Ergonomics: definition and origins

Ergonomics involves the following: Using special design and evaluation techniques to make tasks, objects, and environments more compatible with human abilities and limitations. Seeking to improve productivity and quality by reducing workplace stressors, reducing the risk of injuries and illnesses, and increasing efficiency.

Factors Associated With Physical Stress

Sitting versus standing: Generally speaking, sitting is less stressful than standing. Large versus small demand for strength/ power: Jobs that demand large amounts of strength/power are generally more stressful than those that require less. Non repetitive versus repetitive motion: Repetition can lead to monotony and boredom. When this happens the potential for physical stress increases.

Common Indicators of Ergonomic Problems

Apparent Trends in Accidents and Injuries: A pattern or high incidence rate of a specific type of injury indicates that an ergonomic problem exists. Incidence of Cumulative Trauma Disorders ( CTDs): By observing workplace that include a high level of repetitive work, hand force, awkward posture, vibration, mechanical stress, extreme temperatures. Absenteeism and High Turnover Rates: indicators of ergonomic problems. Employee Complaints: high incidence can indicate ergonomic problems. Employee Generated Changes: workplace additions can be evidence of ergonomic problems. Poor Quality: can be indicator of ergonomic problems. Manual Material Handling: lifting large objects, bulky objects, lifting objects from the floor, and lifting frequently.

Identifying Specific Ergonomic Problems

General Observation: be attentive to tasks requiring manual material handling and repetitive movements. Questionnaires and Interviews: Questionnaires are easy to distribute, tabulate and analyze. Interviews provide more in depth information. Videotaping and Photography: records work being done without being intrusive. Drawing or Sketching: can help identify problems. Measuring the Work Environment: how far must a worker carry the material manually. How high does a worker have to lift a object. How much does an object weigh. Understanding the Ergonomics of Aging: adapt the job to the person. Range of motion begins to diminish by age 45. Lower back pain is more common in people over 45.

Analysis For Prevention

Human Factors is a profession to help ensure that equipment and systems are safe and easy to operate by human beings. Predesign Analysis: Human factors professionals conduct research to determine what factors contribute to fatigue and stress and how designers can overcome these factors. Preliminary Design: Human factors professionals study machine and human capabilities to determine which tasks should be undertaken manually and which should be automated. Detail Design and Development: Human factors professionals define the environment required for operator safety, enhanced operator performance, and the reduction or prevention of operator stress and fatigue. Test and Evaluation: Human factors professionals test actual humans in using the prototype equipment or system.

Strategy For Implementation

Hazard elimination by design: Intelligent design can reduce human error by providing controls that are simple to understand and operate. Provision and location of safety devices: Design and location of safety devices such as emergency cutoff switches can reduce human error on the job, correspondingly reducing the chances of an accident. Provision of warning devices: Color, location, and wording of warning devices; pitch and volume of warning signals; and the design of caution markings on gauges and video displays are all important factors in reducing the likelihood of a human error that might lead to an accident. Establishment of procedures/provision of training: When hazards cannot be designed out of a system, administrative procedures for hazard reduction must be established and training related to those procedures must be provided.

OSHA Voluntary Ergonomic Guidelines

OSHAs ergonomic guidelines are geared towards manufacturing and materials handling in the general industry sector. This amounts to assigning responsibility for ergonomics to one individual and informing employees about the risks of MSD (musculoskeletal disorders) related injuries, symptoms of such injuries and why early reporting of symptoms is important.

OSHAs Recommended Worksite Analysis Program for Ergonomics

Gather information from available sources to identify ergonomic hazards in the workplace. Conduct baseline screening surveys to determine which jobs need closer analysis identify jobs that put employees at risk of CTDs (Cumulative Trauma Disorders). Perform ergonomic job hazard analysis for those workstations with identified risk factors. Implement control measures, conduct periodic surveys and follow up studies to evaluate changes.

Risk Factors associated with CTDs

Repetitive and/or prolonged activities Forceful exertions usually with the hands Prolonged static postures Awkward postures of the upper body, including reaching above the shoulders Continued physical contact with work surface Excessive vibration from power tools Use of gloves

Steps in Conducting Ergonomic Job Hazard Analysis

Workstation Analysis: identify all risk factors present in each studied job or workstation. Lifting hazards: for manual materials handling. Videotape method: for analysis of work process. Periodic ergonomic surveys: to identify new deficiencies. Feedback and follow up: to identify risk factors and controls. Trend Analysis: using several years of data for departments, processes, job titles, or workstations. Can be used to determine which positions are most hazardous.

Hazard Prevention and Control Program

Workstation Design: to accommodate the person who actually use them. Design of Work Methods: Static postures and repetition rates should be supplemented by addressing force levels on the hand and arm postures involved to reduce CTDs. Tool Design and Handles: Tools should be selected and designed to minimize the risk of upper extremity CTDs and back injuries. Variety of sizes should be available.

Participation in Ergonomics Training Program

All employees including supervisors and other plant management and IE personnel on the different types of CTDs and means of prevention, causes, early symptoms, and treatment of CTDs should undergo rigorous training program. This information should be reinforced during workplace inspection and the individual health surveillance appointments. All new employees should be given such training during orientation. This will facilitate early recognition of CTDs, and increase the likelihood of compliance with prevention

Ergonomic Problem Solving Strategies

Seated Repetitive Work With Light Parts: Back, neck, shoulder, and lower leg pain are common. Include other work tasks to break the monotony of repetition. Use adjustable chair. Work with Hands above the Chest: Neck, upper body and heart strain. Eliminate manual lifting to the extent possible by raising work floor or using lifts. Work with Hand Tools: Carpel tunnel syndrome (CTDs), and muscle strains of the lower arm, hands and wrist. Improve hand positions during use of tools, enhance workers grip on tools, and minimize amount of twisting involved.

Common Terms
Cumulative Trauma Disorders is a term that covers a number of injuries caused by forceful or awkward movements repeated frequently over time. CTDs occur to the muscles, nerves, and tendons of the hands, arms, shoulder and neck. Muscle and Tendon Disorders: Tendons connect muscle to bones. Tears can become inflamed and cause intense pain called tendinitis. Cervical Radiculopathy: Holding a telephone receiver while typing compression of cervical disc of neck, making it painful to turn the head. Tunnel Syndromes: Damage to soft tissue can cause swelling that compresses the nerves that pass through the tunnel most common carpel tunnel syndrome. Nerve and Circulation Disorders: Friction or inflammation cause swelling, nerves and arteries are compressed, restricting flow of blood to muscles. Result is pain in entire arm, numbness, coldness and weakness of arm, hand and fingers.

Problems Specific To Garment Industry

Precise stitching tasks are visually demanding Thread and fabric often offer little or no visual contrast About one third of operators feel lighting is inadequate Surveys found light levels at less than half of recommended levels Operators lean forward to see their work

Seating
Straight backed wooden or metal chairs are typical in the industry Chairs often lack cushioning Chairs often lack adjustable back rests Chairs often lack height adjustability Improved seating is readily available

PsychoSocial Considerations
Psychomotor demands are high (speed, accuracy, coordination) Positive attitudes toward work are inversely related to increased monotony and fatigue Positive attitudes toward work are directly related to job satisfaction

Work Organization
Piecework operators in high manipulation jobs have symptoms of ctds. Workers in piecework are much more likely to develop severe disabilities as salaried workers. Workers in piecework are fairly more likely to develop arthritic and osteo articular disorders as salaried workers. As duration of employment in piecework increases, so does severe disabilities.

Duration of Exposure
Machine operators experience cumulative damage to the neck and shoulders over time. Risk for persistent neck and shoulder pain increases with years of employment as a machine operator. Work for more than eight years as machine operator increases risks for neck and shoulder pain.

WorkStation Redesign - Sewing Machines

30 fixed table top height. For jobs of longer duration sewing bench mounted arm rests. Adjustable chair. Adjustable foot rest with movable machine control.

Work Enhancements
Foam padded edges to sharp table edges. Provide cloth upholstered adjustable chairs. Angle packing boxes to workers with tilt equipment. Provide anti-fatigue matting for standing workers. Improved lighting. Require rest periods. Job rotations.

Automated Materials Handling

Eliminates heavy lifting by operators. Uses pre-programmed hanging conveyor. Moves only one or a few work pieces per hanger. Computer controlled - movement tracked by bar-coded hangers and series of scanners. Delivers work to queue near operator.

Modular Manufacturing Concept

Conventional textile/apparel industries use the progressive bundle system - each operator is assigned to a single operation. In modular mfg. A complete garment is produced in a modular cell. Cells may have 10 operators and 20 machines. Operators are not assigned to a single operation but move between workstations.

Modular Manufacturing Concept

Teams of operators are responsible for work planning and management, product quality, etc. Employees are empowered - boosts morale. A variety of motions are used by each operator - reduces risk for ctds and relieves static postures. Can be reconfigured rapidly, providing great flexibility.

Modular Manufacturing
Significantly reduces absenteeism. Necessitates better ergonomic designs of workstations to accommodate different operators. Many operations converted to standing workstations instead of seated workstations.