Components of Research

 Introduction
 Literature
Review
 Methodology
 Findings
 Conclusions/implications for further
study
 Appendices/Bibliography
Introduction
 Provides background information and rationale for the
research, so that the reader is persuaded that it will be
useful/interesting. It usually also serves as frame
within which the reader reads the rest of the thesis.
 Provides background information related to the need
for the research.
Builds an argument for the research and presents
research question(s) and aims.
 May present a theoretical starting point.
 For a minor thesis, it usually includes methodology.
(you will have a separate chapter for this.
 Gives an outline of subsequent chapters.
Literature Review

 To show the reader/examiner that you

are familiar with issues and debates in
the field (you need to explain these and
discuss the main players' ideas).
 To show the reader that there is an area
in this field to which you can contribute.
Literature Review

 This is the section where you cite the

most, where you must beware of
unwarranted repetition. This is where
plagiarism becomes an issue.
Literature Review

 You must focus on research that is

directly relevant to your research.
Literature Review-Hints

 Ifyou have multiple sections in the Lit

Review, at the end of each section
summarize how this body of research
relates to your study.
 Make sure to provide contrasting,
RELEVANT and RECENT literature but
at the same time don’t ignore the
“famous” and “influential.”
Methodology

 Presents a rationale for the

methodological approach used.
 Describes and justifies the methods of
research and analysis (using literature).
Methodology
 Reveals the boundaries of the research.
 Describes what you did (past tense) for selection of site,
participants, data gathering and analysis.
 It may include illustrations (eg, a timeline depicting stages/steps
in the research).
In minor theses, this section may appear in the Introduction.
 Describes steps taken to ensure ethical research practice (shows
you are a serious researcher who takes account of how research
may affect participants).
 In your appendix you will include surveys,
questionnaires that you may have piloted even
if they were changed as well as materials you
ultimately used.
Findings/Results

 Presents the data and findings,

ordered/analyzed in ways justified earlier
(methodology).
 Past tense is a feature here (usually).
 Data in tables should be carefully set
out, checked and discussed.
Conclusion/Implications

 Draws all arguments and findings

together.
 Leaves the reader with a strong sense
that the work you set out to do has been
 completed, and that it was worthwhile.
 Summarizes major findings.
Conclusion/Implications

 Presents limitations.
 Presents implications.
 Suggests directions for future research.
Appendices/Bibliography
 Appendices
 Provides a place for important information
which, if placed in the main text, would distract
the reader from the flow of the argument.
 Includes raw data examples and reorganized
data (eg, a table of interview quotes organized
around themes).
 Appendices may be named, lettered or
numbered (decide early and be consistent)
Appendices/Bibliography

 References (for minor thesis) /

Bibliography (for major thesis)
 Shows the reader which texts/materials
you have consulted.
 Is in alphabetical order.
 Should not include works you found of
no use.
Citation styles
 APA: psychology, education, and other
social sciences.
 MLA (Modern language Association of
America): literature, arts, and humanities.
 AMA: medicine, health, and biological
sciences.
 Turabian: designed for college students to
use with all subjects.
 Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real
world" by books, magazines, newspapers,
and other non-scholarly publications.
APA (American Psychological
Association) Format
 Citationswithin the text of your work: be
consistent
 Watch punctuation: be consistent
 Use Internet citations exact (date
accessed and URL.)
 ALWAYS record you sources
completely!!!!!!!!!
 Get a good APA Manual of Publications
Bibliography-Example
 Bibliography
 Adnett, N, & Davies P. (2002). Markets for schooling;
an economic analysis. London: Routledge.
 Ahearn, E. M. (2000). Educational accountability: a
synthesis of the literature and review of a balanced
model of accountability. Alexandria, VA: National
Association of State Directors of Special Education.
 American Institute for Research (AIR). (1998, April).
The critical incident technique. AIR Web Page.
URL:www.air.org/airweb/about/critical.html.
Bibliography: Examples
 Anderson, J. G. (1968). Bureaucracy in
education. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.
 Bailey, T., & Merritt, D. (1995, December).
Making sense of industry-based skill standards
(MDS-7&7). National Center for Research in
Vocational Education, University of California
at Berkeley.[On-line]. URL:
http://ncrve.berkelye.edu.
 Barbee, D. E., & Bouck, A. J. (1974).
Accountability in Education. London: Mason
and Lipscomb Publishers.
Magazines/Periodicals

 Reference:Wheatcroft, G. (2004, June).

The Tragedy of Tony Blair. The Atlantic,
293 56–72.
There are specific rules for citing
different sorts of references.
Within the Text Citations-not a direct
quote.
 Limited research exists as to how
international school leaders experience
the multiple accountabilities even though
educational leaders have long juggled
conflicting accountabilities (Firestone, &
Shipps, 2003).
Within the Text Citations-direct
quotes
 There is much variation in research around
defining optimum school size as well as the
effect of school size on student achievement.
Chubb and Moe (1990) argue that, “Limits of
350 students for elementary schools and 500
for high schools have been recommended by
the Cross City Campaign for Urban School
Reform. Some researchers have suggested an
effective range is from 400 to as high as 800
or even 900, though 900 is rejected by others
as too big” (p.105).
Citing Multiple References

When multiple sources are used;

alphabetize names.
 The first pattern is that bureaucratic
accountability is mentioned most by heads of
large schools, a smaller amount by medium
school heads, and not at all by heads of small
schools. This finding is consistent with the
literature that large organizations of all sorts
have more bureaucracy than small ones
(Chubb and Moe, 1990; Meier, 1995).
What’s wrong with this?

 These circumstances have contributed

to district instability and turnover of
superintendents for nearly three
decades (McCarty & Ramsey, 1971;
Boyd, 1974, 1976; Cistone, 1975;
Cuban, 1976; Tucker & Zeigler, 1980;
Blumberg, 1985, Burlingame, 1988;
Carter & Cunningham, 1997).
Frequently Asked Questions

 http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/apa/
Judging the credibility of a source- Major criteria (but
not necessary conditions)- Robert Ennis

 Expertise : Do they have demonstrable credentials? Where do you go

for medical advice? Banking advice?
 Lack of conflict of interest
Is there any reason they would have to mislead you?
 Agreement among sources
Does anyone agree with them?
 Reputation
Testimonial- has anybody else gotten good/bad advice or information
from this source?
 Use of established procedures
Can they explain how they came to their conclusion and is their process
for thinking reasonable?
 Known risk to reputation
Are they in trouble if they are wrong?
 Ability to give reasons
Can they fully explain their reasons?
 Careful habits