre, so while comedies do have an emotional effect. I do think it comedies tend to stand at a remove from the subject matter, poking fun at it (and at the audiences belief in it). The comedy would need to touch on more universal or serious themes to really have the content impact us, I think. This may be supported by that 1999 APA paper you sent to me earlier, where dramatic genres seemed to be the ones with the most favorite films in them.
The best content relates to universal themes organized by genre that resonates with and impact viewers. (This may be the same idea that some things are universal between people while others are unique. The more universal, the larger the target audience.)
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Emotional evocativity see the film again and again). In that sense, it would be like all art, with the exception that some mediocre films technically speaking can be very emotionally moving to certain types of people (whereas Im not sure a mediocre painting or play would deliver such an impact). I think emotions work in tandem with the other aspectsto have an effective emotional impact would require content that matters to people, a believable story (if not always a good one), high potential identification with the characters, etc.
Film has to evoke emotion in some manner in order to achieve an emotional impact.
Story verisimilitude /believability to have any emotional impact or identify with the characters. With education, someone might learn to appreciate something that doesnt have much story, or is very confused (e.g. Un Chien Andalou or Last Year at Marinbad), but Im not sure that would generate much impact beyond aesthetic appreciation.
Film needs to make sense to viewers (be plausible) in order to have impact beyond an aesthetic sense.
Story point/moral the implicit meanings? Or the ideological meanings (e.g. Soviet realism films attempted to teach a particular point of view, often in a propagandistic way)? The narrative theory Ive examined suggests that implicit meanings are more powerful in affecting people (they certainly are more ambiguous and complex no one person will perceive the meanings in exactly the same way). I do think that when it comes to emotional effects, the content and technique will suggest certain meanings to people, who may or may not identify with them. If you think the message (or meaning or themes) of a film reflect your own world views and values, or if they bring back good memories, then I suppose the story point may have an impact. But Im not so sure about obvious (explicit) meanings, which may in fact be somewhat trivial. In a film where the central theme coalesces around all three types of meaning, such as The Wizard of Oz, it may be that each different type affects us, depending on our ages, etc. So small children
Character identification potential with the characters, then I dont think you can become emotionally involved in a film. You might admire its technical competence (if it has any), but I dont think those are the films that have the most impact on people.
The ability to identify with characters is the primary means of eliciting an emotional impact.
Technical competence important attribute in determining impacts. An incompetent film cant do that, despite perhaps gaining fans (Plan 9 from Outer Space comes to mind). Otherwise, I dont think technical competence matters to most audience memberseven mediocre films, technically speaking, are sometimes described as favorites or life changing. Something else is going on (e.g. the story line, the characters, or something that resonates with viewers; The Da Vinci Code comes to mind here)
Technical competence is necessary for viewer identification and a technically incompetent film cant do that.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude /believability Story point/moral would pick up on the explicit meanings first (the teamwork apparent in the film, the theres no place like home, line, etc.). Later, as older children or adults, more complex meanings might emerge (such as the struggle of good over evil, or seeing Dorothys journey as similar to one we all must make in life), as well as just the memory of nostalgia for our first viewings.
Story point/moral is unclear. There are explicit and implicit meanings in a film. Implicit are more potentially powerful but also more subjective and depend on viewer filters.
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Appendix H
Content/subject matter Mood-changing, yes. Memory-inducing, yes. I dont think ones worldview changes because of a film. maybe.
The importance of content is its impact on the viewer.
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Story verisimilitude /believability Most feature films are quite unrealistic.

The impact of a film does not relate to its correspondence to real life.
Story point/moral I think viewers make these for themselves.

Points and morals are viewer-generated and not an attribute of a film.
Character identification potential I dont think films cause identification (a sloppy concept, anyway). People identify because they find a fit.
This is a viewer response, not a film attribute.
Technical competence I find that I am put off by technical incompetence.
Cognition: 1) Knowledge acquisition; 2) Structural acquisition; 3) Evaluation

When a film presents a completely unknown subject, more cognitive work may be required simply to comprehend.
Familiarity with content is required for cognitive (and then emotional?) response.
I think emotional response and cognition are bound up with one another: cogmotions.
Emotion and cognition are so intertwined that they can be considered as two peas in a pod and can be considered as onecogmotion.
Not necessarily a barrier to a grasp of the films storyline or other intentions.

Verisimilitude and believability are not required for cognitive registration of a film.
This raises the question of whether we are thinking about the film viewing experience (during) or the reflection on the meaning of a film (after a completed viewing)
Story points and morals depend on timing of viewer response whether during or after a film experience.
Theres good evidence that character identification tracks with comprehension of causal relations, motives, reactions, etc.
Character identification may track with cognitive skills such as causal relationships, motives, etc.
This seems less relevant unless incompetent narration leads to incomprehension.

This figures in if the technical incompetence leads to incomprehension.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter Although Im probably more a 1.5 -- I dont think its all that important; the emotional response is more significant.
The cognitive impact of a film is not as important as the emotional response.
199
Emotional evocativity Important to the extent we can think about it, develop new views in the light of what our emotions are suggesting.
Cognition provides a context that permits association that can lead to emotions and vice versa.
Story verisimilitude /believability
Story point/moral
Character identification potential Again, to the extent that empathy encourages us to think about the characters fate and what it might mean (usually after the film is over)
Identification is largely a matter of timing as in after a film, to consider a characters fate.
I am a cognitive psychologist, and the author of a cognitive theory of emotions, so I find it difficult to discriminate between the questions in this category (cognitive) and the previous one (emotional). I think the principal distinction to be made is that in fiction the primary purpose is to create occasions for emotions in the reader/watcher, whereas in non-fiction (e.g. documentary movies), the intent is to inform. That is not to say that documentaries should not be moving, or that fictional movies should not be about something... but I am going to reiterate the scores for this cognitive section that I gave in the section on emotions.
The intended purpose of a film and its
Appendix H
Content/subject matter
category/genre (fiction vs. non-fiction) makes a difference. Fiction is emotionallyfocused while nonfiction is cognitivelyfocused.
200
Story point/moral
Content would be important in helping people learn new things about the world and its people, its history, etc. Even if the content is inaccurate (as it must be in all films to some extent), it can spur people to learn about a subject, and perhaps gain a better appreciation of history, or a particular group of people, etc. (e.g. Pocahontas)
Content, even in fiction, serves a cognitive purpose by enabling viewers to acquire new information and knowledge (e.g., I didnt know that...)
The emotional resonance of a film might have a cognitive impact in terms of evaluation, as in judging a film as good or bad, or in considering its impact on oneself and society. It can also help arouse interest in a particular subject.
Cognition and emotion are related. Cognition can help evaluate a film as well as lead to interest in a subject (and perhaps, vice versa?)
The believability of a story makes it more likely to serve a knowledge acquisition functionif a historical spectacle is truly over-the-top and fantastical, then Im not sure that people will be moved to learn more about the subject. It depends, perhaps, on the emotional impact of the story, and how much we identify with the characters (and maybe how much it conforms to our own views of the world; a case in point might be The Ten Commandments). Or maybe we might be curious to learn just how wrong the spectacle was.
Verisimilitude and believability, among other factors, support interest in the films content.
As with the impact above, this would depend somewhat on what you mean by this concept. Complex themes and meanings might generate more interest in a particular subject, and/or lead to debating the themes of the film with others. It might give us new insights into ourselves or into subjects we knew little about (as with a film like Hotel Rwanda, which impacts audiences both cognitively and emotionally). More obvious morals or points would have less of a cognitive impact, in my view. And if the meaning is seen as ideological (or propagandistic) in any way, the film subject might be rejected by some in the audience, leading them to denigrate the subject and not wish to learn more about it (or conversely, to learn more so as to dispute it, as in The Da Vinci Code). Or the reverse may
As with emotional effects, if you dont identify with the characters in a film, Im not sure you can be cognitively impacted at a significant level. You may have some interest in the subject, even in a film that denies identification, and that might lead to cognitive development (which is why this attribute is rated less than it is for the other impacts). This development might occur in spite of lack of identification, if the subject is important to the viewer in some other way (e.g. The Da Vinci Code, which spurs such negative reactions in some, only generates a lukewarm response in others, but even there has sometimes led those persons to learn more about the subject).
Like emotional impact, a lack of character identification likely correlates with a cognitive response or lack of one.
This would depend on ones experiences with films, and perhaps one age and education as well. At the cognitive level, a technically competent film would draw one into the story more, and provide a certain level of credibility. I think this occurs whether or not an audience pays attention to technique or not. However, as with identification above, sometimes a technically mediocre film still might lead to some increased knowledge, if the subject matter was of interest to the audience (again, The Da Vinci Code comes to mind). A technically inept film might only generate a cognitive response in budding filmmakers, as an object less on what not to do!
Technical competence generally only figures in only if it leads to incomprehension or interferes with other
Appendix H
Content/subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude /believability Story point/moral happen--if a film confirms a particular ideological point of view held by the viewer, it may not be challenged at the cognitive levelit might only provide an emotional impact where people then believe that theyve received the whole truth on something, such as with The Passion of the Christ.
The meaning of story point/moral is unclear. However, if considered meaning, then it relates to viewer filters.
201
cognitive functions .
Probably provides a basis for viewers to connect to the film for full experience.
Cognitive recognition and comprehension a prerequisite to emotional response.
I think this is not a property of the film but of the viewer.

Emotion comes from the viewer, not the film. Therefore, it should not be considered an attribute of a film.
As above, most films are unrealistic.

Verisimilitude and believability related to real life do not affect a films impact since most are unrealistic.
Again, something created by viewers, not an attribute of the film.

Story point/moral is generated by viewers and is not an attribute of the film.
Created by viewer.
Character identification is generated by viewers and is not an attribute of the film.
Incompetence is off-putting.
Aesthetic: 1) Beauty; 2) Artistic competence

Content could be dissevered from aesthetics, or it could exploit a sense of ugliness.
Clarification:
Empathy for prose and film fiction belongs to the realm of aesthetics, historically speaking.
Empathy should be definitionally considered as aesthetics within fiction film.
One may find an especially beautiful surface actively interfering with verisimilitude--Prosperos Books?
Verisimilitude and believability can have an inverse reaction on an aesthetic impact and detract from it.
Didactic aims or cultivation of a viewers intellectual response can be manipulated by aesthetic effects.
An aesthetically-based point or moral can be manipulated by filmmaking.
Dissevered meaning forcefully separated. That is, there is not an inevitable relationship between content and beauty, and ugliness is also a kind of aesthetic
Theres a reason why most films feature beautiful actors and actresses--the fantasy empathy or wishfulfillment possibility begins with beautiful beings.
Wish-fulfillment is often involved here which explains the predominance of attractive actors.
Technical mastery is most important here.

Technical competence is most important in evoking an aesthetic experience.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter anti-value, which may also be teamed up with content. My main point is that there is no inevitable relationship between content and the beautiful side of aesthetics.
There is no intrinsic relationship between content and aestheticseither the beautiful or the ugly.
202
Story point/moral
Well, important to me, anyway; preferably slowmoving films that allow us time to look
The techniques used to present content make the difference in the aesthetics.
yes, this is a critical part of the film aesthetics

The evocation of emotion is critical for an aesthetic experience.
The aesthetic is perhaps the hardest thing for a director to attain -- does demand high technical competence.
An aesthetic impact requires a high degree of technical competence.
Films have found a way to make any content beautiful.

Filmic techniques rather than the content, per se, makes the difference. Any content can be made to be aesthetically pleasing.
The very word beauty evokes a positive image and the piece of art that evokes emotions is the purpose of art after all.
When film is considered art, by definition it includes an aesthetic experience, which is an emotional experience.
Many a fairy tale and sci-fi flix have been breathtaking in their beauty of story and visual effects to otherworldly places, people and certainly unbelievable circumstances.
Verisimilitude and believability are not prerequisites for an aesthetic experience.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter I find the whole issue of beauty and aesthetics very difficult, and I am not sure that in movies it is separable from the narrative and emotional aspects.
Aesthetics are part of the gestalt of a film.
203
Story point/moral
I hesitate to say that content has no impact on aesthetics, although some of it depends on what one might mean by this term. Sometimes things that are ugly (not beautiful), have a huge impact on people (e.g. large chunks of Koyannisquati, which is beautifully photographed and edited, even when showing belching smokestacks). This is where competence might be more important.
Technique is important and ugliness as well as beauty can lead to a significant impact.
To determine if something is beautiful, I think it needs to be aesthetically pleasing (to the eye, to the ear, etc.). To be moved by great art, whether beautiful or not, requires some emotional effect. Really great cinematography or editing, for example, can create powerful emotional responses in people (e.g. Battleship Potemkin, Schindlers List). Still, some people can be moved to appreciate the aesthetics of films that arent particular good, technically speaking (some of it depends on their experiences with movies).
There is a relationship between emotion and aesthetics. It is largely viewer-dependent.
I dont think believability is that important in deciding aesthetic appeal (although again, we might find more believable stories to be more beautiful or competent). A film like Kurosawas Dreams works on an aesthetic level, whether the stories could be believed or not, or even make sense (after all, they are meant to reflect dreams). Same with something like Fantasia (although interestingly enough it wasnt a considered a success when first releasedit could be considered ahead of its time in its use of visuals, but it also can be seen as an aesthetic travesty because it attached specific, and often clichd, images to great music). Maybe if might have an impact if this attribute is seen as a type of visual
Much like believability, this may mean something to those who require a meaning to see something as competent or aesthetically pleasing, but a lot of very powerful movies have been made without much of a point (or the point is highly ambiguous, as in Dreams), and some dont even have a coherent story (e.g. a surrealistic film like Un Chien Anadalou). I wouldnt say that there is no impact because of a film like Koyannisquati (which I think is more ambiguous in meaning than it appears at first glance, but which also clearly has theme that modern life has become imbalanced), as well as all the avant-garde films that clearly have had aesthetic or stylistic appeal to certain audiences (e.g. Ballet Mecanique).
Aesthetics is in the eye
I think such identification is much less for this impact than the others. There may not even be a recognizable character per se, and yet a film may still have aesthetic impacts. Yet I hesitate to rule it out completely, since in a narrative film, style or aesthetics may play a part in identification (e.g. we might identify with the beautiful character, even if bad, such as the femme fatale, or we might identify with an ugly, but misunderstood character who is beautifully shot, as in live-action versions of The Hunchback of Notre Dame)
Character identification is less significant for aesthetic impacts.
For aesthetic impacts, technical expertise (not just competence) is essential. Poorly done films may involve people emotionally or intellectually, but I dont think they sweep anyone away on their sheer beauty or visual power. This is the impact that I see closest to that of fine art (where abstraction of image doesnt take away from its appeal, but may enhance it, as in many experimental films). However, I will also add that while most everyone can tell if a film is competent or visually appealing at some gut level, one must have a certain level of knowledge to appreciate true technical expertise (especially in films without clear-cut story lines or characters). Thus experimental and avantgarde films often are rejected by mainstream
Appendix H
Content/subject matter Emotional evocativity Story verisimilitude /believability believabilityhow are the images edited together to help craft a meaning? Im thinking of a documentary like History Lessons here, which edits together a series of images, often disconnected, without narration, thus requiring the viewers to come up with idiosyncratic meanings. Some avant-garde or experimental films might be able to be viewed that way, even though there is no story in them, as that term usually is defined.
Verisimilitude and believability are not prerequisites for an aesthetic experience.
204
Story point/moral
of the viewer.
Technical competence audiences as being no goodsame with some surrealistic or independent films (e.g. the minimalist aesthetic of Dogme 95 Lars von Trier and his compatriotsis not easily grasped by most ordinary audiences). Technical competence is most important related to aesthetic impact.
However, this type of impact also depends on viewer development.
Im going to blank on the questions in this section since I think beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Cannot be attributed to attributes of the film.
Aesthetics is far too personal and cant adequately be discussed in relation to film impact.
Integrative
Appendix H
Content/subject matter Im not completely clear on what is meant by integrative in this context, so Ill just say all the identified elements are equally important.
Integration is unclear as a type of impact and all film attributes seem equally important in relation to it.
205
Emotional evocativity see content/subject matter
Story verisimilitude /believability see content/subject matter
Story point/moral see content/subject matter
Character identification potential see content/subject matter
Technical competence see content/subject matter
It seems impossible to really answer this for an integrative category. You need some combination of all of the above.
Technical competence doesnt clearly correspond to an integrative impact.
Integration is important, but is what is being integrated? The film and the selfhood of the person?
Integrative impact is unclear.
If this is a synthesis of other impacts, where all factors are intertwined, then the impact here would be similar to #1 and #2 above, I think. Clarification: I meant that if the Integrative category was a synthesis of the other three impacts
Same here.
Same here.
Same here, with the caveat that I think those persons who experience an integrative response would be less likely to be affected by an explicit or ideological meaning in a film, and be more drawn to complex stories which may have ambiguous themes or meanings.
Same as above, a key concept in gaining any significant impact beyond the purely aesthetic, or just curious cognitive effect.
Character identification is very important in eliciting an integrative impact.
Same here, although again, if you experience film integratively, I think that technical competence might become more important to you than if you are just responding at the other levels. In other words, you can appreciate different types and genres of film, even without
Appendix H
Content/subject matter (emotional, cognitive, and aesthetic) which I took it to be, then the impact for content/subject matter in this impact (integrative) would be similar to the ones I wrote for impact #1 (emotional) and impact #2 (cognitive). I think I just was trying to not repeat myself too much. In other words, I think the content would matter in similar ways (e.g. is the topic of interest to people? Does it involve emotional resonances as well as cognitive insights? Etc.) I think for integrative aesthetics might play less of a part in terms of content. Then in terms of emotional evocativity and story believability, there would be similar effects to the other three impacts (emotional, cognitive, and aesthetics). The others also would integrate, although Ive provided you with a bit more data for story point/moral, character identification, and technical competence.
Integrative impact is
206
Story point/moral
The more integrative the impact, the less an intended moral or point would work and the more viewerdetermined it would be.
Technical competence knowing much about filmmaking.

The larger the integrative impact, the more the viewer would likely be affected by and/or appreciate technical competence.
Appendix H
Content/subject matter
unclear, however, the assumption is that its a synthesis of emotional and cognitive and therefore, similar.
207
Story point/moral
Im taking this to mean that the film comes to some kind of closure, point, suitable ending.
It is unclear what integration means.
Im not understanding the combination of the impact with these supposed attributes. Im having a lot of trouble with Round 2 because of my readerresponse perspective.
E-mailed panelist with clarification about this on 3/27/07
APPENDIX I. MATRIX PROVIDED TO PANELISTS PRIOR TO ROUND 3
Appendix I
209

An Asymmetric Delphi Study of Viewer Impacts and Film Attributes: Selecting Film For Instruction

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AN ASYMMETRIC DELPHI STUDY OF VIEWER IMPACTS AND FILM ATTRIBUTES: SELECTING FILM FOR INSTRUCTION

Capella University June 2007

UMI Number: 3266270

Fontaine Moore, 2007

__________________________________________ Harry McLenighan, Ed.D. Dean, School of Education

Film Selection for Education

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Figure 1. Mind Map of Chapter 2, Review of the Literature

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This is the number claimed as of May, 2007.

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Figure 2. A Nerve Cell Showing Axons and Dendrites

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Figure 3. The Seven Chakras

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Figure 4. Mind Map of Chapter 4, Data Collection and Analysis.

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Babes in Toyland (1934)

Schindlers List (1993)

Sullivans Travels (1941) Casablanca (1942)

Love Story (1970) Harold and Maude (1971)

Bridges of Madison County (1995) What Dreams May Come (1998)

Seventh Seal (1957)

Blair Witch Project (1999)

Film Selection for Education

Film Selection for Education Table 4 Films by Impact Category

Harold & Maude Happy Feet Star Wars