Vector Algebra

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 1
ENEL2FTFIELD THEORY

REFERENCES
1. M.N. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University
Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-510368-8.
2. N.N. Rao: Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Prectice-
Hall, 1991, ISBN:0-13-251604-7.
3. P. Lorrain, D. Corson: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, W.H.
Freeman & Co, 1970, ISBN: 0-7167-0330-0.
4. David T. Thomas: Engineering Electromagnetics, Pergamon
Press, ISBN: 08-016778-0.
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Electromagnetics deals with the study of electric and magnetic
fields. Therefore one needs to understand the concepts of a field.
Electric and Magnetic Fields are vector quantities and their
behaviour is governed by a set of laws known as Maxwells
equations.
The mathematical formulation of Maxwells equations and their
subsequent application require the understanding of the basic rules
pertinent to mathematical manipulations involving vector quantities.
We first introduce simple rules of vector algebra without the
manipulation of the coordinate system; thereafter, we introduce the
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
After introducing the vector algebraic rules, we introduce the
concepts of scalar and vector fields, static as well as time-varying.
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
In the study of elementary physics, we come across several
quantities such as mass, temperature, velocity, acceleration, force,
and charge.
Some of these quantities have associated with them not only a
magnitude, but also a direction in space whereas others are
characterized by magnitude only.
The former class of quantities are known as vectors, and the latter
class are known as scalars.
Mass, temperature, and charge are scalars, whereas velocity,
acceleration, and force are vectors.
Other examples are voltage and current for scalars , and electric and
magnetic fields for vectors.

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Graphically, a vector, A, is represented by a straight line with an arrowhead
pointing in the direction of A and having a length proportional to the
magnitude of A.
If the top of the page represents North, then vectors A and B are directed
eastward, with the magnitude of B being twice that of A.
Vector C is directed towards the northeast and has a magnitude three times
that of A. Vector D is directed towards the southwest, and has a magnitude
equal to that of C. Thus C and D are equal in magnitude but opposite in
phase.

A
B
C
D
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - THE UNIT VECTOR
Since a vector may have, in general, an arbitrary orientation in three-
dimensional space, we need to define a set of three reference
directions at each and every point in space in terms of which we can
describe vectors drawn at that point.
Thus if we define three mutually orthogonal reference directions as
shown below, and direct unit vectors along the three directions as
shown, where a unit vector has magnitude of unity.

i
1

i
2

i
3

Set of three orthogonal unit
vectors in a right-handed
coordinate system.
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
A vector of magnitude different from unity along any reference
directions can be represented in terms of the unit vector along
that direction.
Thus 4i
1
represents a vector of magnitude 4 units in the direction of i
1
,
6i
2
represents a vector of magnitude 6 units in the direction of i
2
, and
-2i
3
represents a vector of magnitude 2 units in the direction opposite
to that of i
3
.
Thus we define vector A as the sum of 4i
1
+6i
2
. That is:

The magnitude of vector A is given by:

2 1

6
4 i i A + =
211 . 7 6 4
2 2
= + = A

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
If vector B is defined as:

then the magnitude of B is:

In general, a vector A is said to have components A
1
, A
2
, and A
3

along the directions 1, 2, and 3 is written as:

Now consider three vectors A,B, and C given by:

3 2 1
2
4 i i i B + =
4833 . 7 2 6 4 2
4
2 2 2
3 2 1
= + + = + = i i i B
3 3 2 2 1 1

i A i A i A A + + =
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1

i C i C i C C
i B i B i B B
i A i A i A A
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - Vector Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication
Then the sum of vectors A and B, (A+B), is given by:

Vector subtraction is a special case of vector addition; thus:

The multiplication of a vector, A, by a scalar m, is the same as
repeated addition of the vector:

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1

2
i B A i B A i B A
i B i B i B i A i A i A B A
+ + + + + =
+ + + + + = +

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1

2
i C B i C B i C B
i C i C i C i B i B i B C B
+ + =
+ + + + =

( )
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1

i mA i mA i mA
i A i A i A m A m
+ + =
+ + =

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
The magnitude of vector A is given by:

The unit vector along A , i
A
, has a magnitude equal to unity, but its
direction is the same as that of A. Thus:

Two vectors A and B are equal if and only if the corresponding
components of A and B are equal. That is:

2
3
2
2
2
1 3 3 2 2 1 1

A A A i A i A i A A + + = + + =
3
3
2
2
1
1
i
A
A
i
A
A
i
A
A
A
A
i
A

+ = + =
3 3
;
2 2
;
1 1
;
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1

B A B A B A
= = =
= + + + + =

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT
The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is a scalar quantity defined
as:

Here o is the angle between A and B. For mutually orthogonal unit vectors i
1
,
i
2
, and i
3
, we have:

Thus we have the dot product between A and B as:

|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

B A
B A
B A B A

.
cos cos .
1
o o
1 . ; 0 . ; 0 .
0 . ; 1 . ; 0 .
0 . ; 0 . ; 1 .
3 3 2 3 3
3 2 2 2 2
3 2
1
1
1 1 1 1
= = =
= = =
= = =
i i i i i i
i i i i i i
i i i i i i
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 2 1 1
3 3
.
3 3 2 2
.
3 3 1 1
.
3 3
3 3
.
2 2 2 2
.
2 2 1 1
.
2 2 3 3
.
1 1 2 2
.
1 1 1 1
.
1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1
2

.

.
B A B A B A
i B i A i B i A i B i A
i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + +
=
=
+ + + + =

VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT
The vector or cross product of two vectors, A and B, is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B
and the sine of the smaller angle o between A and B whose direction is
normal to the plane containing A and B.

For mutually orthogonal unit vectors i
1
, i
2
, and i
3
, we have:

Note that the cross-product is not commutative, and also the distributive
property holds for the cross product:

N
i B A B x A

sino

=
0 ; ;
; 0 ;
; ; 0
3 3 1 2 3 2 3
1 3 2 2 2 3 2
2 3 3 2
1
1
1 1 1 1
= = =
= = =
= = =
xi i i xi i i xi i
i xi i xi i i xi i
i xi i i xi i xi i
( )
( ) C x A B x A C B x A
B x A i A B A x B
N

+ = +
= = o sin
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT
Using the above properties, we obtain:

This can be expressed in determinant form in the manner:

The cross product is useful in obtaining the unit vector normal to the
plane containing the two vectors A and B:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 2
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 1
3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 3
3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1

B A B A B A B A B A B A
i B A i B A i B A i B A i B A i B A
i B i A i B i A i B i A
i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A i B i A
i B i B i B x i A i A i A B x A
x x x
x x x x x x
+ =
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + +
+
=
=
+ + + + =

3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

B B B
A A A
i i i
B x A =

B x A
B x A
i
N

=
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - TRIPLE PRODUCTS
The scalar triple product involves three vectors in a dot product operation
and a cross product operation, such as, A.BxC.
It is not necessary to include parentheses since this quantity can be
evaluated in only one manner - by evaluating BxC first, and then dotting the
resulting vector with A.
We therefore have,

Since the value of the determinant on the right side remains unchanged if the
rows are interchanged in a cylindrical manner, we have

( )
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
.

.

.
C C C
B B B
A A A
C x B A
C C C
B B B
i i i
i A i A i A C x B A
=
+ + =

B x A C A x C B C x B A

. . . = =
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR ALGEBRA - TRIPLE PRODUCTS
The triple cross product involves three vectors in two cross product
operations.
Caution must however be exercised in evaluating a triple cross
product since the order of evaluation is important; that is:

As an example, let us equate the three vectors to unit vectors as
follows:

Therefore in a vector triple product, the parentheses are so important
and must be included.
( ) ( ) C x B x A C x B x A

=
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0
2 2 1 1
2 3 1 2 1 1
2 1 1
= = =
= = =
= = =
i x i x i x i C x B x A
i i x i i x i x i C x B x A
i C i B i A

VECTOR CALCULUS
CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
So far, we have expressed a vector at a point in space in terms of its
component vectors along a set of three mutually orthogonal directions
defined by three mutually orthogonal unit vectors at that point.
However, in order to relate vectors at one point in space to vectors at
another point in space, we must define the set of three reference
directions at each and every point in space. Thus we need a
coordinate system.
Although there are several different coordinate systems, we are
normally concerned with only three of these, namely, the Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
The Cartesian coordinate system, also known as the rectangular
coordinate system, is the simplest of the three since it permits the
geometry to be simple, yet sufficient to study many of the elements of
engineering electromagnetics.

VECTOR CALCULUS
The Cartesian coordinate system is defined by a set of three
mutually orthogonal vectors, x,y, and z, as shown below.

The coordinate axes are denoted as the x-, y-, and z-axes.
The directions in which values of x, y, and z increase along the
respective coordinate axes are indicated by the arrowheads.
Note that the positive x-, y-, and z-directions are chosen such that
they form a right-handed system.

i
1
=x
i
2
=y
i
3
=z
VECTOR CALCULUS
Therefore we have:

For a right-handed coordinate system, we have:

Consider two points, P
1
(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
), and P
2
(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) in the rectangular
coordinate system. The position vector, r
1
, drawn from the origin to pint
P
1
and position vector r
2
drawn from the origin to P
2
are given by:

The resultant vector, R
12
, is given by:

z i y i x i
3 2 1
= = =
y x x z x z x y z y x x ; ; = = =
z z y y x x r
z z y y x x r

2 2 2
1 1 1
2
1
+ + =
+ + =
( ) ( ) ( )z z z y y y x x x r r R
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 12
+ + = =


VECTOR CALCULUS

We can obtain the unit vector along the line drawn from P
1
to P
2
to be:

As an example, if P
1
is (1,-2,0) and P
2
is (4,2,5), then:

x
y
z
P
1
(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
P
2
(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
)
r
1

r
2

R
12

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 / 1
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
12
12
12

z z y y x x
z z z y y y x x x
R
R
i
+ +
+ +
= =

VECTOR CALCULUS

In our study of electromagnetic fields, we have to work with line,
surface, and volume integrals.
These involve differential lengths, surfaces, and volumes obtained by
incrementing the coordinates by infinitesimal amounts.
Since in the Cartesian coordinate system the three coordinates
represent lengths, the differential length elements obtained by
incrementing one coordinate at a time, keeping the other two constant,
are, for the x-, y-, and z-coordinates respectively:

( ) z y x i
z y x R
5 4 3
2 5
1
5 4 3
12
12
+ + =
+ + =
z dz and y dy x dx , ,
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH VECTOR

The differential length vector, dl, is the vector drawn from a point P(x,y,z)
to a neighboring point Q(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) obtained by incrementing the
coordinates of P by infinitesimal amounts.
Thus it is the vector sum of the three differential elements as follows:

x
y
z
P(x,y,z)
Q(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)
r
1

r
2

dl
z dz y dy x dx l d + + =

VECTOR CALCULUS
The differential lengths, dx, dy, and dz are, however, not independent
of each other since in the evaluation of line integrals, the integration
is performed along a specified path on which the points P and Q lie.
As an example, consider the curve

Let us obtain the expression for the differential length vector dl along
the curve at the point (1,1,1) and having the projection dz on the z
axis. Then:

Note that x=1, y=1, z=1.
2
z y x = =
( )dz z y x z dz y dz x dz l d
z dz y dy x dx l d
zdz dy dx
2 2 2 2

2
+ + = + + =
+ + =
= =

VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential length vectors are useful for finding the unit vector normal
to a surface at a point on that surface.
This is done by considering two differential length vectors at the point
under consideration and tangential to the two curves on the surface
then using the cross-product operation, which gives a vector that is
normal to the crossed vectors.

Thus the unit vector normal to the surface is given by:

dl
1

dl
2

Surface
Curve 1
Curve 2
2 1
2 1
l xd l d
l xd l d
i
n

=
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL SURFACE VECTOR
Two differential length vectors, dl
1
and dl
2
originating at a point define
a differential surface whose area dS is that of the parallelogram having
dl
1
and dl
2
as two of its adjacent sides, as shown below:

From simple geometry and the definition of cross-product of two
vectors, it can be seen that:

dS
dl
1

dl
2

i
n

o
2 1 2 1
sin l xd l d dl dl dS

= = o
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL SURFACE VECTOR
In the evaluation of surface integrals, it is convenient to define a
differential surface vector dS whose magnitude is the area dS and
whose direction is normal to the differential surface.
Thus recognizing that the normal vector can be directed to either side
of the surface, we have:

If we apply these equations to differential surface vectors in Cartesian
coordinates, we obtain:

n
i dS l xd l d S d

2 1
= =

z dxdy y xdy x dx t cons z plane For
y dzdx x xdx z dz t cons y plane For
x dydz z xdz y dy t cons x plane For
: tan
: tan
: tan
= =
= =
= =
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME
Three different length vectors, dl
1
, dl
2
, and dl
3
originating at a point
define a differential volume dv which is that of the parallelepiped having
dl
1
, dl
2
, and dl
3
as three of its contiguous edges, as shown below.

It can be seen that:

dl
1

dl
2

dl
3

dv
3 2 1
2 1 3
2 1
2 1 3
2 1 3 2 1
.
.
.
.
) ).( (
l xd l d l d dv
l xd l d l d
l xd l d
l xd l d l d
l xd l d i l d l xd l d
iped parallelep of height iped parallelep of area base dv
n

=
= = =
=
VECTOR CALCULUS
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
Just like the Cartesian coordinate system is defined by a set of three
mutually orthogonal surfaces, the cylindrical coordinate system also
involves a set of three mutually orthogonal surfaces.

For the cylindrical coordinate system, the three one of the planes is
z=constant
x
y
z
P(r,|,z)
|
r
VECTOR CALCULUS
One of these planes is the same as the z=constant plane in the
Cartesian coordinate system.
The second plane contains the z-axis and makes an angle | with a
reference plane, chosen to be the x-z plane of the Cartesian coordinate
system. This plane is called the |=constant plane.
The cylindrical coordinate system has the z-axis as its axis. But since
the radial distance r from the z-axis to points on the cylindrical surface
is constant, this surface is defined by r=constant.
Thus the three orthogonal surfaces defining the cylindrical coordinate
system are: r=constant; |=constant; and z=constant.
Only two of the coordinates (r and z) are distances; the third coordinate
(|) is an angle.
We note that the entire space is spanned by varying r from 0 to ; z
from - to +; and | from 0 to 2t.
VECTOR CALCULUS

To obtain the expressions for the differential lengths, surfaces, and
volumes in the cylindrical coordinate system, we now consider two
points, P(r,|,z) and Q(r+dr, |+d|, and z+dz) where Q is obtained by
incrementing infinitesimally each coordinate from its value at P.
The three orthogonal surfaces intersecting at P, and the three
orthogonal surfaces intersecting at Q, define a box which can be
considered to be rectangular since dr,d|, and dz are infinitesimal.

dz
r
dr
|
d|
x
y
z
P
Q
VECTOR CALCULUS
The three differential length elements forming the contiguous sides of
the box are:
The differential length vector dl from P to Q is thus given by:

The differential surface vectors defined by the pairs of the differential
length elements are:

Finally, the differential volume dv is the volume of the box:

z dz rd r dr ,
, | |
z dz rd r dr l d
+ + = | |
z rdrd xrd r dr
drdz r xdr z dz
r dz rd z xdz rd
| | |
|
| | |
=
=
=
( )( )( ) dz rdrd dz rd dr dv | | = =
VECTOR CALCULUS
SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
For the spherical coordinate system, the three mutually orthogonal
surfaces are a sphere, a cone, and a plane.

The three orthogonal surfaces defining the spherical coordinates of a
point are:

r
u
|
x
y
z
t cons
t cons
t cons r
tan
tan
tan
=
=
=
|
u
VECTOR CALCULUS
SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
The differential length elements and the differential length vector dl are
given by:

The differential surface vectors defined by pairs of differential length
elements are:

The differential volume formed by the three differential lengths is:

| | u u u
| | u u u
sin
sin ,
,
d r rd r dr l d
d r rd r dr
+ + =

| u u u
u | u | | u
| u u | | u u u

sin
sin
sin
sin
2
rdrd xrd r dr
drd r r xdr d r
r d d r d xr rd
=
=
=
( )( )( ) | u u | u u d drd r d r rd dr dv sin sin
2
= =
VECTOR CALCULUS
CONVERSIONS BETWEEN THE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
In the study of electromagnetics, it is useful to be able to convert from
one coordinate system to another, particularly from the Cartesian to the
cylindrical system and vice-versa, and from the spherical system to the
Cartesian system and vice-versa.
If r
c
is r in cylindrical coordinate, and r
s
is the designation of r in
spherical coordinates, then we have the following conversions:

|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= + + =
=
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
= = =
= = =

x
y
z
y x
z y x r
z z
x
y
y x r
r z r y r x
z z r y r x
s
c
s s s
c c
1
2 2
1 2 2 2
1 2 2
tan tan
tan
cos sin sin ; cos sin
; sin ; cos
| u
|
u | u | u
| |
VECTOR CALCULUS
Next consider the conversion of vectors from one coordinate system to
another.
To do this, we need to express each of the unit vectors of the first
coordinate system in terms of its components along the unit vectors in
the second coordinate system.
From the definition of the dot product of two vectors, the component of
a unit vector along another unit vector, that is, the cosine of the angle
between the two unit vectors, is simply the dot product of the two unit
vectors.
For the sets of unit vectors in the cylindrical and Cartesian coordinate
systems, we have:

1 . 0 . 0 .
0 .
cos .
sin .
0 . sin . cos .
= = =
= = =
= = =
z z y z x z
z y x
z r y r x r
c c c
| | | | |
| |
VECTOR CALCULUS
Similarly, for the set of unit vectors in the spherical and Cartesian
coordinate systems, we obtain the dot products as follows:

Therefore when given a vector in spherical or cylindrical coordinates, it
is possible to convert it into Cartesian coordinates, and vice-versa.
This is particularly so when solving electromagnetic radiation problems.
0 .
cos .
sin .
sin .
sin cos .
cos cos .
cos . sin sin . cos sin .

= = =
= = =
= = =
z y x
z y x
z r y r x r
s s s
| | | | |
u u | u u | u u
u | u | u
VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS
For a scalar function, F(t), we have:

Now suppose that F(t) were one component of a vector function, say A
x
.
Since each component would be a new scalar function, it follows that:

Suppose, instead, we asked for the partial derivative of vector A with
respect to x? This asks for the change in A as we move along the x
direction. This becomes:

(
A
A +
=
A
t
t F t t F
dt
dF
t
) ( ) (
lim
0
dt
dA
z
dt
dA
y
dt
dA
x
dt
A d
z
y
x
+ + =
x
A
z
x
A
y
x
A
x
x
A
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c


VECTOR CALCULUS
VECTOR DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS
The definition of a partial derivative is identical to the definition of an
ordinary derivative:

The only difference is that the function F(x,y) has now two
independent variables, x and y.
Many such functions of two or more independent variables exist. For
example, the height of a point above sea level depends on the position
on the earth and requires two variables, latitudes (x) and longitude (y),
to describe that position.
The partial derivative with respect to y is also defined as:

(
A
A +
=
c
c
A
x
y x F y x x F
x
F
x
) , ( ) , (
lim
0
(
A
A +
=
c
c
A
y
s F y y x F
y
F
y
) ( ) , (
lim
0
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES
The partial derivatives of F(x,y) with respect to x and y are both special
cases of a more general derivative, the directional derivative.
Consider the same function, F(x,y), but now instead of partial derivative
with respect to x or y, we compute the derivative in a direction s, as
shown below:

We wish to determine the partial derivative with respect to s:

x
y
s
t
u
(
A
A +
=
c
c
A
s
s F s s F
s
F
s
) ( ) (
lim
0
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES
The variables s,t, are orthogonal and related to x and y by the
equations:

Also recall the chain rule of differentiation from ordinary calculus:

Looking at the coordinate transformations, we find that:

u u
u u
cos sin
sin cos
t s y
t s x
+ =
=
y
F
s
y
x
F
s
x
s
F
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
u u
u u
sin cos
; sin ; cos
y
F
x
F
s
F
s
y
s
x
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
VECTOR CALCULUS
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES - THE GRADIENT
What would be the maximum directional derivative of F(x,y) at the point
(x,y)? This is determined by setting the derivative of the directional
derivative with respect to s equal to zero.
This would be denoted by VF, the gradient of F, given by:

Here the del operator, V, is defined as:

Thus the gradient is a vector operator, with the del operator, V,
operating on a scalar, F(x,y,z).
z
F
z
y
F
y
x
F
x F
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
z
z
y
y
x
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V

VECTOR CALCULUS
THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF A VECTOR
Like the dot product of two vectors, the divergence of a vector field is
a scalar function, which, in rectangular coordinates, is given by:

The vector derivative or curl of a vector is defined in rectangular
coordinates as:

z
A
y
A
x
A
A
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V

.
( )
z y x
z y x
A A A
z y x
z y x
A x
A z A y A x x
z
z
y
y
x
x A x
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
+ + |
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V

VECTOR CALCULUS
SOME VECTOR IDENTITIES
Some useful vector identities are given below:
1. The Laplacian is defined as:

2. The Curl of the Gradient of a scalar:

3. The divergence of the curl of a vector:

4. The curl of the curl of a vector:

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
.
z
F
y
F
x
F
F F
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V V = V

0 = V V F x

0 . = V V A x

( ) A A A x x

2
. V V V = V V

Vector Algebra

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