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Fundamental properties shared by all cells: (conserved throughout evolution) 1. all cells employ DNA as their genetic material 2. surrounded by plasma membrane 3. use the same basic mechanisms for energy metabolism
Organisms: 1. Unicellular (eg. bacteria, amoebas & yeasts) capable of independent self-replication 2. Multicellular(eg. Humans)- composed of collection of cells w/c fxns in a coordinated manner w/ diff cells specialized to perform particular tasks.
b. Eukaryotic cells - contain nucleus -more complex structure(protists, fungi, plants & animals)
Fig.1.1.Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg(SVG file, nominally 494 402 pixels, file size: 135 KB)
Fig1.2.Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome
Eukaryotic Cells -thought to have evolved from symbiotic associations of prokaryotes (ENDOSYMBIOSIS)
ENDOSYMBIOSIS
A large anaerobic, heterotrophic prokaryote engulfs a small aerobic prokaryote
A portion of the plasma membrane has invaginated and evolved into a nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum (primitive eukaryote)
Engulfs a photosynthetic prokaryote Nonphotosynthetic protist, fungal, animal cells Evolve into a chloroplast
Fig.1.4. Time scale of evolution The scale indicates the approximate times at which some of the major events in the evolution of cells are thought to have occurred.
Figure 1.5. Generation of metabolic energy Glycolysis is the anaerobic breakdown of glucose to lactic acid. Photosynthesis utilizes energy from sunlight to drive the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and H2O, with the release of O2 as a by-product. The O2 released by photosynthesis is used in oxidative metabolism, in which glucose is broken down to CO2 and H2O, releasing much more energy than is obtained from glycolysis.
Figure 1.6. Evolution of cells Present-day cells evolved from a common prokaryotic ancestor along three lines of descent, giving rise to archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from the endosymbiotic association of aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, with the ancestors of eukaryotes.
Bacteria Mycoplasma E. coli Unicellular eukaryotes Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) Dictyostelium discoideum Euglena Plants Arabidopsis thaliana Zea mays (corn) Animals Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode) Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) Chicken Zebrafish Mouse Human
0.6 4.6 12 70 3000 130 5000 97 180 1200 1700 3000 3000
E. coli
S. cerevisiae
Dictyostelium discoideum
Arabidopsis thaliana
Caenorhabditis elegans
Drosophila melanogaster
Xenopus laevis
zebrafish
House mouse
Several different techniques exist to study cells: 1. Cell culture 6. In situ hybridization 2. Immunostaining 7. PCR 3. Computational Genomics 8. Cell Fractionation 4. DNA MICROARRAYS 5. Gene knockdown
b. Fluorescence microscopy
Figure 8-63. Using cluster analysis to identify sets of genes that are coordinately regulated.
Figure 1.8. Using DNA microarrays to monitor the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously.
Figure 8-47. Results of a BLAST search. Sequence databases can be searched to find similar amino acid or nucleic acid sequences. Here a search for proteins similar to the human cell-cycle regulatory protein cdc2 (Query) locates maize cdc2 (Subject), which is 68% identical (and 82% similar) to human cdc2 in its amino acid sequence.