POWER POINT Transmission Media-New

Transmission Media
Principles of Communications
Information Source
Convert the Convert the Electric signal signal into Transmission Media back to the electrical format required format
Information Destination
Information: sound, text, data file, picture, etc Electrical Format: normally in voltage, current or light
Transmission Media
Metallic Cable
Optical Fiber
Communication Satellite
Mobile
1. Metallic Cable
Single Wire
Twisted Pair
Coaxial
1.1 Single Wire

A B
A single wire is transmission/reception
used
for
the
signal
A common reference level/point is existed between the transmitter and receiver It is the simplest connection technique but it has high signal loss and is sensitive to noise, interference, and signal reflection It is suitable for short distance and low data rate application (Normally less than 200Kb-meter/s)
Principles of Communications 5
1.2 Twisted Pair

Two insulated conductors are twisted each other
1.2 Twisted Pair
1.2 Twisted Pair

Twisting or wrapping the two wires around each other reduces induction of outside interference 1 to 5 twists per inch is quite typical Cheap and moderate bit rate applications For a few km distance the bit rate can be up to 10Mb/s, and 100Mb/s can be achievable for short distance applications like 100m (even higher bit rate is achievable for less than 100m)
1.2 Twisted Pair

Typical Applications are:
The subscriber loop in a telephone network The connections to Private Branch eXchange (PBX) in a building The network cables of Local Area Networks (LAN)
1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Normal twisted pair without extra shielding Cheap Used in telephone systems and LANs Suffers from interference
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1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference More expensive Harder to handle - thick and heavy Electrical performance is better than UTP
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1.3 Coaxial
It consists of a center conductor surrounded by a concentric outer conductor
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1.3 Coaxial
Higher frequency operations than the twisted pair wires, e.g. antenna to TV, RF connections between broads and/or equipments Provides excellent shielding interference at high frequency Very small radiation power/loss The main disadvantages are: expensive and is used in the unbalanced mode against external
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2. Optical Fiber
Optical Communication Link Major Characteristics Light Propagation Configurations Losses Dispersion Laser Source & Photo Detector
2.1 Optical Communication Link
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2.2 Major Characteristics

High capacity (over 10Gb/s) due to the inherently large bandwidth available with optical frequency Immunity to external interference or crosstalk, e.g. lighting, magnetic induction, etc
Smaller and lighter than metallic cables Low attenuation results in long repeater spacing (over 100km)

cladding core light beam
Made of different layer of glass, in cylindrical form Core has higher refractive index than the cladding Light beam travels in the core by means of total internal reflection The whole fiber will be further wrapped by some plastic materials for protection

Conventionally, the size of a fiber is denoted by writing its core diameter and then its cladding diameter (both in mm) with a slash between them. For example, a 50/125 fiber means one with a 50 mm core and a 125 mm cladding
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2.3 Light Propagation

2.3.1 Snells Law and Critical Angle
n1 sin q1 n2 sin q 2
If n1 > n2, total reflection occurs at the boundary for all values of q1 such that:
n2 q1 q c sin ( ) n1
1

2.3.2 Acceptance Angle
Applying Snells law to the external angle of incidence, qin, gives:
n0 sin q in n1 sin q1
20

The max value of qin that will produce a reflected ray at the core-cladding boundary is:
n0 sin q in (max) n1 cosq c n2 2 n1 1 ( ) n1


Hence:
2 q in (max) sin 1 (n12 n2 ) / n0
Generally light rays enters the fiber from air medium, i.e. n0=1. qin(max) is called the max acceptance angle. It defines the max angle in which external light rays strike the fiber interface and propagate down the fiber.
22

2.3.3 Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture (NA) can be defined as:
2 NA n0 sin qin (max) (n12 n2 )
NA is a figure of merit that is used to measure the lightgathering or light-collecting ability of an optical fiber. The larger the magnitude of NA, the greater the amount of light accepted by the fiber from the external light source.
2.4 Configurations
2.4.1 Single-Mode Step Index
Small core diameter so that there is essentially only one path that light may take as it propagates down the fiber There is minimum time dispersion because all rays propagating down the fiber with the same delay time and results in wider bandwidth (i.e. high bit rate) Because of the small central core, it is difficult to couple light into and out of the this type of fiber It is expensive and difficult to manufacture Typical value: 9/125
2.4 Configurations
2.4.2 Multi-Mode Step Index
Similar to single-mode configuration except that the center core is much larger and allows more light to enter the fiber Since there are many paths that a light ray may follow as it propagates down the fiber, large time dispersion may occur which results in short distance applications or bandwidth reduction Because of the large central core, it is easy to couple light into and out of the this type of fiber It is inexpensive and simple to manufacture Typical value: 62.5/125
2.4 Configurations
2.4.3 Multi-Mode Graded Index
It is characterized by a center core that has non-uniform refractive index The refractive index is maximum at the center and decreases gradually towards the outer edge The performance is a compromise between single-mode step index fiber and multi-mode step index fiber
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2.5 Losses
Power loss in an optical fiber is probably the most important characteristics of the cable. Losses in the fiber results in a reduction in the light power, and thus reduce the system bandwidth, information rate, efficiency, and overall system capacity. In general, multi-mode fibers tend to have higher attenuation loss than single-mode fibers.
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2.5 Losses
2.5.1 Absorption Losses
Ultraviolet absorption --- It is cause by valence electrons
in the silica material from which fibers are manufactured. Light ionizes the valence electrons into conduction.
Infrared absorption --- It is a result of photons of light that

are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core molecules.
Ion resonance absorption --- It is due to the resonance of

the impurities in the fiber. The major impurity is OH ions that have been trapped in the glass during the manufacturing process.
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2.5 Losses
2.5.2 Rayleigh Scattering Losses
It is mainly due to the irregularities of the molecular in the fiber which results in local variations in refractive index. The size of it is much smaller than optic wavelength. It causes light rays diffracted. Some of the diffracted rays escape through the cladding and result in power loss. Rayleigh loss follows the l-4 dependence and puts a constraint on using short wavelength like 0.8 mm for long distance applications.
2.5 Losses
2.5.3 Radiation Losses
Radiation losses are caused predominately by small bends in the fiber.
Microbending is a miniature bend or geometric imperfection along the axis of the fiber which represents a discontinuity in the fiber where Rayleigh scattering can occur.
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2.5 Losses
2.5.3 Radiation Losses
Macrobending (or constant radius bend) refers to large scale bending, such as that which occurs intentionally when pulling the fiber around a corner. As shown in the figure, at some bend radius, q2 becomes smaller than the critical angle and a portion of rays radiate outside.
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2.5 Losses
2.5.4 Coupling Losses
Coupling loss can occur at any of the following three types of optical junctions: light source-to-fiber connections, fiber-to-fiber connections, and fiber-tophotodetector connections.
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2.5 Losses
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2.6 Dispersion
2.6.1 Inter-modal Dispersion
It is also called multi-mode dispersion or waveguide dispersion. Different fiber modes takes different paths.
The time dispersion causes pulse broadening and hence bit rate reduction.
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2.6 Dispersion
2.6.1 Inter-modal Dispersion
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2.6 Dispersion
2.6.2 Intra-modal Dispersion
It is also called material dispersion, where different frequency components of a signal travel with different speed in the fiber. Different frequency components arrived the fiber at different time. The time dispersion causes pulse broadening and hence bit rate reduction.
36
2.6 Dispersion
2.6.3 Effect of Time Dispersion
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2.7 Laser Source & Photodetector

2.7.1 Laser Source
Input electrical data optical power (photons)
Generate laser at a certain wavelength

Made of semiconductor normally Output power depends on input electric current Need temperature control to stabilize the output power and output wavelength (both are temperature dependent)
l
output optical power
wavelength
input electric threshold current current 38

2.7.2 Photodetector
Convert incoming photons into electric current
optical power (photons) photo-current
Both quantum efficiency and Responsivity are used to measure the conversion efficiency of a photodetector
39

2.7.2 Photodetector
Quantum efficiency ( ) number of emitted electrons number of incident photons
The current output, i, from the detector is:
P i e hf Pl e hc
where P is the received optical power e is the electron charge -1.6x10-19 C h is the Plancks constant 6.63x10-34Js f is the frequency of the photon l is the wavelength of the photon c is the speed of light 3x108 m/s

2.7.2 Photodetector
Responsivity ( R) output current of a photo diode received optical power
i el i.e. R P hc
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3. Communication Satellite
Introduction Satellite Communication System Major Characteristics of a Communication Satellite Satellite Orbits Multiple Access Techniques Direct Broadcasting Global Positioning System
3.1 Introduction
Long distance wireless communication techniques by using (a) the use of tall antenna towers on the Earth; (b) the use of the Earths atmosphere as a natural reflecting/scattering process
3.1 Introduction
Long distance wireless communication techniques by using Satellite
Relevant websites: http://www.intelsat.com/ http://www.inmarsat.com/

3.2 Satellite Communication System

A satellite communication system consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a ground-based station to control the operation of the system, and a user network of earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of the signals
45
3.2 Satellite Communication System
46
3.3 Major Characteristics of Communication Satellite

It provides microwave repeater services in the sky
A man-made vehicle that orbits Earth and provides a multitude of communication functions A satellite remains in orbit because the centrifugal force caused by its rotation around the earth is counterbalanced by Earths gravitational force Cover the wide area on the Earth surface Suitable for long distance, direct business networks, , etc applications broadcasting,
47
3.3 Major Characteristics of Communication Satellite
Enable communication for sparsely popular areas, maritime or aeronautical services, .. etc, which are difficult to be accessed by other communication means Complement systems to terrestrial cellular and wire-line
Transmission to and from satellites are categorized as either bus or payload. The bus includes control mechanisms that support the payload operation; the payload is the actual user information Typical Operating bandwidth is from a few 10s kHz to few 10s MHz.
3.4 Satellite Orbits

m: M: G: R: r: g: mass of the satellite GM GmM mass of the earth i.e. R 3 2 m 2 R R2 Gravitational constant radius of the orbit GmM as mg radius of the earth r2 acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth g r2 3 R 2 : angular velocity of the earth
g = 9.8 m/s2 ; r ~ 6,400 km
For geostationary orbit, = 2/(24X60X60) rad/s;

i.e. R ~ 42,000km (or ~ 36,000km above the earth surface)

GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit
(The satellite always remains the same
position relative to the earth)
MEO: Medium Earth Orbit LEO: Low Earth Orbit Inner Van Allen Belt: 1,500km to 5,000km Outer Van Allen Belt: 13,000km to 20,000km
50

Geostationary Orbit
The satellite always remains the same position relative to earth High gain antenna with fixed pointing angle can be used Basically three satellites can cover most of the earths area
Large propagation delay, i.e 2x3.6x107m/3x108m/s = 0.24secmin


Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Altitude above earth surface Period Visibility of a Satellite Launching Cost Satellite life (year) Handheld Terminal Propagation Delay Propagation Loss Network Complexity 700 to 1,500km 90 to 120min 20 to 30 min Minimum 3-7 Possible Short Low Complex Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 10,000 to 20,000km 6 to 12 hr 2 to 5 hr Medium 10-15 Possible Medium Medium Medium Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) ~36,000km 24 hr Always Maximum 10-15 Difficult Large High Simple
52
3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

The techniques to share the satellite usages
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
53

3.5.1 Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Each user occupies its frequency band for all time
Frequency
User 4 User 3 User 2 User 1
Time

3.5.2 Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Each user occupies one time slot across the entire bandwidth
55

3.5.3 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Each user occupies different frequency band at different time slot (frequency hopping), refer to the following diagram; or
Frequency
User 4 User 3 User 2 User 1 User 4 User 2 User 1 User 3 User 3 User 1 User 4 User 2 User 2 User 1 User 3 User 4 User 1 User 4 User 3 User 2 Time

3.5.3 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
A unique code is assigned for each user which allows multiple simultaneous users to share the same bandwidth (Direct Sequence)
Frequency
User 4, code 4 User 3, code 3 User 2, code 2 User 1, code 1
User 1
Time
3.6 Direct Broadcasting

The satellites are normally at GEO It provides a cost effective solution to broadcast a single program to a large area
High effective radiation power of the satellite transmitter and small-antenna-size/low-cost-receiver of the Earth Station Receivers are used
58

3.6.1 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
Provide CD (or near CD) quality music program Provide services to vehicular, portable, and fixed receivers in the 1.4GHz to 2.7GHz frequency band
Compliment to the terrestrial DAB systems, and with the same format as the terrestrial systems
Provide full coverage for supranational service areas sub-national, national, and
Two systems --- System A (Eureka 147, European system), and System B (USA system)

3.6.2 TV Broadcasting
Provides a low cost means for distributing TV programs to home users Normally C-band (i.e. ~4GHz) or Ku-band (i.e., 11/12 GHz) are used from the satellite to users; Both analog modulation (FM) and digital modulation techniques are used for the present systems, however, digital modulation techniques are becoming popular for the new systems (e.g. AsiaSat 3)
3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

Provides accurate, continuous, worldwide, 3-dimensional position and timing information to users The positioning accuracy can be from 20 meters to a few meters, its application has become increasingly popular
The timing information can be used as a synchronization source for telecommunication networks like some digital broadcasting and CDMA networks
The satellite constellation consists of 24 satellites arranged in 6 orbital planes The user terminals are received only

Principle of position locationing
62
Reference Website:
http://www.trimble.com/gps/
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4. Mobile
Cellular Concept Basic Network Structure Carrier to Interference Ratio (C/I) Cell Planning Multiple Access Techniques
65
4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1.1 Use a Single Transmitter to Support the Whole Area
Very high power transmitter is required to cover large area
66

4.1.1 Use a Single Transmitter to Support the Whole Area
Very limited number of channels can be supported, e.g. the whole GSM system has 25MHz bandwidth and each voice channel equivalently occupies 25kHz, the whole system can only support 1000 users simultaneously Although the system configuration is simple, poor efficiency hinders its applications in todays wireless systems
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4.1.2 Cellular Structure
To replace a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small cells), each cell provides coverage to only a small service area
68

Each small cell is given a share of the total available channels Most of the antenna are omni-directional which give circular cells for ideal condition, however hexagon shapes are normally used because they fit easily together (without any gap and no overlap between neighboring cells) and approximate the circular shape
69

Circular cells depicting ideal coverage area (note the overlaps and gaps)
Fictitious hexagonal cells used to depict ideal coverage areas
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Since each cell operates at low power, the same set of channels can be used in other cells if they are sufficiently far away, i.e. with acceptable interference
Neighboring cells are assigned with different groups of channels so that the interferences are minimized
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The term cluster is used to describe a contiguous group of cells assigned with different frequencies, cluster size of 1, 3, 4, 7, and 12 are commonly used. By repeating the cluster, any size of the area can be covered.
1-cell cluster
4-cell cluster
12-cell cluster 3-cell cluster 7-cell cluster

7-cell cluster reuse pattern
4-cell cluster reuse pattern

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4.2 Basic Network Structure
This block diagram is from the Education Department of Hong Kong Principles of Communications
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Mobile Unit (MU): It is a wireless unit in the forms of handset, PDA, and PC, it consists of three major parts --- user interface (e.g. keypad, display, microphone, speaker), transceiver, control circuits
Base Station (BS): It is the mobile units interface to the network, its antenna is normally mounted on high buildings for outdoor applications, it is connected to Mobile Switching Center via microwave or cable.
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Mobile Switching Center (MSC): It is the interface of the cellular network to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Calls from MU are transferred through BS to the MSC, and then transfer to PSTN, or another MSC
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4.3 Carrier to Interference Ratio (C/I)

Under normal conditions, the effect of interference is the major degradation factor for cellular systems. Consider the case that a mobile is located at cell 1 border with distance R to its BS. The received signal power at the BS is:
A C R
where A is a constant is a constant called path loss exponent (=4 is normally used for urban areas)
Environment
Free Space Urban area In building line-of-sight
Path Loss Exponent,

2 3 to 5 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building
Obstructed in factories
4 to 6
2 to 3
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D
cell 2
R cell 1
Assume that cell 2 is using the same frequency and has the same transmission power. The distance between cell 1 and cell 2 is approximately D. The interference power at cell 1 is approximately:
A I D
C / I ( D / R)
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It can be shown that for N-cell cluster reuse pattern:
D / R 3N i.e. C/I (3N ) / 2

There are 6 interference sources totally (assume with the same transmission power), i.e.
6 1 7 2 4 5 6 1 7 2 3 1 2 6 1 7 2 3
5 1 4
6 5 7 4 3 5 4 1 6 5 7 4 3 5
2
6 7D 3
2
6
C/I
(3N ) 6
/2
5 4 1
7 4
3
79

There is a minimum C/I requirement for the receiver for proper operation, and this will limit the N value and thus the channel capacity.
For analogue system, (C/I)min ~ 16dB As for the digital system like GSM, (C/I)min ~ 9dB
Example: If the C/I of the receiver should be higher than 18dB

(~63) and = 4, what is the minimum N value ?
i.e.
(3 N ) 4 / 2 63 6
N 6.5 The minimum N value is 7

4.4 Cell Planning

Efficiency will increase if the reuse factor is reduced
For example:
Assume 140 channels are allocated to the Network Operator and each cell has the same number of channels: if 7-cell cluster is used, each cell has 140/7 = 20 channels max 20 simultaneous users in each cell
if 4-cell cluster is used, each cell has 140/4 = 35 channels max 35 simultaneous users in each cell
with the same cell area, 4-cell cluster can support more traffic
4.4 Cell Planning

However for low reuse factor, the interferences will increase as the sources are getting closer, refer to the distance between the different color of As in both the 7 cell reuse pattern and the 4 cell reuse pattern In the 1st generation mobile radio (analog system), the minimum reuse factor is around 7, and in the 2nd generation mobile radio (TDMA system like GSM), the minimum reuse factor is around 4, why?? For some systems, the overall capacity can be increased by using smaller cells, i.e. increase the number of cells, the cell radius ranges from 0.1km to tens of km. Smaller cell implies more BS number and requires fast handover (mobile unit moves from one cell to another cell) activities on BS
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4.4 Cell Planning

Various cell sizes for different traffic requirements
83

The Techniques to share the radio sources of the Base Station
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
84

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Transmission Media

1.1 Single Wire

A single wire is transmission/reception

1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2 Twisted Pair

1.2 Twisted Pair

2.1 Optical Communication Link

2.2 Major Characteristics

2.2 Major Characteristics

2.2 Major Characteristics

2.3 Light Propagation

2.3 Light Propagation

2.3 Light Propagation

n0 sin q in (max) n1 cosq c n2 2 n1 1 ( ) n1

2.3 Light Propagation

2.3 Light Propagation

Infrared absorption --- It is a result of photons of light that

Ion resonance absorption --- It is due to the resonance of

2.7 Laser Source & Photodetector

Generate laser at a certain wavelength

input electric threshold current current 38

2.7 Laser Source & Photodetector

2.7 Laser Source & Photodetector

The current output, i, from the detector is:

2.7 Laser Source & Photodetector

Relevant websites: http://www.intelsat.com/ http://www.inmarsat.com/

3.2 Satellite Communication System

3.2 Satellite Communication System

3.3 Major Characteristics of Communication Satellite

3.3 Major Characteristics of Communication Satellite

3.4 Satellite Orbits

g = 9.8 m/s2 ; r ~ 6,400 km

For geostationary orbit, = 2/(24X60X60) rad/s;

3.4 Satellite Orbits

3.4 Satellite Orbits

Large propagation delay, i.e 2x3.6x107m/3x108m/s = 0.24secmin

3.4 Satellite Orbits

3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

3.5 Multiple Access Techniques

User 4, code 4 User 3, code 3 User 2, code 2 User 1, code 1

3.6 Direct Broadcasting

3.6 Direct Broadcasting

3.6 Direct Broadcasting

3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1 Cellular Concept

Fictitious hexagonal cells used to depict ideal coverage areas

4.1 Cellular Concept

4.1 Cellular Concept

12-cell cluster 3-cell cluster 7-cell cluster

4.1 Cellular Concept