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The process of translating Translation, as perceived in this workshop, is a process during which the translator: a) makes a number of decisions on how to interpret the source text (ST); b) uses resources and apply technical skills to render the text in the target language; and c) re-expresses that meaning in the target text (TT); i.e. the translation.
In popular belief, to translate, a person only needs: Reasonable knowledge of a foreign language And a few good dictionaries For some, translating is an intuitive process that is based on the translators creative capability. On the opposite extreme, there are those who believe that only specialists like lawyers or scientists can translate. Those who make these assertions fail to make a distinction between factual knowledge and procedural knowledge.
Factual knowledge is the knowledge of special fields Special terminology Resources available Foreign languages Factual knowledge is essential but not enough. Translators also need procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge relates to some kind of method or procedure to help the translator in seizing the meaning of the ST and re-expressing that meaning in the TT.
Basically, a translator has two options for translating: 1. Direct or literal translation 1. Oblique translation There are several translation techniques available under each option.
Procedural Knowledge: Options for translation 1. Direct or literal translation 2. Oblique translation Are these approaches applicable to the translation of legal texts?
Direct translation
Oblique translation
There comes a time when direct translation techniques would not work because: 1. They are structurally impossible 2. The target language does not have a corresponding expression And the generated text would have: 1. a different meaning 2. no meaning 3. a foreign structure
Oblique translation
Compare:
He looked at the map. Lui ha guardato la mappa He looked the picture of health. Era limmagine della salute. (Back-translation: He was the image of health itself.) (Back-translation: He was the image of health itself. He seemed in good shape.) I have a headache Mi duole la testa
I mi Have duole (verb) Headache mal di testa Both English and italian have the corresponding elements But the structure of the statement is different in the two languages. A direct translation is no longer possible. The translator needs to use oblique translation techniques.
Both borrowing and calque may become lexicalized (fixed) in the TL over time. Science fiction ciencia ficcin; Carburator r Menu men
In the legal field, structural calque oftentimes arises from oversight of the morpho-syntactic structure of both SL and TL.
As used in this section, "serious violent felon" means a person who has been convicted of: attempting to commit or conspiring to commit a serious violent felony (Back translation Attempting to commit a serious violent felony or conspiring to do do.)
(Back-translation: I dont care about your anger. I dont care about your getting angry.)
Public servants should be held accountable for their management of public goods. The use of the pronominal passive allows a rendition that does not indicate the subject of the sentence, like in the ST. From a stylistic view point the transposed expression does not have the same value, but the meaning is the same. Transposed expressions are generally more literary in character. It is important to choose the form that best fits the context.
Transposition can be: Free: When the transposition used depends mostly on context and desired effect. The course is of interest to all of us. (Back-translation: The course interests all of us) Compulsory: When only a transposition is acceptable. I will never forget the time when I got lost in the market.
(Back-translation: I will never forget the time that I got lost in the market.)
Types of transposition
Adverb verb I only defended myself. (Back-translation I did nothing but defend myself.) Adverb noun I wrote to you early this year. (Back-translation I wrote to you at the beginning of the year) Adverb adjective He lives precariously (Back-translation He leads a precarious life)
Adverb noun I wrote to you early this year. (Back-translation wrote to you at the beginnig of the year.)
A variation of the form of the message obtained by a change in the point of view. Although the main characteristic of modulation is a change of point of view, it may involve also a change of grammatical categories.
It is used when the other techniques would generate a text that is grammatically correct, but unsuitable, not idiomatic, or awkward.
Modulation can be: Free It is not difficult to show (Back-translation it is easy to show) Remember (if it fits the context better) (Back-translation Remember; do not forget) Lexicalized (fixed by use, listed in dictionaries) or Compulsory Dress rehearsal (Back-translation General rehearsal)
Modulation is a technique that experienced translators use to produce an accurate and idiomatic text. It requires an excellent knowledge of both languages involved in the translation. This includes knowing the mechanics of the language. For example: 1. The manner in which negative and positive formulations are used in the two languages. Do not enter. Vietato entrare 2. The general register of the language. For example italians tend to use more intellectual terms than English. Eye doctor oculista; bird watching ornitologa; dog show esposizione canina 3. Use of the passive voice. 4. The greater the structural difference between the two languages the greater the challenges for the translator
Types of modulation Most of the types are based on metonymy: e.g. referring to a concept by an attribute of it. For example; the crown referring to a monarch or Washington to refer to the United States government. 1. Abstract Concrete or General Particular I havent heard a word from him Non ho avuto sue notizie (Back-translation: I have not had news from him.)
2. Explanatory modulation: cause effect Like a deer in the headlights. fermarsi paralizzato (Back-translation: remain paralyzed) Blind flying volare senza visibilit (Back-translation: flight without visibility) means result, or viceversa Ill drive you home Ti accompagno a casa in auto (Back-translation: Ill take you to your house in [my] car) substance object Brain drain Fuga di cervelli (double modulation) (Back-translation: the exodus of experts)
2. Explanatory modulation (continued): A part the whole The cathedrals ceiling draws the eye as soon as one enters. (Back-translation: The cathedrals ceiling draws the view.) A part another part I know the city like the back of my hand. Conosco la citt come le mie tasche (Back-translation: I know the city like the palm of my hand.) Hand to hand combat Combattere corpo a corpo; (Back-translation: body to body combat.)
2. Explanatory modulation (continued): Term reversal This cage cannot hold an animal this size. Questa gabbia non mantiene animali did questa grandezza (Backtranslation: An animal this size will not fit in this cage.)
Negative contrast
Make sure you call us every week. Non dimenticatre did chiamare ogni settimana (Back-translation: Dont forget to call us all of the weeks.) Active voice passive voice (and vice-versa) The votes (in an election) were counted. I voti sono stati conteggiati (impersonal form)
2. Explanatory modulation (continued): Space Time In grammar school I was very shy. (Back-translation: When I was attending elementary school.) Intervals and boundaries (in time and space) A. In time: See you in a week (Back-translation: Well see each other in eight days from today.) B. In space: No parking between signs (Back-translation: Limit of parking.) Change of symbol
Sensory modulation
A heavy coat una giacca pesante (Back-translation: A thick coat) A goldfish un pesce rosso (Back translation: a little red fish) In short, modulation is the technique that leads to a solution that makes the reader - or the translator exclaim, Yes, thats exactly what you would say.
6. Equivalence Used to render expressions using different stylistic and structural methods. Most equivalences are fixed, and include idioms, clichs, proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, onomatopoeia, etc. Stop splitting hairs Non guardare il pelo nelluovo (Backtranslation: Stop looking for five legs in a cat) Challenge: To recognize that the expression to be translated is an idiom / proverb; to know the equivalent expression in the T.L. Equivalence also refers to fixed (lexicalized) terms, such as terminology of a field of knowledge.
7. Adaptation Used when the limit to translation is been reached, i.e. when a simple translation would not work or it would produce a result that is shocking in the target language and culture. Titles of books, movies, and characters often fit into this category Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (Back-translation: Two men and a destiny)
1. Concretization or differentiation generalization (Fawcett) Abstract Concrete or General Particular modulation Fratelli e sorelle brothers and sister, siblings (depending on context and desired effect) 2. Paraphrasing Used when there is no equivalent in the target language
2. Paraphrasing Translation does not mean explaining or commenting on a text, or writing it in our own way. Paraphrasing, according to Vsquez-Ayora, cannot be a translation method because using it the text loses its characteristics. Too many explanations destroys the conciseness of the work and makes it subject to the same distortions of its counterpart literal translation.
3. Logical derivation
Cause effect modulation (logical modulation, according to Fawcett)
Shorter [fewer] working hours (hours have become fewer as a result of some action taken) (Back-translation: reduction in working time / working week)
Direct or literal translation techniques: Borrowings: borrowing from the source language a term or concept to overcome a lacuna in the target language or to create a stylistic effect. SUSHI, SAUERKRAUT, PIZZA Calque: a special type of borrowing, consisting of borrowing an expression from the source language and translating literally each element. Calque can be either lexical. CARBURATOR or structural MAYO 5, INSTEAD OF 5 DE MAYO Literal translation: the direct transfer of the source text into the target language in a grammatically and idiomatically proper way. GOOD MORNING
Transposition: replacing words from one grammatical word class with another without changing the meaning of the message. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT RECONSTRUCTING THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT, TO RECONSTRUCT THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT Modulation: changing the point of view without changing the meaning of the message. (Vinay and Darbelnet identified 10 different types of modulation. IT IS NOT DIFFICULT IT IS EASY Equivalence: generally refers to the commonly accepted and used equivalents of idioms, proverbs, idiomatic expression and lexicalized terms, i.e. terms commonly accepted as equivalents of a source language term. STOP SPLITTING HAIRS DEJA DE BUSCARLE CINCO PATAS AL GATO. BACK TRANSLATION: STOP LOOKING FOR FIVE LEGS IN A CAT. Adaptation: adapting a source language situation when it does not exist in the target language or would be considered inappropriate in the target culture. THE SOUND OF MUSIC SONRISAS Y LGRIMAS BACK-TRANSLATION: SMILES AND TEARS
REFERENCES
FAWCETT, Peter (1997). Translation and Language, Manchester, UK: St Jerome. Sager, Juan C and M.-J. Hamel (tranls) (2000). Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet. A Method for Translation, in Lawrence Venuti (ed.) The Translation Studies Reader, London: Routledge: 85-93. Vazquez-Ayora Gerardo (1977). Introduccin a la traductologa, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University. VINAY, J. P. et J. Darbelnet (1958). Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais, Montral: Beauchemin