Water in Living System Molecular Structure of Living Matter

Macromolecules

are the very large molecules of living organisms. Most macromolecules are built and broke from combining subunits with the removal or hydrolysis of water. Major Classes of Macromolecules Carbohydrates/polysaccharides Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

 Water

is essential for life. It covers 2/3 of the earth's surface and every living thing is dependent upon it. The human body is comprised of over 70% water. Roles of water in living organisms: solvent temperature buffer metabolite Living environment

 Each

atom are held together by strong covalent bond There are two bonding pairs of electrons and two non-bonding pairs of electrons. The chemical bond is polar

 forms

between a non-bonding pair of electrons on the oxygen atom of one water molecule and the hydrogen atom of another water molecule

Chemical bonds are interactions of electrons leading to strong forces of attraction which holds atoms together in molecules and compounds. Atoms may transfer or share electrons, and either process may provide for a stable arrangement of electrons between the atoms that results in the formation of molecules.

Covalent Bond

Ionic Bond

 two

atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons to give each atom the stability found in a noble gas. It can be in:

single bonds (H-H) double bonds (O=O),( H2C=CH2) triple bonds (HCCH)

Polar

Bond - atoms that have different electronegativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair

 Polar

Non-Polar

2 atoms that have different electronegativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair

2 atoms that have the same electronegativity and therefore have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair

HH

 electrovalent

bond type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a chemical compound.

 Macromolecules

are constructed of smaller units called polymers, these polymers are subdivided into their basic units called monomers.

Monomers are connected by covalent bonds via a condensation reaction or dehydration reaction.

One monomer provides a hydroxyl group and the other provides a hydrogen and together these form water. This process requires energy and is aided by enzymes.

The covalent bonds connecting monomers in a polymer are disassembled by hydrolysis.

In hydrolysis as the covalent bond is broken a hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group from a split water molecule attaches where the covalent bond used to be. Hydrolysis reactions dominate the digestive process, guided by specific enzymes.

 Carbohydrates

or polysaccharides are made from simple sugars or monosaccharides that are joined in long chains. Carbohydrates may be used for energy storage or for structure.

Made mostly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Subunits are called monosaccharides or simple sugars.

Most common monosaccharide is glucose C6H12O6 In cells, glucose looks like: C6

C5 C4 C3 C2 C1

The individual monosaccharides are assembled into polysaccharides by removing water from 2 sugars, forming a bond between them.

+ + H2O

This is a common link between C1 and C4.

1.

2.

Many glucose molecules connected C1 to C4 with the C6 always sticking up ( orientation) will make the plant starch, amylose. Sometimes there will be a branch point made by attaching glucoses C1 to C6. Amylopectin (plant starch)

Plants use the carbohydrate starch for long-term energy storage, often in seeds such as wheat, corn or rice, or in tubers such as potatoes.

Animals will put together glucose as C1 to C4 in the configuration with C1 to C6 branches like the plants, except with many more branching. The resulting polysaccharide of glycogen contains thousands of glucoses.

Animals use the carbohydrate glycogen for short-term energy storage stockpiled in the liver and muscle fibers.

Plants will put together up to 1,000,000 glucose molecules as C1 to C4, but in the configuration so the glucoses alternate up & down. This is cellulose.

Plants use cellulose to make cell walls. Animals cannot break down cellulose (we call it fiber) & depend on microbes to do this vital job.

Glucose may be modified by adding a Nitrogen-containing group to C2. Chitin is the polysaccharide made from these modified glucose molecules. Chitin is the exoskeleton of insects, spiders, crabs and other animals. Chitin is also found in fungi such as mushrooms. Surgical thread made of chitin dissolve over time, making them useful in surgery.

Lipids or fats are a diverse group of macromolecules that are all hydrophobic or water hating.

important types of lipids

Fats or triglycerols Phospholipids Steroids

 Subunits

are
H H-C-OH

Glycerol, a 3-carbon molecule

C-OH
H-C-OH H

3 Fatty acids, each 8 22 carbons long

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COO- A SATURATED FATTY ACID CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH2COO- AN UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

Saturated fatty acids

Contain all single bonds between the carbons Often shown as Triglycerols made with saturated fats are solid at room temperature. Examples are butter, lard, margarine, animal fat. Saturated fats can collect in the blood vessels and cause heart disease.

Have at least 1 double bond Cis unsaturated fatty acids

Double bond makes kink in fatty acid Liquid at room temperature as oils Cause much less heart problems. Double bond not kinked Looks and behaves like saturated fat Causes heart problems like saturated fats

Trans unsaturated fatty acids

 The

3 fatty acids are combined with the glycerol in a condensation reaction, removing water. An example:
-C-O-C-C-O-C-C-O-C-

Used for long-term energy storage in plants & animals.

 Made

of

Glycerol A phosphate group water-loving head group A nitrogen-containing group 2 fatty acids water-hating tails

Hydrophobic or water-hating Tails Hydrophilic or water-loving Head group

 Membranes

of all cells are made of a double layer of phospholipids. Head groups face outward and inward towards water. Tails form hydrophobic core.

Phospholipids make strong, flexible membranes like that around the yolk of an egg.

Steroids are part of the class of lipids that include

Cholesterol Sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen

They have a general shape of 4 interconnected rings.

cholesterol

Cholesterol gives strength to animal membranes

We make cholesterol in our livers and eat it in our food.

Steroid hormones direct our cells to do specialized tasks.

Sex hormones affect the growth and function of reproductive organs Cortisone is active in carbohydrate metabolism and is used to treat allergic reactions.