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Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos,

"container") is an academic discipline that studies cells


their physiological properties their structure, the organelles they contain interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death.

Cell basic unit of life structurally and functionally.


History: a. Robert Hooke (1665)using his microscope discovers cells in cork b. Schleiden ; Schwann and Virchow Cell theory: 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. The cell is the structural unit of life 3. Cells can arise only by division from preexisting cells

Fundamental properties shared by all cells: (conserved throughout evolution) 1. all cells employ DNA as their genetic material 2. surrounded by plasma membrane 3. use the same basic mechanisms for energy metabolism

Organisms: 1. Unicellular (eg. bacteria, amoebas & yeasts) capable of independent self-replication 2. Multicellular(eg. Humans)- composed of collection of cells w/c fxns in a coordinated manner w/ diff cells specialized to perform particular tasks.

Two Main Classes of Cells:


a. Prokaryotic cells no nucleus - simpler structure (bacteria)

b. Eukaryotic cells - contain nucleus -more complex structure(protists, fungi, plants & animals)

Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells


Typical organisms Typical size Type of nucleus DNA RNA-/protein-synthesis Ribosomes Cytoplasmatic structure Cell movement Mitochondria Chloroplasts Organization Cell division DNA content (base pairs) Prokaryotes bacteria, archaea ~ 1-10 m nucleoid region; no real nucleus circular (usually) coupled in cytoplasm 50S+30S very few structures flagella made of flagellin none none usually single cells Binary fission (simple division) 1 106 to 5 106 Eukaryotes protists, fungi, plants, animals ~ 10-100 m (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are smaller) real nucleus with double membrane linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus protein synthesis in cytoplasm 60S+40S highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin one to several thousand (though some lack mitochondria) in algae and plants single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells Mitosis (fission or budding) Meiosis 1.5 107 to 5 109

Fig.1.1.Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg(SVG file, nominally 494 402 pixels, file size: 135 KB)

Fig1.2.Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome

Fig.1.3.Diagram of a typical plant cell

the First Cell:


-all present day cells (both prokaryotes & eukaryotes) descended from a single ancestor. The 1st cell is thought to have arisen at least 3.8 B years ago as a result of enclosure of self-replicating RNA in a phospholipid membrane (RNA world hypothesis) Present-Day Prokaryotes -divided into two groups: the archaebacteria and the eubacteria which diverged early in evolution

Eukaryotic Cells -thought to have evolved from symbiotic associations of prokaryotes (ENDOSYMBIOSIS)

ENDOSYMBIOSIS
A large anaerobic, heterotrophic prokaryote engulfs a small aerobic prokaryote

The aerobic endosymbiont has evolved into a mitochondrion

A portion of the plasma membrane has invaginated and evolved into a nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum (primitive eukaryote)

Engulfs a photosynthetic prokaryote Nonphotosynthetic protist, fungal, animal cells Evolve into a chloroplast

Algal & plant cells

Fig.1.4. Time scale of evolution The scale indicates the approximate times at which some of the major events in the evolution of cells are thought to have occurred.

The Evolution of Metabolism:

Figure 1.5. Generation of metabolic energy Glycolysis is the anaerobic breakdown of glucose to lactic acid. Photosynthesis utilizes energy from sunlight to drive the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and H2O, with the release of O2 as a by-product. The O2 released by photosynthesis is used in oxidative metabolism, in which glucose is broken down to CO2 and H2O, releasing much more energy than is obtained from glycolysis.

Figure 1.6. Evolution of cells Present-day cells evolved from a common prokaryotic ancestor along three lines of descent, giving rise to archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from the endosymbiotic association of aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, with the ancestors of eukaryotes.

Development of Multicellular Organisms

Plants 3 main tissue systems:


1. ground tissue 2. dermal tissue 3. vascular system

Animals- cells are more diverse than those of plants


- 5 main types of tissues 1. epithelial 2. connective 3. blood 4. nervous 5. muscle

Table 1.2 DNA Content of Cells


Organism Haploid DNA content (millions of base pairs)

Bacteria Mycoplasma E. coli Unicellular eukaryotes Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) Dictyostelium discoideum Euglena Plants Arabidopsis thaliana Zea mays (corn) Animals Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode) Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) Chicken Zebrafish Mouse Human

0.6 4.6 12 70 3000 130 5000 97 180 1200 1700 3000 3000

Cells as Experimental Models

E. coli

S. cerevisiae

Dictyostelium discoideum

Arabidopsis thaliana

Caenorhabditis elegans

Drosophila melanogaster

Xenopus laevis

zebrafish

House mouse

Tools of Cell Biology


1. Light Microscopy Bright-field microscopy Phase-contrast microscopy Differential interference contrast microscopy Video-enhanced differential interference-contrast microscopy Fluorescence microscopy Confocal microscopy Two-photon excitation microscopy 2. Electron microscopy Transmission electron microscopy Scanning electron microscopy

Several different techniques exist to study cells: 1. Cell culture 6. In situ hybridization 2. Immunostaining 7. PCR 3. Computational Genomics 8. Cell Fractionation 4. DNA MICROARRAYS 5. Gene knockdown

a. Differential-interference-contrast micrograph of a mitotic yeast cell.

b. Fluorescence microscopy

c. Phase-contrast micrograph of fibroblasts in culture.

Scanning electron micrograph of a flea

Transmission electron micrograph of Bacillus anthracis

Figure 1-7. A procedure used to make a transgenic plant.

Figure 8-63. Using cluster analysis to identify sets of genes that are coordinately regulated.

Figure 1.8. Using DNA microarrays to monitor the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously.

Figure 8-47. Results of a BLAST search. Sequence databases can be searched to find similar amino acid or nucleic acid sequences. Here a search for proteins similar to the human cell-cycle regulatory protein cdc2 (Query) locates maize cdc2 (Subject), which is 68% identical (and 82% similar) to human cdc2 in its amino acid sequence.

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