Reproduction and Growth

Chapter 13

Male Reproductive Structures and Glands

Spermatogenesis:
In testis
Seminiferous tubules Spermatogenesis occurs here

Other structures:
Epididymis Vas deferens Glands
Prostate Seminal vesicles

Spermatogensis
Each seminiferous tubule is lined with a layer of germinal epithelium which consist of primordial germ cells Each cells undergo to produce diploid spermatogonia (2n) Each spermatogonium develops into primary spermatocyte (2n)

 At meiosis I, each spermatocyte divides to produce 2 secondary spermatocytes (n) At the end of meiosis II, two spermatids are formed Therefore, each spermatogonium develops to form 4 sperms

Spermatogenesis:

cell differentation, sperm formation (mature, haploid male gametes)

secondary spermatocytes (haploid) spermatogonium (diploid male reproductive cell)

primary spermatocyte (diploid) spermatids (haploid)

GROWTH

MEITOSIS I, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION

MEIOSIS II, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS II

part of the lumen of a seminiferous tubule

Sertoli cell spermatogonium (diploid) primary spermatocyte

secondary spermatocyte

early spermatids

late spermatid

head (DNA in enzyme-rich cap)

tail (with core of microtubules)

midpiece with mitochondria

Fig. 45.4, p. 787

Female Reproductive Structures

Oogenesis:
Regulated by the menstrual cycle Ovary
Oogenesis occurs here

Other structures:
Fallopian tubes or oviducts Uterus Vagina
vagina

ovary (where eggs develop)

Oogenesis
The ovary wall consists a layer of germinal epithelium which is made up of primordial germ cells. In foetal stage, each germ cells divide by mitosis to form diploid oogonia (2n) Each oogonium develops into primary oocyte (2n), surrounded by a layer of follicle cells to form a primary follicle At birth, a baby girl has millions of primary oocytes, which undergoes meiosis I and stop at Prophase I until puberty

continue from previous slides

At puberty, 1 primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form 2 haploid cells; 1 secondary oocyte (n) and a polary body (n) The secondary oocyte is surrounded by secondary follicle cells, which further develops into Graafian follicle the side of ovarian wall During ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts and releases the secondary oocyte into Fallopian tube When fertilisation occurs, the secondary oocyte undergoes complete meiosis II to form a polar body (n) and an ovum (n)

Oogenesis:
first polar body haploid) three polar bodies haploid)

oogonium (diploid reproductive cell)

primary oocyte (diploid) secondary oocyte haploid)

ovum (haploid)

GROWTH

MEITOSIS I, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION

MEIOSIS II, CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION Fig. 10.9 p. 169

Hormonal Control in the Menstrual Cycle:

Hypothalamus
GnRH

Anterior Pituitary
FSH LH

Ovaries
Estrogen Progesterone

Changes in the Ovary and Uterus

Hormonal changes Ovarian and Uterine changes

hypothalamus

GnRH
anterioir pituitary

FSH

LH

midcycle peak of LH (triggers ovulation) Blood levels of FSH (purple) and LH (lavender)

hypothalamus

anterior lobe of pituitary gland

FSH

LH
ovulation

LH
corpus luteum

growth of follicle

estrogens

progesterone, estrogen Blood levels of estrogens (light blue) and progesterone (dark blue)

endometrium of uterus

estrogens menstruation

progesterone, estrogen

Days of one menstrual cycle (using 28 days as the average duration)

Fig. 45.9, p. 792

FOLLICULAR PHASE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE LUTEAL PHASE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstrual Cycle Overview

Follicular Phase
Menstruation
Endometrium breakdown and buildup Maturation of oocyte

Ovulation
Release of oocyte from ovary

Luteal Phase
Corpus luteum Endometrium gets ready for pregnancy

Overview regulation of menstrual cycle

Day 1-5 6-14 Hormone secretion Hormone level

Follicle

Endometrium thickness

FSH (Pituitary) Increasing a. FSH Continues until the 6th day

Stimulates development Breaks down of primary oocyte Follicle develops until becomes matured Graafian follicle Graafian follicle bursts on 14th day and release secondary oocyte. Remaining Graafian follicle becomes corpus luteum Oestrogen repairs and thickens endometrium

b. Oestrogen (Follicle cells in ovary)

Stimulated by FSH. Level increases until the 12th day, stimulating LH secretion during its highest level

c. LH (Pituitary)
14-28 Progrestrone (Corpus lutuem in ovary)

LH increases on the 10th until the 14th day

Increasing from the 14th until 25th day Corpus luteum degenerates on 25th day if no fertilization occurs Thickness maintain until 25th day if no fertilisation occurs

Effects of Menstrual Hormonal Imbalance in Woman

Hormonal imbalance affect a woman physiologically, emotionally and well-being Type of disorders caused by hormonal imbalances:
Prementrual syndrome (PMS): combination of physical and emotional symptoms related to menstrual cycle due to changes in level of oestrogen and progestrone. Emotional symptoms such as tension, depresion, confusion, oversensitivity, mood swings, lack of concentration; physical symptoms such as headaches, fatigue, feeling bloated, breast tenderness, abdominal pain, appetite, sleep disturbance

continue from previous slide

Micarriage: Progestrone maintains endometrium thickness for zygote implantation. Failure in production cause the reduction of thickness, hence embryo cannot be embedded securely in endometrium Menopause: Occur between age 45 to 55 when menstruation stops for 12 months in a row, causing less FSH and LH to be produced. Due to limited development of follicle, ovaries produce less progestrone and oestrogen. Experiencing symptoms such as hot flushes, night sweats, sleeping disorders, osteoporosis, mood changes, weight gain and hair loss. Can be treated with oestrogen through Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)

Fertilization:
Sperm surround ovum Cap releases acrosomal enzyme One sperm penetrates Oocyte completes meiosis II Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
Zygote

Formation of the Early Embryo:

First week of development

From oocyte to blastocyst

Oocyte(fertilization)zygote4-cell stage (2 days) morula (ball)blastocysteinner cell mass (embryo)

Trophoblast villi (extraembronic membranes)

 Mitosis forming zygote with 2 cells Both cells divide into 4 cells, then 8 cells, 16 cells and into a few hundreds of cells called morula Morula then transformed into a fluid-filled sphere called blastocyst, consisting of outer layer (later develop into placenta) and inner cell mass (develop into embryo)

Implantation of Blastocyst
Outer layer of blastocyst attaches to endometrium using its extended projections called trophoblast villi The villi secretes enzymes to dissolve the cells at uterine wall, forming cavity that allows blastocyst to embed into Villi with rich supply of blood capillaries extend into the endometrium to implant the blastocyst

Early Embryo and Implantation:

Maternal and Fetal Blood Circulation:

Diffusion of O2, CO2 and other solutes

Placental Development:

Embryo at 4 Weeks:

Fetus at 16 Weeks:
Reflex actions
Limb differentiation

Birth:
Labor Oxytocin Uterine contractions

What Can Affect Development?

Nutrition
Diet Extra vitamins Increased calories

Prescription drugs
Tranquilizers Barbiturates Anti-acne medication Antibiotics

Infections
Bacteria

Alcohol

Rubella virus

Cocaine
Cigarettes

Functions of the Uterus

During embryo development
Protect the embryo Provide a constant environment for the embryo to develop Allow placenta to attach on

During birth of baby

Push the baby out by muscular contraction

Functions of the Amniotic Fluid

To keep the foetus moist to prevent dessication As a water cushion to
support the foetus allow it to move freely absorb shock protect the foetus from mechanical injuries

To reduce temperature fluctuation To lubricate the vagina during birth

The Placenta
oxygenated blood from mothers artery deoxygenated blood to mothers vein villus umbilical vein umbilical artery

Functions of the placenta

Immune protection: protective molecules cover the surface of the early placenta hiding it from the maternal immune system so it is not rejected as non-self due to the presence of the paternal genes.

Functions of the placenta

Barrier: limits the transfer of blood components from the maternal to foetal system. Cells of the maternal immune system do not cross so reducing risk of immune rejection. (The placenta is not a barrier to heavy metals, nicotine, HIV, heroin or other toxins)

Functions of the placenta

Immune protection: protective molecules cover the surface of the early placenta hiding it from the maternal immune system so it is not rejected as nonself due to the presence of the paternal genes.

Site of exchange of many solutes between maternal and foetal systems. Oxygen (aided by foetal haemoglobin), glucose, amino acids are all selective transported. CO2, urea and other waste materials diffuse the other way. Some antibodies pass from the mother during later pregnancy.

Functions of the placenta

Barrier: limits the transfer of blood components from the maternal to foetal system. Cells of the maternal immune system do not cross so reducing risk of immune rejection. (The placenta is not a barrier to heavy metals, nicotine, HIV, heroin or other toxins)

Endocrine function the placenta takes over the production of oestrogen and progesterone as the corpus luteum degenerates ensuring the endometrium is maintained.

Adaptations of the Placenta

1. Finger-like villi
to increase the surface area for efficient diffusion

2. Maternal blood and foetal blood flows in opposite direction

to speed up diffusion of materials between them

3. Maternal blood capillaries and foetal blood capillaries are separated by thin membrane
to shorten the distance of diffusion of materials

4. Maternal blood is separated from foetal blood by capillary wall

to prevent high pressure of maternal blood to break the delicate foetal blood vessels to prevent harmful substances to enter the foetus to prevent clotting of maternal and foetal blood if their blood groups are incompatible

Formation of Twins
Identical Twins Fraternal twins

1 ovum + 1 sperm Zygote divides after fertilization Both foetus share 1 placenta Both carry the same sex Twins look alike and genetically identical

2 ova + 2 sperms Zygote does not divide Each has its own placenta Twins may carry different sex Twins may have some similarities, but not genetically identical

Formation of Siamese twins

Also known as conjoined twins, as certain parts of the body are joined together Can be separated through operation, if parts are separatable

Birth Control
Human population increases exponentially
leads to shortage of resources problem of pollution becomes more serious overcrowding

Control of Human Fertility:

Techniques in Birth Control

1. Natural Method
a) Rhythm Method: Period counting b) Withdrawal Method: Withdraw before ejaculation

2. Physical Method: involve devices to avoid pregnancy 3. Chemical Method: use of chemical to prevent pregnancy 4. Sterilisation Method: operation that will result permanent sterility 5. Abortion: removing of embryo of foetus before 28th week

Rhythm Method
Prevent copulation during 7 days before and after ovulation (fertile period)

Physical 1: Condom
Male and female condom As a barrier to prevent sperms from entering the vagina

Physical 2: Diaphragm
Fitted over the cervix To be used together with spermicides

Physical 3: Intrauterine Device

Prevent implantation of zygote on the uterus

Chemical 1: Contraceptive Pills

Contains hormones which inhibit ovulation Must be taken regularly May have side effect

Chemical 2: Spermicides
Chemical that can kill sperms To be rubbed on vaginal wall before sexual intercourse Unreliable protection against pregnancy when used alone

Sterilisation Methods
Vasectomy Cutting and tying of sperm ducts Fallopian Tube ligation Cutting and tying of oviducts

Abortion Method

Overcoming Sterility
1. Sperm bank: provide healthy sperms for couples who have inability sperms 2. Artificial insemination: transferring sperms vagina of wife during ovulation. Due to sperm infertility or low count 3. In vitro fertilisation (IVF): Fertilisation outside the body due to blockage or damage of Fallopian tube. Babies borned in this technique is known as test-tube babies 4. Intrafallopian transfer: transfer of gamete or zygote into Fallopian tube 5. Embryo transfer: Transfer embryo from secondary oocyte donor woman into the uterus of receiver 6. Surrogate mother: Woman hired to carry a baby for full term 7. Cloning: Replacing the nucleus of body cell from the target with the unfertilised ovum of a donor and implanted in a surrogate mother

Procedures in IVF
1. Ovarian hyperstimulation
Patient injected with hormones to stimulate multiple follicle production in the ovaries The eggs are retrieved from the patient using a transvaginal technique involving an ultrasound-guided needle piercing the vaginal wall to reach the ovaries. Selected oocytes prepared by stripping of surrounding cells; Sperm prepared by by removing inactive cells and seminal fluid in a process called sperm washing. incubated together at a ratio of about 75,000:1 in the culture media for about 18 hours on a petri dish

2. Egg Retrieval

3. Egg and sperm preparation

4. Fertilisation

5. Embryo culture

Typically, embryos are cultured until having reached the 68 cell stage three days after retrieval. In some programmes, embryos are placed into an extended culture system with a transfer done at the blastocyst stage at around five days after retrieval.
Spefici grading methods are used to judge oocyte and embryo quality The "best" are transferred to the uterus through a thin, plastic catheter, which goes through her vagina and cervix. Several embryos may passed into to improve chances of implantation and pregnancy.

6. Embryo selection

7. Embryo transfer